The essential properties of the Overcup soil series in an old growth natural forest.
\r\n\tAn update on clinical manifestations, their assessment, monitoring, and imagiology, including peripheral arthritis, enthesopathy, and extra-articular findings, and, the differential diagnosis with other diseases which evolves with axial and peripheral calcifications will be provided.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tAn important component of this book must be dedicated to the more recent treatments namely with biologic therapies but focusing also on new small molecule inhibitors and experimental therapies.
In the USA, it is estimated at 90% of the wetlands that existed prior to European discovery and settlement have been converted to other uses, most notably agricultural usage [1]. Land drainage has been extensive in many states, such as Alaska, Florida, Indiana, Minnesota, Missouri, and Wisconsin. Land drainage, both subsurface tile-drainage and surface drainage with and without diversionary earthworks, dramatically altered these ecosystems and their attendant soil and plant processes. Large scale and substantial changes in vegetation, water availability, nutrient flow, and other characteristics of these ecosystems impact the flora, negatively impact water quality, and reduce soil health, yet the economic impacts are important social restraints on returning these areas and regions to their pre-European settlement status.
\nGiven that the return of thousands of hectares of cropland back to wetland status is not a pragmatic solution, current features of USA agriculture policy attempt to support best use methods that both support farm profitability and align sustainable agriculture production to encourage soil health, organismal diversity, and environmental stewardship.
\nOur purpose in creating this manuscript is to chronical re-establishment of important wetland plant-soil interactive processes in converted wetlands to support soil health, water quality, environmental stewardship and biological diversity, while maintaining agricultural productivity. Although programs exist to re-create wetlands from agriculture land, there are pragmatic social, political and economic realities that limit their large-scale application. The application of emerging technologies and governmental policies, designed to support important soil attributes reflective of the original wetland status, provide opportunities for both environmental advancement, and agricultural profitability.
\nTo be designated as “Prior Converted Cropland” in the USA, all the following land criteria must be validated: (i) cropped prior to December 23, 1985 with an agricultural commodity, (ii) cleared, drained or otherwise manipulated to make it possible to plant a crop, (iii) continued to be used for agricultural purposes, and (iv) does not flood or pond for more than 14 days during the growing season [1]. Vital wetland soil processes that need to be re-emphasized in converted wetlands include: (i) synthesis and subsequent maintenance of soil organic carbon, (ii) maintenance of soil biological diversity, including microbial populations, (iii) erosion abatement, (iv) unimpeded activity of nutrient cycles, especially the nitrogen cycle, (v) development of the original soil structure fabric, (vi) appropriate water transport within and among pedons, and (vii) encouragement of microbial-driven ecosystem processes that reduce excessive plant nutrients and degrade applied agrichemicals within suitable time frames.
\nThe study area ranges from the St. Francois River in the west to the Mississippi River in the east and ranges from the headwater diversion channel at Cape Girardeau Missouri to the Missouri – Arkansas border (Figure 1). Approximately 5 million acres (2 million hectares) of landscape was drained from its status as wetlands to produce an intensive agricultural setting. The entire drainage system is maintained by taxes leveed on agricultural producers [2].
\nLandscape features of Southeastern Missouri.
A series of north to south drainage ditches (1541 km) and levees (490 km) were constructed to transport water from southeast Missouri into Arkansas and then into the Mississippi River. The Headwater Diversion Channel was constructed to intercept drainage of the Castor and Whitewater Rivers, transporting this water eastward into the Mississippi River. Dams created the Clearwater and Wappapello Reservoirs by intercepting drainages of the St. Francois and Black Rivers, respectively [2].
\nThe climate is continental humid. The average daily January temperatures are 2 and 4°C (35 and 39°F) at Cape Girardeau and Kennett, Missouri, whereas the average summer temperatures are 25 and 26°C (77 and 79°F) at these locations. As expected, June–August are the warmest months. The growing season generally has 210-plus frost-free days. The soils are frozen only at the surface and only for brief periods of time. The rainfall is reasonably well distributed, with the total annual precipitation averaging 1.14 m at Cape Girardeau and 1.27 m at Kennett. The remnants of tropical storms from the Gulf of Mexico may provide more than 0.25 m of rainfall during a rainfall event [3].
\nWe define wetlands as soilscapes transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems that support hydrophytes and possess an undrained substratum having anoxic conditions, typically having a water table for some portion of the time when the soil temperature is above biologic zero. In our study area, a large-scale drainage management system has been implemented to produce agriculture lands; however, the ancestral wetlands would have been classified as southern deepwater swamps and riparian forested wetlands [4]. Hydric soils are defined as “soil that is saturated, flooded or ponded long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part” [5]. Prolonged anaerobic conditions promote selected biogeochemical soil processes that modify the soil morphology, such as (i) organic matter accumulation, (ii) iron and manganese oxyhydroxide transformations/depletions/accumulations, (iii) sulfate-sulfide transitions, nitrogen transformations, and (iv) biogeochemical nutrient cycle alterations. These indicators are used to delineate hydric soils; however, in the USA the indicator criteria may vary among the major land resource areas. Wetland delineation in the USA is based on the presence of hydric soils, the local hydrology, and wetland indicator plants.
\nMuch of the natural vegetation has been removed and replaced with agricultural enterprises. Depressional areas consisting of backswamp deposits typically supported bald cypress (
The Southeast Lowlands Groundwater Province (SLGP) is bounded on the north and west by the Ozark Plateau, with the transition from the SLGP to the Ozark Plateau called the Ozark escarpment. The eastern boundary is the modern Mississippi River and the southern boundary is the Missouri-Arkansas state border. The western boundary of Dunklin Co. is the St. Francois River (Figure 1).
\nA prominent ridge within the SLGP is called Crowley’s Ridge and the Benton Hills. These elevated land masses consist on Paleozoic rocks, largely Ordovician, and are covered by Tertiary gravels and loess [6]. Crowley’s Ridge and the Benton Hills bisect the SLGP, with the land mass between Ozark Escarpment and west of Crowley’s Ridge and the Benton Hills called the Advance Lowlands (also called Western Morehouse Lowlands). The Advance Lowlands represent the ancestral channel of the Mississippi River and are generally composed of loamy to silty terraces and back-swamp deposits overlying glacial outwash and valley train. Conversely, the Morehouse Lowlands extend from Crowley’s Ridge eastward to the Mississippi River. The Morehouse lowlands consist of terraces of varying textures, back-swamp deposits, and other alluvial environments overlying braided glacial outwash. The modern Mississippi River and its flood plain is the youngest and easternmost feature with meandering channel deposits, natural levees, silty terraces, back-swamp environments, and crevasse splay deposits that characterize the Mississippi River floodplain [7]. Sikeston Ridge and Barnes Ridge (east of Portageville, MO) are low-elevation ridges, composed of coarse-textured materials and both are in the Morehouse Lowlands. Just east of Crowley’s Ridge and extending into Dunkin Co. is a terrace system of coarse-texture materials called the Kennett-Malden Prairie. The Charleston Lowland is located primarily in Mississippi Co. and consists of fine to coarse textured materials, composed to recent terrace and back-swamp environments. Between the Benton Hills and the Charleston Lowlands is the Blodgett terrace composed of coarse-textured materials and the Charleston Fan, also composed of coarse-textured materials.
\nThe study area is bordered on the west by the St. Francois River and on the east by the Mississippi River. Each of these southerly flowing river systems may alternately supply floodwaters or provide surface drainage. A series of dendritic streams and rivers drain the Black River Ozark, the Inner Ozark, and the Outer Ozark Border regions, providing surface waters to the Advance Lowlands and the Morehouse Lowlands. These rivers include: the Black River, White River, Castor River, and the St. Francois River. In addition, small streams provide drainage from the Benton Hills and Crowley’s Ridge, providing water to the Advance and Morehouse Lowlands [8].
\nThe dominant crops in the study area include: corn (
In southeastern Missouri, there are 4133 farms [9]. Cape Girardeau County has more than 1100 farms, thus approximately one-quarter of all farms of the eight-county region are in Cape Girardeau County. In the Mid-South region, Stoddard County has the largest number of farms, many of which are smaller farms on upland hills. The range in farm size varies from small land parcels (less than several hectares) to large farming operations (greater than 5000 hectares) [9].
\nThe study area’s population is low, with 223,000 persons. To estimate the values of the agriculture production, the annual crop production by county [9] was multiplied by commodity prices for that time [9]. The annual value of the agriculture production from cropping systems is $1.27 billion (2016). The five-year (2012–2016) average value of production for the dominant crops include: (i) corn ($325 million) and (ii) soybeans ($525 million), cotton ($200 million), rice ($150 million), and wheat ($75 million). For the same five-year period, the mean crop yields are (i) corn (8844 kg/ha), (ii) soybeans (2722 kg/ha), cotton (1177 kg/ha), rice (7706 kg/ha), and wheat (3965 kg/ha).
\nTo estimate the agribusiness sales of production inputs, the product of the county harvested acreages [9] and the University Missouri crop budgets [10] were utilized. The profitability of the agribusiness sector includes: (i) seed sales for corn ($47.38 million), soybeans ($77.94 million), wheat ($7.88 million), cotton ($29.52 million), and rice ($5.25 million), (ii) fertilizer sales for corn ($57.8 million), soybeans ($51.5 million), wheat ($14 million), cotton ($17.6 million), and rice ($19.8 million), and (iii) herbicide sales for corn ($14.1 million), soybeans ($44.3 million), wheat ($5.6 million), cotton ($14.5 million), and rice ($16.1 million).
\nThe Mississippi River embayment was initially created by an ancient down warping of the crust, presumably by tectonic forces. Confining our discussion to the Pleistocene-Holocene the ancestral Mississippi River occupied an Advance Lowland course until the late Wisconsin sub-stage [6, 11, 12]. These authors proposed that the diversion of the Mississippi River through the Bell City—Oran Gap, abandoning the Advance Lowlands and entering the Morehouse Lowlands, was initiated approximately 17,000 year BCE (before common era) and was complete by 11,500 year BCE. By 9800–9900 year BCE, the Mississippi River changed from a braided river to meandering river, passing through the Pemiscot Bayou [12]. After the diversion, the advance lowlands continued to receive sediment from the Ozark Plateau, principally from the Little Black River, the Current River, the Spring River, and the White River. Blum et al. [13] proposed that the Bell City—Oran Gap diversion into the Morehouse Lowlands occurred before 60,000 year BCE, thus placing the Bell City—Oran Gap diversion before the Wisconsin glaciation. Royall et al. [12] proposed that the Ohio River produced two braided stream terraces in the Morehouse Lowlands between Crowley’s Ridge and Sikeston Ridge. Blum et al. [13] map Sikeston Ridge as a late Wisconsin valley train having a very thin loess capping of Peoria Loess. Blum et al. [13] further attribute the Blodgett terrace as a braided terrace deposit of the Ohio River, which was entrenched within the Cache River Valley (Illinois). Based on carbon dating, Blum et al. [13] place the Charleston Fan as a Mississippi River feature formed during the creation of Thebes Gap (10,590 year BCE).
\nApproximately 9000 year BCE, the Mississippi River diverted through Thebes Gap and flowed east of Sikeston Ridge [12], creating the Charleston Alluvial Fan. The study area has been extensively modified by seismic activity, featuring sand blows, sand boils, clastic dikes, liquefaction, changes in stream drainages, and subsidence [14, 15, 16]. A prominent trend of earthquake epicenters has been related to deep-seated folds and igneous intrusions [16]. Loess deposition as a capping on soils in the advance lowlands shows both the stage of development and bisequal nature of these soils [17].
\nThe Southeast Lowlands Groundwater Province in Missouri (SLGP) spans 10,142 km2 and contains 15.2% of the State of Missouri’s groundwater, estimated at 287 billion m3. The Cretaceous age McNairy aquifer crops out (at or near the surface) on the flanks of Crowley’s Ridge and the Benton Hills [18]. In Stoddard County and Butler County, the McNairy formation primarily underlies alluvial materials, whereas in Dunklin County and Pemiscot County the McNairy formation is reached by wells having a depth of 600 m. In Dunklin County and Pemiscot County where wells are in thick and clean sands, the water yields range from 570 to 2800 L min−1. Overlying the McNairy formation, the Clayton Owl Creek and Porter’s Creek clay formations constitute confining layers. Water from the McNairy formation in the northern regions along Crowley’s Ridge are classified as iron rich, calcium-magnesium carbonate type waters, whereas waters from the McNairy formation in the southern portion of southeastern Missouri are sodium chloride type waters.
\nThe Wilcox Group is composed largely of Tertiary-age sands, some regions having minor inclusions of lignite and clay. The Wilcox aquifer is commonly separated into the upper and lower Wilcox aquifers because of sand grain size distribution patterns. The Wilcox aquifer overlies the Porter’s Creek clay and is largely absent in northern Stoddard County and attains thicknesses greater than 427 m in Pemiscot County and Dunkin County. Water yields from the Wilcox in Stoddard Co. are approximately 2900 L min−1 and in Pemiscot County are approximately 6400 L min−1. The water composition is calcium-magnesium carbonate or calcium carbonate [18]. The Claibourn aquifer lies on the Wilcox aquifer. The Claibourn aquifer is separated in the upper, middle, and lower Claibourn aquifers, with the upper and middle Claibourn aquifers separated by a layer of thin, clayey materials that act as a confining unit (aquitard).
\nThe Mississippi River Valley Aquifer (the Southeast Lowlands Alluvial Aquifer) consists of unconsolidated clay, silt, sand, and gravelly textured alluvium. Groundwater usage of the Mississippi River Valley Aquifer constitutes approximately 92% of the groundwater withdrawal in southeastern Missouri. These alluvial materials were largely deposited by the ancestral Mississippi and Ohio River systems, coupled some prominent deposits by the Black, St. Francois, and Little River systems. Alluvial thickness is variable, with typical thicknesses west of Crowley’s Ridge ranging from 15 to 45 m, whereas the alluvial thicknesses in Mississippi, Pemiscot, and Dunklin Counties average 76 m. These unconfined aquifers are baseflow recharged annually from the Mississippi River, other prominent rivers and land drainage ditches. Water yield ranges from 3800 to 11,360 L min−1; however, although water level fluctuations do occur between wet and dry seasons, no long-term depletions have been observed [18].
\nThe study area is extensively irrigated, with many counties having center pivot, furrow and flood irrigation covering 60–70% of the landscape. Ten wells operated and continuously monitored by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are located across the survey area [19], which sample groundwater associated in the unconfined surficial (alluvial) aquifers. The depth to the mean water table ranges from 1 to 8 m.
\nFor example, in the community of Delta, Missouri, the USGS water level monitoring well continuously documented well water levels centered around 5–7 m below the land surface (Figure 2). During very dry summers, the water levels subsided to approximately 8 m and then the water levels rebounded during the winter/spring season to approximately 4.6 m from the surface. In each year and for each of the test wells, the wetter winter/spring season permitted aquifer recharge because of rainfall infiltration and baseflow.
\nWater depth levels for the Delta Missouri USGS monitoring well from 2000 to 2018 [
In the study area, presentative soil orders (US Soil Taxonomy) include: Alfisols, Entisols, Histosols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols. Landforms include: alluvial fans, splays, flood plains and backswamp deposits, ox-bows and meander channels, Holocene and Pleistocene terraces of coarse to fine-silty textures, and modern to old natural levees and constructed levees. A great portion of the landscape has been recently land-graded for furrow and flood irrigation.
\nFor example, the Cooter-Hayti-Portageville Soil Association rests on Holocene sediment having a transitional texture from sandy alluvium to silty-loamy alluvium to clayey alluvium (Figure 3). The poorly drained Portageville clay series (Vertic Endoaquolls: Ap/A–Bg–Cg) exhibits soil organic matter accumulation and soil profile depletion of Fe attributed to anaerobic conditions, whereas the Cooter (Fluvaquentic Hapludolls: Ap/A-2C1-2C2) is a bisequal soil (clayey over sandy) featuring few subsurface redoximorphic features because of the quartz parent material. The fine-silty, poorly drained, non-acid Hayti series (Mollic Fluvaquents: Ap-C) developed in recent silty alluvium lacks soil profile development because of the lack of time for soil profile horizonation.
\nThe Cooter-Hayti-Portageville Association.
The Memphis-Loring-Calhoun-Foley Association rests in the Advance Lowlands (also called the Western Morehouse Lowlands) with the fine-silty, deep, strongly acid, well-drained Memphis (Typic Hapludalfs: A-E-Bt-C) resting in thick loess on Crowley’s Ridge (Figure 4). The fine-silty, strongly acid, moderately well-drained Loring series (Oxyaquic Fragiudalfs: A-Bt-Btx-C) possesses a well-developed fragipan whose surface represents a transition from Pleistocene silty alluvium to the overlying loess. The poorly drained, fine-silty Calhoun (Glossaqualfs (Ap-Ed-Btg-BCg) and Foley (Natraqualfs: Ap-Eg-Btng/E-Cg) series rest on Pleistocene terraces and may have thin loess mantles. The presence of argillic horizons in these soils indicate their relative more mature age when compared with the previous Holocene soils.
\nThe Memphis-Loring-Calhoun-Foley Association.
The Sharkey-Alligator Association is a commonly occurring association in the Morehouse lowlands (Figure 5). The soils of the Sharkey series consist of very deep, poorly and very poorly drained, very slowly permeable soils formed on level to nearly level backswamp positions along modern and former channels of the Mississippi River. The Alligator series consists of very deep, poorly drained, very slowly permeable soils formed in clayey alluvium in backswamps and sloughs.
\nThe Sharkey-Alligator Association.
The very-fine textured Sharkey soils (very-fine, smectitic, thermic Chromic Epiaquerts) have an Ap - Bssg - Bssyg - Bssg soil horizon sequence. The soil colors range from dark and very dark grayish brown in the silty clay to clayey Ap soil horizon to dark gray and gray in the clayey cambic horizon. The near surface horizons are slightly acid to neutral and deeper soil horizons are neutral to moderately alkaline. The cation exchange capacity (CEC) is generally high, attributed to the abundance of smectic clay. The soils of the very-fine Alligator series (very-fine, smectitic, superactive, thermic Chromic Dystraquerts) present an A - Bg - Bssg - Bssycg soil horizon sequence, with all horizons having a clayey texture. These soil horizons are commonly very strongly acid. The grayish brown Bssg and Bssycg horizons have coarse wedge-shaped structures with grooved slickensides on their surfaces. The CEC is generally high, attributed to the abundance of smectite clay.
\nWith the advent and continued maintenance of the Little River Drainage Project the region’s hydrologic conditions have been irreversibly altered towards achieving agricultural productivity [20]. Because the Little River Drainage System and its extensions are relatively new and given that soil changes are a function of time and no previous soil baseline data exists prior to land drainage, it is difficult to quantify soil changes because of regional land drainage. Yet soil evolution has been altered and the expected macro-soil changes likely include: (i) loss of accumulated soil organic matter because of oxic soil conditions, (ii) soil acidification coupled with nutrient leaching, (iii) deeper soil water tables resulting in fewer near-surface alternating episodes of soil oxidation-reduction, (iv) loss of soil structure attributed to tillage, land grading, and loss of soil organic matter, (v) changes in the microbial communities, (vi) changes in the invertebrate and vertebrate populations, and (vii) acceleration of mineral weathering intensities, particularly alteration of smectites to kaolinite and apatite dissolution. Because of agriculture, fertilization practices have increased the phosphorus and potassium soil test values.
\nAll soil evolution is a complex interplay between horizonation (development of diagnostic soil horizons) and haploidization (the phenomena of organisms and vegetation altering the soil profile to reduce the expression of soil horizons). Land drainage should support the intensity of soil processes to create and maintain soil horizons, particularly albic and argillic horizons. Conversely, loss of soil organic matter will alter mollic (high base saturation and high soil organic matter) and umbric (low base saturation and high soil organic matter) epipedons to orchric (low organic matter) epipedons. Wetlands are commonly acknowledged to purify surface waters and facilitate surface water transfer to shallow aquifers. There is growing concern that land drainage and the associated agriculture will promote nutrient migration and support fresh water eutrophication. Installed levees prevent river flooding in selected areas, leading to greater flooding elsewhere on lands not levee protected. Irrigation may lead to aquifer overdraft; however, this issue is not apparent in this study area.
\nFor example, the Overcup soil series from the Advance Lowlands (fine, smectitic, thermic Vertic Albaqualfs) are very deep, poorly drained, very slowly permeable soils that formed in alluvium. Soil analysis by the authors of the Overcup soil series in both long-term deciduous forest settings and modern rice production fields (unpublished) demonstrate that considerable soil organic matter contents are evident in the forest settings (Table 1), whereas the production fields have diminished near-surface soil organic matter contents. The Overcup soil series shows considerable gray color patterns because of seasonal or fluctuating soil water tables within the solum. Soil acidification is evident in the upper argillic horizon, a feature attributed to base removal by leaching. The lower argillic horizon shows a neutral to alkaline pH with a considerable exchangeable sodium presence because restricted drainage has not permitted base leaching, especially including exchangeable sodium. Thus, the placement of cover crops in rice production fields should re-establish soil organic matter contents in the near-surface soil horizons.
\nHorizon | \nTexture | \nColor | \npH | \nCEC | \nSOM | \nESP | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | \nSilt loam | \nGrayish brown | \n6.0 | \n14.9 | \n4.3% | \n<1% | \n
E | \nSilt loam | \nLight brownish gray | \n5.1 | \n12.8 | \n1.9% | \n<1% | \n
BE | \nSilty clay loam | \nPale brown | \n5.2 | \n14.5 | \n1.9% | \n<1% | \n
Btg | \nSilty clay loam | \nLight brownish gray | \n5.4 | \n26.8 | \n1.7% | \n2.0% | \n
Btgn | \nSilty clay loam | \nGrayish brown | \n7.3 | \n18.0 | \n1.4% | \n18.0% | \n
The essential properties of the Overcup soil series in an old growth natural forest.
CEC is cation exchange capacity (cmol kg−1); SOM is soil organic matter (%).
Btg – argillic horizon (Bt) that is gleied (g or low chroma colors).
Btgn – Btg horizpon that has natric characteristics (high exchange sodium percentage (ESP).
Currently Federal, State, and agricultural producer partnerships are creating policies and farming practices that support ecosystem health and farm profitability [21]. The goal is to support sustainable and profitable agriculture, while identifying farming practices that are wetland suitable, even when the wetland has been altered by previous land drainage projects. A corollary is attempting to identify wetland benefits and reinstitute practices to return or augment wetland benefits to these altered landscapes while preserving agriculture productivity. One key initiative includes “soil health”. Soil health (soil quality) is defined as the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, vertebrate and invertebrate animals, microorganisms, and humans [22]. This definition speaks to the importance of managing soils to optimize living organisms that contribute to maintaining soil structure, soil organic matter, and functioning nutrient soil and plant connectivity. Considering soil as a living ecosystem reflects a fundamental thinking shift towards nutrient management for plant growth, supporting the soils ability to absorb and hold rainwater for use during dryer periods, filter and buffer potential pollutants from leaving fields, and provide habitat for soil microbes to flourish and diversify. This website [22] provides an annotated bibliography with citations of current literature on soil health initiatives that support water availability, soil structure improvement, soil organic matter optimization (including promotion of active carbon contents), nutrient availability, and limited nutrient transport of nutrients from farm fields to fresh water resources.
\nA key land practice associated with soil health is the establishment of cover crops. We define cover crops as grasses and legumes cultivated to provide cropland vegetative cover during the off-season to support soil carbon accumulation, improved soil structure (including reduced soil compaction), improved water availability, and substantial reduction is both water and wind induced soil erosion. Our cover crop programs frequently rely on establishment cereal rye (
USA has established the Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds initiative across 13 USA states [21] to limit the Mississippi River’s nutrient and sediment loads. The initiative supports direct payments to agriculture producers to establish erosion and nutrient migration mitigation, primarily through the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) and the Agriculture Conservation Easement Program (ACEP). Nutrient reduction strategies are tailored to individual states. Wetland restoration is a key and central provision wherein marginal land is returned to a wetland status.
\nSoutheast Missouri State University and the United States Department of Agriculture—Natural Resources Conservation Service have partnered to address nutrient transport from production agriculture. The development of Edge of Field Technologies is gaining producer acceptance and has witnessed the establishment of denitrification bioreactors to intercept tile drainage effluent to render the effluent comparatively free of NO3-N. From 2015 to the present, the denitrification bioreactor at the David M. Barton Agriculture Research Center effectively reduced nitrate-N concentrations from between 10 and 100 mg L−1 NO3-N to less than 10 mg L−1 NO3-N [23]. Currently, Southeast Missouri State University and the United States Department of Agriculture—Agriculture Research Service has been active in pumping nitrate and phosphate bearing tile drainage effluent into off season water retention basins to reapply the water as an irrigated source during the growing season. The goal is to reduce aquifer depletion. This research is also investigating whether the stored off-season water may be passed through a denitrification bioreactor and then returned to the aquifer, thus limiting aquifer overdraft with high quality water replacement. Rice production is an important crop in the study area. Recently, arsenic uptake has become an issue. Aide et al. [24, 25, 26] investigated different irrigation practices and determined that furrow irrigation would provide similar yields, substantial limit transference of arsenic to paddy rice and reduce water application rates and aquifer overdraft.
\nObserved and perceived carbon-cycle changes attributed to the wetland conversion project to the atmosphere-plant-soil continuum include: (i) wetland forest vegetation replaced by annual monocot and dicot agricultural plantings resulting in reduced carbon sequestration, (ii) carbon loss because of grain harvesting and because of enhanced soil oxidation by the combined effects of land drainage and tillage, and (iii) increased soil temperatures [1]. Current technologies practices recently implemented to favor restoring soil carbon levels include: (i) improved residue management and the conversion to reduced tillage practices, (ii) off-season cover crop establishment, and (iii) restricted (controlled) drainage technologies and winter irrigation to preserve organic soil carbon. Winter irrigation also provides over-wintering nesting sites for migratory water fowl.
\nA large-scale agriculture region in Missouri was converted from its wetland status to cropland in the 1920s. The loss of hardwood forest and associated wildlife habitat was profound. At the time of the wetland conversion, the benefits of wetland ecosystems were both not understood or appreciated. Approximately 100 years later, we realize the need to reinstate agriculture practices that restore soil health and water quality that the wetland ecosystem provided. We are progressing with best management practices that improve soil carbon replacement, soil structure repair, improving microbial diversity, and appropriate nutrient flux. Plant diversity is still impaired, resting with agriculture monocultures. Wildlife restoration is a far-future goal and flood control and restoring the natural river flow are still critical areas for improvement.
\nHistorically, solving material reliability issues has been an old and long term quest of material scientist and engineers, due to their implications for material safety. Considering the fact that structural materials degrade irreversibly over time owing to proliferation of damage like microscopic cracks: the growth of which eventually results in failure. And most times, these internal defects or damage are deep inside materials and difficult to perceive and repair. Recently, there has been a huge interest in materials that can self-heal, as this property can potentially extend materials lifetime, minimize replacement costs, and improve product safety and reliability [1]. Thus, having materials with intrinsic self-repair capabilities—a sort of biomimetic healing functionality, may then allow failures to be averted and the useful lives of components and structures to be extended [2, 3].
Although self-healing is an exclusive specialty of living organisms of biological origin and not easy to put in place in non-biological materials, continuous efforts are now being made to mimic natural materials and to integrate self-healing capability into polymers and polymer composites. Self-engineered healing properties, which are applied in closing and healing crack initiated in a material during its utilization, have been described in cementous [4] and polymer materials [5]. Self-healing approaches mostly gained by surface modification [6, 7, 8, 9] or by the creation of a composite material with some other smart material like NiTi [10, 11] are been utilized in metals and other inanimate materials. For example, damage to oxide films, which normally protect the surfaces of metals such as aluminum (Al) and titanium (Ti) from corrosion, can be repaired by reoxidation in air, which can be seen as a form of self-repair. Also identified are the self-healing properties obtained by encapsulating a solder material into a metallic matrix [11, 12, 13]. Self-healing behavior was also observed in a commercial Al alloy after suitable heat treatment [14] and some other precipitation-forming systems [15, 16]. Healing can be initiated by means of an external source of energy as was shown in the case of a bullet penetration [17] where the ballistic impact caused local heating of the material by allowing self-healing of ionomers.
There are several different strategies to impart self-healing functionality that have been developed and the number of publications dealing with various aspects of self-healing materials has increased markedly in recent years. On the whole, the vast majority of the articles deal with polymer composites and cementous materials. Research in the field of metallic systems is still in its infancy. However, the emergence of self-healing in metallic materials, such as titanium adjured to be biocompatible and explored here presents an exciting paradigm for an ideal combination of metallic and biological properties in application traditionally dominated by metallic materials. Depending on the method of healing, self-healing in metallic system can be classified into two categories: (i) intrinsic ones that are able to heal cracks or repair damage by the metals themselves and (ii) extrinsic in which healing agent has to be pre-embedded.
This chapter begins with an overview on the importance of titanium as an engineering of self-healing materials. Since all processes of self-repair, including healing in living bodies depends on rapid transportation of repair substance to the injured part and reconstruction of the tissues, Therefore, the knowledge of basic principle of solid state diffusion is essential for understanding the self-repair processes, such as phase transformation, precipitation and shape memory effects taking place titanium and other alloys, were briefly discussed. The chapter concludes by considering future research.
Titanium has been an important development in the history of non-ferrous industry. Titanium is an attractive material with excellent corrosion resistance and high strength-to-weight ratio. It combines the strength of iron and steel with the light weight of aluminum, which accounts for its widespread use. Industrial applications of titanium materials have recently expanded widely in many areas such as the aerospace, chemical plants, automobiles, and aviation industries, and even in high performance sports equipment, and in the medical field for bone. Their biological compatibility is particularly of interest to the medical industry implants and replacement devices [17]. Currently, the chemical industry is the largest user of titanium due to its excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in the presence of oxidizing acids. The ballistic properties of titanium are also excellent on a density-normalized basis. Some physical properties as compared with other engineering materials by Hanson are presented inTable 1 [18]. Detailed discussions on other applications of titanium in other areas can be found elsewhere [18, 19].
Physical properties of titanium compared with other metals [18].
Besides the areas mentioned above, building applications such as exterior walls and roofing material have emerged as a new market for titanium. Using CP titanium as building material has become especially popular in Japan [20]. One example is the Fukuoka Dome, built in 1993, which is covered with titanium roofing, retractable for multi-role and all-weather purposes (Figure 1) [20]. Each of these building projects uses large quantities of CP titanium leading to the increased usage in the civil engineering area in Japan. Another “new area” in which titanium use is growing is the area of consumer products, such as spectacle frames, cameras, watches, jewelry, and various kinds of sporting goods. The largest application in the area of sporting goods is golf club heads. Other examples are tennis rackets, bicycle frames, spikes in sprinters. Their low coefficient of thermal expansion is also an important factor. The ballistic properties of titanium are also excellent on a density-normalized basis. Future applications are likely to be in the areas of steam turbine blading, flue gas desulphurization plant consumer products and many marine applications. Some of the basic characteristics of titanium and its alloys are listed in Table 2 in [18] and compared to those of other structural metallic materials based on Fe, Ni, and Al. Detailed discussions on other applications of titanium in other areas can be found elsewhere [4].
(a) Arial approach view of the Fukuoka dome, built in 1993, which is covered with (b) titanium roofing, retractable for multi-role and all-weather purposes.
Physical properties of titanium and some of its alloys [18].
Generally, all property of materials depends directly or indirectly on the type of crystallographic phase and its constructions. The stable structure of pure Ti is the hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure (α phase) at room temperature, which transforms to the body-centered cubic (bcc) structure (β phase) at high temperature. Apart from these stable phases, other metastable phases can emerge in a quenched alloy such as (α′) martensite with hexagonal structure, martensite with orthorhombic (α″) structure or the β phase [20] or an omega (ω) phase. There are two types of omega ω phases with hcp structure, one is athermal, which forms during quenching from β-phase at high temperature and this type is cooling rate dependent. The other is isothermal ω phases, which precipitate during aging at certain temperatures. However, the exact relationship between the two omega ω phases and the α″ martensite phase for reversible transformation is still a subject of many research studies.
For this, interests in titanium-base alloys as structural materials has inspired several studies of their phase relationships. These have provided the background essential to the development of commercial alloys, but have also revealed some unexpected, and still to some extent unexplained, aspects that are of considerable scientific interest [2]. Although the exact transus point is dependent on the composition and processing treatment for the alloy, for alloyed Ti based materials, the transformation of crystallographic phase could also be driven by alloying elements.
Titanium alloys are stabilized by solute elements that have strong effect on the transformation temperature. Alloying elements of titanium are typically grouped based on their effect on the beta-transus temperature. They are often termed as neutral, alpha stabilizers, or beta-stabilizers. According to this classification scheme the alpha stabilizing alloying elements extend the room temperature hexagonal alpha phase field to elevated temperatures, while beta-stabilizing elements shift the high temperature beta phase field to lower temperatures. Neutral elements have only minor influence on the beta-transus temperature. Among the alpha stabilizing elements aluminum is by far the most important alloying element of titanium. The interstitial elements oxygen O2, nitrogen N, and carbon C also belong to this category, which are referred to as α-stabilizers [20] (see Figure 2).
(a) Unit cell of
Some of the high temperature β phase stabilizing elements are Nb Mo; V; W; Fe; Cr; Mn; Co; Cu; Si, H and Ta at room temperature. For β-stabilizers, a minimum concentration β element is required to fully stabilize the β-phase following a quench from the high temperature. The β stabilizing elements are categorized into two groups, namely:
β eutectoid stabilizers are elements (which lead to a partially stabilized β phase) such as Fe; Cr; Mn; Co; Cu; Si and H.
β isomorphous forming elements are heavy refractory BCC elements such as Mo; V; W; Nb and Ta.
The β phase can be easily transformed to hexagonal (a′ and ω) or orthorhombic (
Although it might be that no metallic element is purely neutral, some elements are classified as neutral because they have a minor influence on the transus temperature. They can lower the β transus slightly, but again increase it at a higher concentration. These elements include Sn, Zr and Hf, which may slightly lower the α/β transformation temperatures after certain threshold concentrations. Zr and Sn are the commonly used neutral stabilizing elements. Zr and Hf are isomorphous with titanium and therefore exhibit the same allotropic phase transformation from β to α and are completely soluble in both the α and β phases. Zr also substitutes titanium in a multicomponent alloy and thereby indirectly has a α stabilizing effect [20].
Phase transformation occurs whenever a materials system is not at equilibrium, or changes its microstate, as a result of external constraints such as pressure or temperature. In effect, these materials adopt different crystal structures favorable for the minimization of their free energy. In general, the microstructural features and the order in the system changes, leading to variations in most of the important properties. By so doing, phase transformation provides an effective way to modify the microstructure of solids. If it can be activated by a mechanical or other physical force, it becomes part of the deformation process and directly affects the properties of materials as well [22].
In CP titanium and titanium alloys, the most common equilibrium phases are those of
Schematic illustration of the Burgers’ lattice correspondence model of bcc-hcp transformation. The two simultaneous shears are marked by the red ellipses [
Thus, during phase transition from
Phase transformation provides an effective way to modify microstructure and property of solids. It becomes part of a deformation process, when it can be activated by mechanical or other physical forces. Titanium and its alloy undergo a series of stable and metastable allotropic transformations, depending on alloy elements and process. The exact transus point is dependent on the composition and processing treatment for the alloy. Apart from the stable phase(s), other metastable phases can emerge in a quenched alloy such as martensite with hexagonal structure, martensite with orthorhombic structure or the metastable β phase (see Figure 4).
A schematic illustration showing the lattice correspondence between the β and α″ phases, after Kym et al. [
Some striking characteristics distinguish martensite transformations from any other [34]. First, the martensite phase is either a substitutional or interstitial solid solution. Secondly, the transformation takes place in a very short time (i.e.) very rapid. This can only be measured by high speed cameras. The complexity inherent in its measurements is an added problem to its study. The third is that it is accompanied by a shape change (surface relief) of a definite value. This has been confirmed metallographic ally by scratch line test [34]. The fourth is that martensite crystal has a specific habit plane; interfacing between the parent phase and martensite phase which lie along the shear plane during the transformation. This implies that an orientation relationship exist between the two phase lattices. The presence of lattice defects will necessarily exist in martensite crystal due to shearing. The list of alloy components where martensitic transformation can be exploited are not exhaustible and still growing with research in the field of Titanium [35, 36, 37].
The recent innovative drive for Ti-alloys has drifted to many other areas such as the formation of SIM for electrical appliances, GUM metal for industrial applications, bio-implants resulting from its excellent compatibility with body tissues, better the mechanical and physical properties. There is an agreement among researchers that the formation is due to deformation by twinning (A twinning process is shown in Figure 5 as culled adapted from [38]) of β-phase material to a type of martensite α″ with orthorhombic structure. It is also thought that over a narrow compositional average the β-phase material is said to transform to martensite under an applied stress.
Schematic 2D representation of a collective displacement of the atoms during deformation twinning according to (a) simple shear, (b) angular distortion.
Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) are special materials with great potential in various engineering applications since they possess a number of unique characteristics, including superior energy dissipation capacity compared to normal metallic materials [39]. Other beneficial properties, apart from SMEs, including superelasticity, favorable damping ability and other important characteristics of shape memory alloys, allow it to be applied in a wide range of fields, including electronic, chemical, medical devices, electricity, aerospace, etc. [40].
The value and demand of SMAs was not positively understood for most engineering and technological applications until William Buehler and Frederick Wang discovered the shape memory effect (SME) in a nickel-titanium (NiTi) alloy in 1962 [41]. Thereafter, the use of SMAs, has expanded and the research interests and patents have become quite large. Examples of the possible beneficiaries of these materials abound in a variety of fields, such as automobile and mechanical engineering applications [42, 43], automotive [42], aerospace [44], mini actuators and micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) [45], robotics [35], biomedical [36] and even in clothing/fashion industries [37]. Titanium (Ti) alloys are one of the most important SMAs and until now, development of new Ti-based SMAs is still one of the most important directions of metal intelligent materials. The Ti-Nb based [35, 36, 37, 45], Ti-Ta based [46], Ti-Mo based [46, 47, 48] and Ti-Zr based [49] SMAs are developed in recent years.
The interest in using shape memory alloys (SMAs) stems from the fact that they can “remember” their original shape. When subjected to an external force above a threshold, they exhibit stress-induced martensitic transformation from austenite into martensite through twinning, and can recover the apparent permanent strains, returning to the original form. An Illustration of the superelastic response in shape memory alloys (deformation at a temperature N austenite finish temperature Af). This important attribute exhibited by many titanium based alloy can be exploited to accelerate the self-healing process in metallic materials. In addition by adjusting the hysteresis width can allow materials scientists to precisely adjust temperature change ∆T during the self-healing process. One of the probable set back is the functional degradation in properties that manifested as a reduction in the superelastic strains (εSE) and accumulation of residual strains (εresidual).
It is well known that atoms in almost all metals and alloys crystallize or has a tendency to pack in dense structural arrangement at room temperature, due to the strong bond that bind atom together in a metallic substance. This architecture determines how fast or how slow a healing mechanism would autonomously respond when a metallic component fails. Therefore, it is rational to deduce that triggering autonomous self-healing should be easier if the rate of diffusion of the part is high enough to be transported to the point where it fails. The molecular diffusion or atomic transport of matter by diffusion is represented ideally by the net flux, J, of atoms per second per unit area of reference plane in opposite directions (±x) in the presence of a concentration gradient, dc/dx, as given by Fick’s first law:
where
There have been several improvement in the study of diffusivity in the case of in titanium alloys, beginning with the work documented in German by Zwicker in 1974 [50]. On transformation from the α (hcp) to the β(bcc) phase, the diffusivity shows some changes. With respect to the widely used Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Liu and Welsch in 1987 studied the diffusivities of oxygen, aluminum, and vanadium in
Temperature dependence of self- and temperature diffusivity in β type titanium alloy (as called from [
Subsequently systematic measurements were hitherto made for the diffusion of Fe [51] Ni, [52] Mn, [53]Cr [54] and P [55]. On the other hand, Raiszinen and Keinonen measured diffusivities of Al [56] and Si [56] in polycrystalline Ti by a nuclear-reaction method. A detailed analysis of the data is compiled in the form of Arrhenius plots in the review by [57] and presented in Figure 7. The findings has shown that transition metal elements and phosphorus exhibit fast diffusion, which are three to five orders of magnitude faster than the self-diffusion. While, measurements done on ultrahigh purity α titanium with respect to Fe, Ni, and Co impurities resulted in very low diffusivity rates for self-diffusion in titanium and about two orders of magnitude slower than Fe, Co, and Ni [58].
Temperature dependence of impurity diffusion coefficient in
It is well known that research in the field metallic self-healing is still in its infancy stage. Self-healing metallic materials has received attention only in the past decade [13, 18]. While previous reviews on self-healing materials [59] have focused on describing the various routes to obtain self-healing mostly in polymeric materials, the present chapter is directed toward physical or chemical mechanism can be used to engineer self-healing in Ti-metals and its alloys.
Self-healing coatings inspired by biological systems possess the ability to repair physical damage or recover functional performance with minimal or no intervention. When the kinetics are extremely fast, the phenomenon is controlled by the diffusion (mass transport) of the species that enters or leaves the surface of the material under consideration. Consequently, the composition of the system will also be changing. Analogous effects have been found by other workers in systems of biological interest, e.g., with processes involving membranes and enzymes. It is well known that the basic diffusion controlled modes, such as surface diffusion, Ds; grain boundary diffusion, Dgb; vacancy diffusion, Dv and pipe diffusion, Dp, are fundamental to determine the rate of atomic diffusion in polycrystalline metals. In general, surface diffusion occurs much faster than grain boundary diffusion, and grain boundary diffusion occurs much faster than lattice diffusion. Atomic diffusion and indeed electrochemical-induced self-healing in polycrystalline materials is therefore often modelled using a combination of diffusion kinetics (see previous section). More details of the transformation modes in titanium have been discussed elsewhere [31, 32, 33]. For this, electrochemically induced self-healing are said to be a good strategy to be exploited in metals. For instance, a damage to oxide films, which normally protect the surfaces of Ti materials from corrosion, can be repaired by reoxidation in air. Recently, Gang Lu et al. [60] studied the oxidation of a polycrystalline titanium surface by oxygen and water and found that at 150 K O2 can oxidize Ti to Ti5, Ti3 and Ti2, while exposure of Ti to H2O at this temperatures only produces Ti2 species. At temperatures above 300 K, H2O can by both O2 and H2O slightly increases a further oxidize Ti2 to higher oxidation states. They observed rising temperature promotes the diffusion of oxygen into the bulk of the sample, which increasing overall oxidation. This is because the thickness of the oxide coating on Ti surface depends on both the duration of O2 exposure and on the sample temperature. At a given temperature, Ti oxidation by both O2 and H2O slightly increases as exposure increases.
Additionally, a crack on the surface of a titanium component can also be healed, when the oxidation reaction products fill up the crack cap. Therefore, cracks developed due to operational related stress can be autonomously self-healed or repaired by re-oxidative reaction that occur in Ti-based materials. Although self-healing coatings are considered as an alternative route for efficient anti-corrosion protection, intense research and development effort are been done in the area of corrosion protection coatings of metals and alloys. However, in order to improve the equipment service prediction capabilities of infrastructure, the use of Ti-based materials in infrastructures are beneficial as it can act as a second line of safety assurance even after the coating has failed. In this context, autonomic healing materials respond without external intervention to environmental stimuli, and have great potential for advanced engineering systems [61]. However, the limitation of this self-healing approach is that the extent of oxidation depends on sample temperature. A recent study identified 550–600 K as maximum oxidation in Ti based alloy. Upon heating the oxidized Ti above 850 K the titanium oxide layer is completely reduced to Tio, which is effective.
This mechanism is based on a thermoelastic displacive phase transformation design methodology. Certain strongly ordered intermetallic systems exhibit shear-dominated thermoelastic displacive transformations that involve minimal volume dilatation, a high degree of crystallographic reversibility, and a low-temperature allotrope that readily twins during plastic deformation. This combination gives rise to the well-known shape-memory effect in which plastic deformation imparted to the low-temperature martensitic phase can be reversed almost completely during transformation to the high-temperature austenitic phase.
In a recently study, by Elena et al. [62] thermally engineered self-healing was proven by observation of crack healing after annealing. Microscopic deformation and recovery of a shape-memory nickel-titanium alloy were studied. The deformation was induced by microindentation using spherical and Vickers diamond indenters. The recovery of the indents, caused by thermal annealing, was measured quantitatively using an optical surface profiler. Microindents formed by a spherical diamond in an equiatomic nickel-titanium martensite almost completely recover at low indentation load when moderately heated [63]. A smaller recovery ratio was observed for microindents formed by Vickers indenters. These observations suggest that the shape-memory effect exists at the microscopic level and under complex loading conditions. The observations were rationalized using the concept of representative strain and maximum stress under the spherical and pyramidal indenters. A representative surface profiles measured before and after heating for both spherical and Vickers indents are shown in Figure 8(a) and (b), respectively. The degree of indent recovery was determined quantitatively from the surface profiles by defining a recovery ratio, d, as.
A representative three-dimensional profile of a spherical indent at load of 15 N: (a) fresh indent and (b) after heating above the austenite finish temperature.
This is an approach, of self “healing” is likened to an established metallurgical process of aging. In this mechanism, a defect sites (primarily microscopic voids) serve as nucleation centers for diffusion driven precipitation of oversaturated solute in the alloy and are thereby immobilized from further growth until failure. Consequently, the newly formed voids are sealed before they grow and this results in improvement of creep and fatigue properties of the alloy. This form of ‘preventive’ healing has been used Al-Cu alloys, known for decreasing solute solubility with decreasing temperatures. The process involves a high-temperature solution treatment, accompanied by quenching and annealing for relatively short periods of time, results in an underage microstructure that maintains substantial amounts of solute and serves as the healing agent. The processes of “secondary precipitation” in Al-Cu alloys that results into much finer precipitates from low-temperature aging [64] and investigations into dynamic precipitation in Al-Cu-Mg-Ag alloys occurring in response to moving dislocation generation under load [65], have been identified as potential healing mechanisms during fatigue and creep. This can be extended to other metallic materials. The limitation to this approach is that not all Ti alloy is heat treatable like Al-Cu alloys.
This technique derives its inspiration from polymer healing and was recently conceptualized by Rohatgi et al. [63] includes the embedding of a hollow reinforcement (micro-sphere, micro-tube) containing a low-melting alloy in a higher melting metal matrix. The encapsulation of a metallic healing agent, however, allows the microcapsule to serve as a diffusion barrier and the interface should be sufficiently fragile to break upon an advancing crack and not deflect.
In the line of work done on hollow fibers reinforced polymers [66], attempts were also made to integrate hollow microfibers containing low-melting healing agents into metallic systems [67]. This attempted healing was implement by incorporating indium as a healing agent in carbon tubes embedded in a higher melting solder matrix. Upon heating beyond the Indium melting point, a macroscopic crack that was directed downward to gravity was repaired. Computational fluid dynamics studies were conducted by Lucci et al. [67] on this healing method and interface wettability and gravity-related crack orientation were highlighted as major factors affecting the flow of healing liquid, with more wetting systems and gravity-oriented cracks being more desirable to fill.
In one of the earliest trial, Manuel and co-workers [68] used this approach to heal Sn and Mg based metallic materials. The method involves reinforcing an alloy matrix with wires made of a shape-memory alloy (SMA), such as nitinol (NiTi). SMA wires have the ability to recover their original shape when heated above a critical temperature [69]. Thus, when the metal matrix composite cracks, the resulting plastic strain stretches the SMA that bridges the crack. On heating above the shape transformation temperature of the SMA, the wire shrinks back to its original shape applying compressive force to the matrix and clamping the crack. This is accompanied by welding of the crack in the matrix alloy which is so-designed as to partially liquefy at the healing temperature [70].
Although the production of autonomous self-healing in metallic materials has been the subject of numerous studies and will continue to be in the near future. It is still at the infancy stage. Thus far, the field of autonomous self-healing engineering materials has been dominated by polymeric based substances for several years with only one route and mechanism, that of the encapsulated liquid adhesive route. The current chapter discusses the framework for engineered self-healing Ti-alloys has been presented with some practical examples revealing how self-healing functionality can be incorporated in Ti alloys. Nonetheless, the functionality of the mechanism comes down to the turning these experimental approaches under laboratory conditions into commercially available materials and products. Albeit, the studies conducted thus far in Ti and indeed metals have been relatively limited, the information contained within this chapter should not be considered exhaustive, and should be open to further improvement, modification and discussion. There are obvious indications that, the once impossible task of achieving autonomously engineered self-healing metallic materials in service will be feasible in no distant time.
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. 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In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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