Antioxidants neutralize the oxidative processes and modify levels in plasma. [150]
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8754",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Scheduling Problems - New Applications and Trends",title:"Scheduling Problems",subtitle:"New Applications and Trends",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Scheduling is defined as the process of assigning operations to resources over time to optimize a criterion. 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She is also the present Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"74859",title:"An Antioxidant Defense System in Radiation-Resistant Bacterium Deinococcus geothermalis against Oxidative Stress",slug:"an-antioxidant-defense-system-in-radiation-resistant-bacterium-deinococcus-geothermalis-against-oxid",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74893",title:"Endogenous Enzymatic Antioxidant Defense and Pathologies",slug:"endogenous-enzymatic-antioxidant-defense-and-pathologies",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75042",title:"Micronutrient Antioxidants in the Chemoprevention of Breast Cancer and Effect on Breast Cancer Outcomes",slug:"micronutrient-antioxidants-in-the-chemoprevention-of-breast-cancer-and-effect-on-breast-cancer-outco",totalDownloads:32,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74753",title:"Evolutionary Strategies of Highly Functional Catalases for Adaptation to High H2O2 Environments",slug:"evolutionary-strategies-of-highly-functional-catalases-for-adaptation-to-high-h2o2-environments",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74706",title:"The Role of Lycopene in Chronic Lung Diseases",slug:"the-role-of-lycopene-in-chronic-lung-diseases",totalDownloads:67,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74380",title:"Thiol Reduction and Cardiolipin Improve Complex I Activity and Free Radical Production in Liver Mitochondria of Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats",slug:"thiol-reduction-and-cardiolipin-improve-complex-i-activity-and-free-radical-production-in-liver-mito",totalDownloads:54,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74927",title:"Antioxidants in Female Reproductive Biology",slug:"antioxidants-in-female-reproductive-biology",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74748",title:"Reappraisal of Dietary Phytochemicals for Coronavirus Infection: Focus on Hesperidin and Quercetin",slug:"reappraisal-of-dietary-phytochemicals-for-coronavirus-infection-focus-on-hesperidin-and-quercetin",totalDownloads:444,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75198",title:"Management of Diabetic Eye Disease using Carotenoids and Nutrients",slug:"management-of-diabetic-eye-disease-using-carotenoids-and-nutrients",totalDownloads:33,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74807",title:"Vitamin C and Sepsis",slug:"vitamin-c-and-sepsis",totalDownloads:40,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74793",title:"Phytochemical Antioxidants: Past, Present and Future",slug:"phytochemical-antioxidants-past-present-and-future",totalDownloads:40,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75026",title:"Role of Antioxidants Supplementation in the Treatment of Male Infertility",slug:"role-of-antioxidants-supplementation-in-the-treatment-of-male-infertility",totalDownloads:40,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75226",title:"Use of Selected Antioxidant-Rich Spices and Herbs in Foods",slug:"use-of-selected-antioxidant-rich-spices-and-herbs-in-foods",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74790",title:"Antioxidant Activity: The Presence and Impact of Hydroxyl Groups in Small Molecules of Natural and Synthetic Origin",slug:"antioxidant-activity-the-presence-and-impact-of-hydroxyl-groups-in-small-molecules-of-natural-and-sy",totalDownloads:77,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74678",title:"Role of Secondary Metabolites to Attenuate Stress Damages in Plants",slug:"role-of-secondary-metabolites-to-attenuate-stress-damages-in-plants",totalDownloads:41,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74332",title:"The Two Sides of Dietary Antioxidants in Cancer Therapy",slug:"the-two-sides-of-dietary-antioxidants-in-cancer-therapy",totalDownloads:50,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Effects of oxidative stress depend on the magnitude of these changes, if the cell is able to overcome small perturbations and regain its original state. However, severe oxidative stress can cause cell death and even moderate oxidation can trigger apoptosis, whereas if it is too intense can cause necrosis.
A particularly destructive aspect of oxidative stress is the production of reactive oxygen species, which include free radicals and peroxides. Some of the less reactive species (superoxide) can be converted by a redox reaction with transition metals or other compounds quinines redox cycle, more aggressive radical species which can cause extensive damage cellular. Most of these species derived from oxygen are produced at a low level in normal aerobic metabolism and the damage they cause to cells is constantly repaired. However, under the severe levels of oxidative stress that causes necrotic damage produces ATP depletion prevents cell death by apoptosis control.
The antioxidants are substances that may protect your cells against the effects of free radicals. Free radicals are molecules produced when your body breaks down food, or by environmental exposures like tobacco smoke and radiation. Free radicals can damage cells, and may play a role in heart disease, cancer and other diseases.
Antioxidant substances include beta-carotene, lutein, lycopene, selenium, vitamin A; and vitamin C. Antioxidants are found in many foods. These include fruits and vegetables, nuts, grains, and some meats, poultry and fish.
Free radicals damage may lead to cancer. Antioxidants interact with and stabilize free radicals and may prevent some of the damage free radicals might otherwise cause.
Studies in cancer cells in vitro and in vivo animal’s models suggest that the use of free radicals decreases the growth of malignant cells. However, information from recent clinical trials is less clear. In recent years, large-scale, randomized clinical trials reached inconsistent conclusions.
Clinical trials published in the 1990s reached differing conclusions about the effect of antioxidants on cancer. The studies examined the effect of beta-carotene and other antioxidants on cancer in different patient groups. However, beta-carotene appeared to have different effects depending upon the patient population, therefore it is important to personalize treatment, and we must take into account the variability to treatment and individualize or personalize therapy. Studies made by Blot WJ et al., in 1993 for the treatment of cancer published in Chinese Cancer Prevention Study, investigated the effect of a combination of beta-carotene, vitamin E, and selenium on cancer in healthy Chinese men and women at high risk for gastric cancer. The study showed a combination of beta-carotene, vitamin E, and selenium significantly reduced incidence of both gastric cancer and cancer overall.
A 1994 cancer prevention study entitled the Alpha-Tocopherol (vitamin E)/ Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study (ATBC) demonstrated that lung cancer rates of Finnish male smokers increased significantly with beta-carotene and were not affected by vitamin E. Epidemiologic evidence indicates that diets high in carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables, as well as high serum levels of vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) and beta carotene are associated with a reduced risk of lung cancer. Another study made by Omenn GS in 1994, the Beta-Carotene and Retinol (vitamin A). Efficacy Trial (CARET) also demonstrated a possible increase in lung cancer associated with antioxidants.
The 1996 Physicians’ Health Study I (PHS) found no change in cancer rates associated with beta-carotene and aspirin taken by U.S. male physicians.
The 1999 Women\'s Health Study (WHS) made by Lee IM, tested effects of vitamin E and beta-carotene in the prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease among women age 45 years or older. Among apparently healthy women, there was no benefit or harm from beta-carotene supplementation. Investigation of the effect of vitamin E is ongoing.
Three large-scale clinical trials continue to investigate the effect of antioxidants on cancer. The Women’s Health Study (WHS) is currently evaluating the effect of vitamin E in the primary prevention of cancer among U.S. female health professionals age 45 and older.
In 2006, the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT) is taking place in the United States, Puerto Rico, and Canada. SELECT is trying to find out if taking selenium and/or vitamin E supplements can prevent prostate cancer in men age 50 or older. Also the experimental and epidemiologic investigations suggest that alpha-tocopherol (the most prevalent chemical form of vitamin E found in vegetable oils, seeds, grains, nuts, and other foods) and beta-carotene (a plant pigment and major precursor of vitamin A found in many yellow, orange, and dark-green, leafy vegetables and some fruit) might reduce the risk of cancer, particularly lung cancer. The initial findings of the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study (ATBC Study) indicated, however, that lung cancer incidence was increased among participants who received beta-carotene as a supplement. Similar results were recently reported by the Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial (CARET), which tested a combination of beta-carotene and vitamin A.
The Physicians\' Health Study II (PHS II) is a follow up to the earlier clinical trial by the same name. The study is investigating the effects of vitamin E, C, and multivitamins on prostate cancer and total cancer incidence. In another case the supplementation with alpha-tocopherol or beta-carotene does not prevent lung cancer in older men who smoke. Beta-Carotene supplementation at pharmacologic levels may modestly increase lung cancer incidence in cigarette smokers, and this effect may be associated with heavier smoking and higher alcohol intake.
Antioxidants neutralize free radicals as the natural by-product of normal cell processes. Free radicals are molecules with incomplete electron shells which make them more chemically reactive than those with complete electron shells. Exposure to various environmental factors, including tobacco smoke and radiation, can also lead to free radical formation. In humans, the most common form of free radicals is oxygen. When an oxygen molecule (O2) becomes electrically charged or “radicalized” it tries to steal electrons from other molecules, causing damage to the DNA and other molecules. Over time, such damage may become irreversible and lead to disease including cancer. Antioxidants are often described as “mopping up” free radicals, meaning they neutralize the electrical charge and prevent the free radical from taking electrons from other molecules.
Because of the importance that involves using antioxidants as an alternative in the treatment and prevention of chronic degenerative diseases is useful to express the potential in the use and development of new drugs that include antioxidants.
Free radicals are highly reactive chemical species that possess an unpaired electron. Due to it is reactivity, the radicals react readily with other molecules. When free radicals come into contact with the molecules of the human body such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, DNA nucleic acids, react with them. These reactions cause changes in the normal functions of these primary metabolites, which cause severe damage that can cause diseases such as cancer and degenerative diseases like Parkinson´s disease or Alzheimer´s disease and atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease and diabetes [1-4].
When any of these afore mentioned diseases, the patient receive the treatment used to treat the particular disease, however, prevention plays a big role. Oxidation in the body tissues caused by free radicals can be prevented with a daily intake of foods that have antioxidants.
The implications of modern life cause changes in eating habits of people, these results in a lack of antioxidants in the body to cope with free radicals that are in contact. The role of antioxidants is to react with free radicals and thus prevent, to react with the primary metabolites, thus acting as natural shields against diseases like cancer [5, 6].
Antioxidants decrement oxidative processes. [Bruce Ames Ph.D., University of California Lecture U.C.T.V. viewed on 08-14-2004].
Currently breast cancer is a disease of high incidence worldwide and causes millions of deaths annually [7]. In the treatment of various cancers have been used drugs that originate from natural products. To get to the application of the drug as a treatment, it requires years of research. The use of treatment leads to the destruction of cancer cells and normal cells in addition, there are numbers side effects resulting from the application of therapies. Prevention of disease is certainly a great alternative to the aggressive use of medications commonly used. The simplest method to prevent cancer and other diseases is undoubtedly add to the diet foods that contain high concentrations of antioxidants, this treatment is easy to perform and causes no adverse side effects. Other organisms containing large amounts of secondary metabolites some of which can act as antioxidants and thereby help prevent cancer and prevent its development (Fruits, vegetables, plants).
Antioxidants can act in two ways:
Blocking cancer, in the initial stage protecting cells against oxidative species and enhancing DNA repair.
Suppressing cancer by inhibiting the progressive stages after formation of pre-neoplastic cells [8].
Studies are underway to help better understand the mechanism of action of antioxidants and test its efficacy against cancer and other diseases. Several studies report that the addition to the diet of foods containing antioxidants may increase the effectiveness of cancer treatment, and help strengthen the body against the side effects associated with treatment [9-11]. The antioxidants found in fruits and vegetables can mention vitamins C and E, carotenoids group and the group of polyphenols. Polyphenols are a group of antioxidant flavonoids to which they belong. There are several types of flavonoids and can be found in foods such as blackberries, blueberries, strawberries, plum, peach, apple, tomato, cherry, broccoli, onion, soya been, legumes like green gram, lupine peas, soy beans, white and horse gram, green leafy spices, citrus fruits, tea, red grapes, chocolate, cocoa and red wine beverages [12].
The following briefly discuss some results of studies using antioxidants from fruits and vegetables for the treatment of breast cancer.
Research conducted in Canada by Hakimuddin and colleagues [13] showed that the polyphenols found in red wine have selective toxicity against MCF-7 cell type of breast cancer; the authors indicate the importance of a diet that incorporates red wine and feeding grapes to serve as a preventive strategy against cancer, which also can be combined with standard therapies.
As mentioned above plums and peaches are fruits that contain phenolic compounds. In a study to test the activity of phenolic species as cancer chemopreventive agents present in extracts of plums and peaches, we found that peaches and plums contain a mixture of phenolic compounds with the ability to inhibit cell lines MCF-7 and MDA -MB435. A very important point to consider is that phenolic acids were isolated chlorogenic and neo-chlorogenic which have great potential for use as chemopreventive agents exerting growth inhibition of the cell line MDA-MB-435 and low toxicity to the normal cell line MCF-10A [14].
Another recent study [15], focused on the action of terpenes located in the skin of the olives suggests that they may serve as natural potential protective against breast cancer. The triterpenes were isolated in significant quantities from the pulp of the olive oil and can act prophylactically and therapeutically.
Currently the investigation for the treatment of breast cancer using apigenin, a flavonoid found in celery. The study conducted at the University of Missouri (United States) [16] was performed in mice that were implanted cell line BT-474, of rapid growth. Mice were also treated with medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA), which is used in postmenopausal women. Another group of mice was used as a blank. The group of mice treated with MPA was injected apigenin, found that cancerous tumors grew rapidly in mice that were treated with apigenin. Moreover, in mice treated with apigenin was observed a decrease of the tumor when compared with the group of mice used as a blank. Yet unknown mechanism of action of apigenin chemical, however, although the study was conducted in mice, is very promising for future treatment of breast cancer.
Prostate cancer is a very common type of cancer afflicting men; it is now easy detection by prostate specific antigen test (PSA for its initials in English) [17]. Which are still unknown factors that cause this type of cancer, the disease also takes years in some cases to express symptoms, making it necessary for men to undergo regular medical examinations to detect early. One form of treatment of prostate cancer is surgery, whereby the prostate is removed, but this is a procedure which results in urinary incontinence and impotence, which in some cases is permanent.
Prevention through diet prostate cancer has increased because it is recognized as a way to combat this disease [18, 19]. Among the foods that are recommended for the prevention of prostate cancer are generally fruits and vegetables due to its high content of antioxidants. Fruits like pomegranate containing metabolites such as polyphenols and delphinidin urolitina A and B chloride, kaempferol, and punicic acid are considered biologically active against prostate cancer [20, 21].
Other fruit that contains a variety of polyphenolic compounds is strawberry [22] has been found that extracts of strawberry juice cell lines tested against prostate cancer proved effective as antiproliferative agents, is also noteworthy to mention that were tested individually some of the individual components of the extract (cyanidin-3-glucoside, pelargonidin, pelargonidin-3-glucoside, pelargonidin-3-rutinoside, kaempferol, quercetin, kaempferol-3-(6\'-coumaroyl) glucoside, 3,4,5 trihydroxyphenyl-acrylic acid-, glucose ester of (E)-p-coumaric acid, and ellagic acid) which also showed efficacy individually [23]. These studies confirm the effectiveness of the cutter to inhibit growth of cancer cells.
The apple is considered the quintessential fruit of health, its daily intake is associated with low risk of chronic diseases and cancer, particularly prostate and colon [24-26]. The block contains a variety of compounds polyphenolic that are responsible for their biological activity among these compounds, studies were performed with quercetin which has proven effective as an inhibitor in vitro cell growth of prostate cancer [23, 24]. Another study showed that the antioxidant activity of apples is correlated [27] with the total concentration of phenolic compounds present in it clear that this concentration varies according to growing region, and other growth period factors [28-30]. The tomato is another fruit with high antioxidant capacity and owes its activity to lycopene, a carotenoid, which gives the characteristic red color to the fruit [31, 32]. It has been reported that tomato consumption reduces the occurrence of prostate cancer [33-35].
Another study used extracts of potato species Solanum jamesii to test their cytotoxic activity toward antiproliferatva and prostate cancer cells and colon in vitro. The extracts were found to inhibit proliferation of cancer cells PC-3 prostate as well as in colon cancer cells LNCaP. Fractions were also tested extract containing anthocyanin and it showed the same activity as the full extract [36].
It is a type of cancer that has one of the top female deaths worldwide [37]. Its main cause is due to Human Papilloma Virus, which is a group of more than 150 types of viruses and is transmitted by sexual contact [38]. To the treatment of cervical cancer, chemotherapy and radiation therapy is performed. As prevention against this type of cancer was recommended not realize sexual contact with infected persons. Another form of prevention is the application of the vaccine that protects against types of HPV high risk of developing cancer. These vaccines Gardasil ® and Cervarix ® were approved by the Federal Drug Administration (FDA) of EU, but these vaccines are only for women, 9 to 26 years of age who are not infected by the virus.
Another recommendation to prevent this cancer is to stimulate the immune system by eating foods rich in antioxidants, because if the body is weakened, the virus is an opportunity to attack and develop cancer [38]. Have also been performed in vitro studies to observe foods as antioxidants influence on the growth of cervical cancer cells [39]. One study was carried out with extracts of different types of berries and tested for anti-proliferative activity on HeLa cells (cervical carcinoma). The results show that extracts from blueberry and pomegranate have little effect inhibiting the growth of HeLa cells. The most effective extracts with increasing concentration were: strawberry extract, arctic bramble, lingonberry and cloudberry. It has also been reported [40] that glycoalkaloids present in commercial potatoes inhibit the growth of different types of cancer cell lines, including HeLa cervical cancer cells.
In therapy of cancer selenium doses is 4000 µg in continuous infusion of 1000 µg/9 days, total: 13 mg [41] (Forceville et al, 2007), i.v. bolus 1000 µg in 30 minutes for continuous infusion 1000 µg/d 14 d, total: 15 mg; i.v. bolus 2000 µg in 2 hours continuous infusion 1600 µg/d, 10 d, total 18 mg [42].
Diabetes is a metabolic disorder associated with defects in secretion and insulin action [43]. Type 1 diabetes also known as insulin dependent and type 2 diabetes called non-insulin dependent. Both conditions are associated with the formation of free radicals that cause oxidative stress and disease manifestation. Diabetes is associated with health problems such as neuropathy, retinopathy, erectile dysfunction in men, kidney problems, healing and more [44, 45]. Because diabetes is a disease of oxidative stress, it is expected that the antioxidants in fruits, vegetables and plants to help combat it.
Several studies report that a proper diet that includes antioxidants is important to reduce the risk of diabetes. We have found that various antioxidants present in some foods and plants as coumarins, some terpenes, flavonoids, lignans, phenylpropanoids, tannins and can help people prevent disease and for helping diabetics [46, 47]. These substances exert their activity by inhibiting the action of R-amylase enzyme. Amylase is an enzyme produced in the pancreas and salivary glands; their function is to help the digestion of carbohydrates [48]. Among the flavonoids that can inhibit R-amylase are the quercetin, myricetin, epigallocatechin gallate, and cyanidin. Tannins, present in green and black teas, grapes, wine, raspberry, and strawberry, also seem to be good R-amylase inhibitors. Among fruits and vegetables reported with inhibitory capacity toward the R-amylase in vitro are the red grapes, strawberry, raspberry and, green pepper, broccoli, ginger, and carrot [49-54].
Thanks to these findings, it has been proposed the use of some natural metabolites present in these fruits for the control of hyperglycemia following ingestion of food. The advantage of these natural metabolites is that its use can avoid the side effects that occur when drugs are used for this purpose [55, 56].
Consumption of foods rich in antioxidants can also prevent the complications of this disease has recently been shown that biotin is a vitamin which is part of the B vitamins, which can be found in foods such as biotin find when we eat certain vegetables: cauliflower, peanut butter, mushrooms, yeast, potatoes, mushrooms, almonds, walnuts, soybeans, chickpeas, grapes, strawberries, watermelon, bananas, wheat, flour, pasta, bread, oats, rice, liver, yolk egg, kidney, fish, poultry and offal in general, can help improve metabolism and insulin sensitivity, leading to decreased levels of blood sugar, also sold capsules containing biotin [57, 58].
Resveratrol is a polyphenol present in red wine. According to research Medical Center, University of Texas Southwestern in the U.S. [60], resveratrol administered directly into the brain of diabetic mice, can help control type two diabetes by improving blood sugar levels. What makes the resveratrol is to activate a protein called sirtuin which is expressed in parts of the brain that govern the metabolism of glucose. Much remains to be investigated but it is certainly likely that the intake of red wine under medical supervision can help control diabetes.
Also been studied antioxidants in plants and animals such as the following examples show.
A group of researchers at the University of Jaen in Spain isolated a compound called Cinnamtannin B-1 of the laurel, which has antioxidant properties that can eliminate free radicals that cause diseases such as diabetes. The university has signed an agreement with a pharmaceutical for the distribution of this antioxidant [61].
Lipoic acid, also known as alpha lipoic acid or thioctic acid, is produced in small quantities our bodies, it participates in the metabolism significantly. Can also be found in foods like red meat, yeast and some vegetables such as spinach, broccoli.
In this fatty acid properties are attributed as an antioxidant par excellence also can help re-use of other antioxidants like vitamins C and E, glutathione and coenzyme Q10. Among the many properties that are attributed to reduction of varicose veins, skin moisture, enhances energy levels in the body, cancer protection among others.
Also attributed the reduction in blood glucose levels for type 2 diabetes and help combat the discomforts caused by peripheral neuropathy, and therefore coupled with the effects mentioned above, this antioxidant is ideal for diabetics [62-67].
Currently sold in different forms under different names, but the diabetic patient can take doses of lipoic acid consuming identified through the diet. No indication that lipoic acid has contraindications, although high doses can cause episodes of hypoglycemia [68].
Arteriosclerosis is the hardening of the arteries due to fat accumulation; this may lead to a heart attack that can end life [69]. Atherosclerosis is a preventable disease with a balanced diet and exercise. The diet should include variety of fruits and vegetables and be low in fat. Antioxidants play an important role in preventing this disease, it is known that there is a relationship between red wine consumption and the low incidence of cardiovascular disease; this is due to the action of the antioxidants present in grapes. We recommend a daily intake of 375 mL of red wine to increase levels of high density lipoprotein HDL proteins, ie proteins responsible for transporting fat [70, 71]. Studies with another fruits can be determining its effectiveness in the prevention of arteriosclerosis.
Another fruit that has been investigated for its antioxidant and cardiovascular protective effects are blueberries. Studies realized in Arkansas State University, evaluated the effect on two groups of mice for twenty weeks. One group was used as a target, leading a normal diet; the other group was fed a blueberry base [72], found that mice with arterial lesions, a significant percentage decreased injuries, compared with the group of mice that did not eat blueberries. The researchers suggest incorporating blueberries to the diet to improve cardiovascular health and recommended as the ideal fruit for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia.
It is known that fruits such as cranberries have high antioxidant levels and tested their effectiveness in promoting cardiovascular health [73-75]. This study was supplemented to a group of men for two weeks with cranberry juice. Over time he found an increase in plasma antioxidant capacity and a decrease in LDL (low density lipoprotein) in addition to an increase in HDL in obese men. Work is to show whether supplementation based cranberry juice may have the same antioxidant capacity and the same protective benefit as red wine, if so would avoid alcohol.
In another study conducted at the University of Buffalo studied the effect of resveratrol as an antioxidant and its possible use in treating atherosclerosis. In this investigation were not used fruits or vegetables, but was used an extract of the plant. The extract containing resveratrol was administered at doses of 40 mg daily to a group of 10 people, another group of 10 people also served as a target. During the six weeks of the study, blood tests were performed on the results; researchers concluded that Polygonum cuspidatum extract has a therapeutic effect against oxidative stress. These results show that resveratrol, as already mentioned above, are effective to counteract the effect of free radicals, and in the case of arteriosclerosis, can also help prevent it [76].
The metabolic syndrome has been identified as a target for dietary therapies to reduce risk of cardiovascular disease; however, the role of diet in the etiology of the metabolic syndrome is poorly understood. The metabolic syndrome consists of a constellation of factors that increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. The etiology of this syndrome is largely unknown but presumably represents a complex interaction between genetic, metabolic, and environmental factors including diet [77-79]. The studies endothelial function by assessing the vascular responses to L-arginine, the natural precursor of nitric oxide it´s characterized for the low-grade inflammatory state of patients with the metabolic syndrome by measuring circulating levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) as well as of interleukins 6 (IL-6), 7 (IL-7), and 18 (IL-18). These proinflammatory ILs have been prospectively associated with thrombotic cardiovascular events [80, 81] or have been suggested to be involved in plaque destabilization [82]. The diet designed to increase consumption of foods rich in phytochemicals, antioxidants, α-linolenic acid, and fiber prevent Metabolic Syndrome.
The diet rich in whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, walnuts, and olive oil might be effective in reducing both the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome and its associated cardiovascular risk. One of the mechanisms responsible for the cardioprotective effect of such a diet may be through reduction of the low-grade inflammatory state associated with the metabolic syndrome. Although weight reduction remains a cornerstone of therapy for the metabolic syndrome, from a public health perspective adoption of a diet rich in phytochemicals, antioxidants, α-linolenic acid, and fiber may provide further benefit on cardiovascular risk, especially in patients who do not lose weight.
If antioxidants play a protective role in the pathophysiology of diabetes and cardiovascular disease, understanding the physiological status of antioxidant concentrations among people at high risk for developing these conditions, such as people with the metabolic syndrome, is of interest. However, little is known about this topic. Because the prevalence of obesity, which is associated with decreased concentrations of antioxidants [83], is high among people with the metabolic syndrome, they are probably more likely to have low antioxidant concentrations. Consequently, our purpose was to examine whether concentrations of several antioxidants are lower among those with than those without the metabolic syndrome.
For example a retinol from the liver, the main storage site for retinol is transported to peripheral tissues by retinol binding protein. Retinol may be released as a retinyl ester; however, when the ability of the liver to store retinol is exceeded or when liver function is impaired [84]. Thus, the higher retinyl ester concentrations among those who did not have the metabolic syndrome may indicate that they consumed larger amounts of vitamin A compared with people who have this syndrome. Our findings may have implications for people with the metabolic syndrome, health care professionals who care for them and researchers who study the metabolic syndrome. People with the metabolic syndrome are at increased risk for diabetes and cardiovascular disease, and a role for oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of these conditions has been postulated. Free radical species is one of the principal mechanisms of action of antioxidants, other mechanisms that affect the pathophysiology of diabetes and cardiovascular disease may be operating as well [83]. The effects of vitamins C and E have received a great deal of interest. Through effects on oxidation of LDL cholesterol concentration, leukocyte adhesion, and endothelial function, vitamins C and E may slow atherosclerosis [86, 87].
Currently the evidence supports the role of nutritional deficiency in Alcoholic Liver Disease (ALD) [88–95]. Lieber and colleagues show that progressive ALD proceeds despite adequate nutrition [96, 97]. The latter hypothesis was based primarily on the observation that baboons fed a nutritionally adequate liquid diet containing ethanol at 50% calories developed nearly the whole spectrum of ALD including cirrhosis. Studies demonstrated profound effects on ethanol-induced liver injury by intake of nutrients such as polyunsaturated fat and iron in quantities that were never thought to be important. The concept of ‘sensitization’ and ‘priming’ is currently considered fundamental to our pursuit for elucidation of pathogenetic mechanisms of ALD. The sensitization is a conditioning that makes the target cells, hepatocytes, more vulnerable to harmful effects triggered by ethanol and priming as the effect that promotes specific injurious mechanisms. The sensitizing and priming are rendered by the complex interactions of primary mechanistic factors and secondary risk factors. For example, intake of polyunsaturated fat in ethanol-fed rats, but not in pair-fed controls, results in a synergistic priming effect on induction of cytochrome P4502. E1 (CYP2E1) with consequent oxidative injury to the liver [98]. Conversely, saturated fat prevents this priming effect and abrogates depletion of a mitochondrial pool of glutathione (GSH) [99], one of the most crucial sensitization effects of ethanol on hepatocytes [100]. Iron is another example. Whereas a slight increase in hepatic iron content by dietary iron supplementation is harmless in control rats, it exacerbates alcoholic liver injury via accentuation of oxidative stress [101]. Further, increased iron storage in hepatic macrophages is a potential priming mechanism forenhanced expression of tumor necrosis factor a (TNF-a) in experimental ALD [102] Besides nutritional factors, female gender, age, concomitant intake of other drugs that can induce CYP2E1, hepatitis virus infection, and genetic predisposition are all considered risk factors. Even among the primary mechanistic factors that include acetaldehyde, oxidative stress, immune response, hypoxia, and membrane alterations, there are cross-interactive relationships to render sensitization or priming effects. For instance, acetaldehyde, a potent toxic metabolite of ethanol, induces liver injury via its covalent binding to structural or functional proteins of the cells [103] while promoting oxidative stress via consumption of GSH. In turn, deleterious effects of acetaldehyde-protein adduct formation may be accentuated by oxidative stress since malondialdehyde, a lipid peroxidation end product, can increase the binding affinity of acetaldehyde by 13-fold [104]. The resulting novel hybrid adducts are highly immunogenic and may incite immune response mediated liver injury [105, 106]. Although cellular immune response and inflammation are regarded as independent mechanisms of ALD, they can also lead to oxidative stress via the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by NADPH oxidase or action of TNF-a at the electron transport chain in target cells. The multifactorial nature and complex interaction among primary mechanistic factors and between primary and secondary factors appear to be the basis for the heterogeneous response that alcoholics exhibit for ALD. Elucidation of the sensitization and priming mechanisms involving cross-interactions of these factors should allow us to gain insight into the most fundamental question, which is why only a small fraction of alcoholics develop advanced ALD. The experimental models to use for control deletion and addition analyses in order to identify what primary and secondary factors are required for the expression of a particular aspect or whole spectrum of experimental ALD. It is need experts in various disciplines need to work together to provide cutting-edge science for elucidating the precise nature and mechanisms that underlie interactions.
Antioxidants represent a potential group of therapeutic agents for ALD. They likely provide beneficial effects on hepatocytes via desensitization against oxidant stress while inhibiting priming mechanisms for expression of proinflammatory and cytotoxic mediators via suppression of NF-kB [107, 108]. Potential approaches may include cell type-specific targeting of antioxidant therapy and development of modalities for more specific and selective regulation of NF-kB-mediated signaling.
The development of cirrhosis is usually associated with oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation (LPO). Studies in models of cirrhosis to use carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) inhalation in the rat show several similarities with human cirrhosis. The metabolism of CCl4 into trichloromethyl (CCl3•) and peroxy trichloromethyl (•OOCCl3) free radicals has been reported to cause hepatotoxic effects, like fibrosis, steatosis, necrosis, and hepatocarcinoma [109, 111].
Some compounds that have been studied as possible protectors against liver cirrhosis are known for their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Plants contain numerous polyphenols, which have been shown to reduce inflammation and thereby to increase resistance to disease [112]. Quercetin (Q), a polyphenolic flavonoid compound present in large amounts in vegetables, fruits, and tea, exhibits its therapeutic potential against many diseases, including hepatoprotection and the inhibition of liver fibrosis [113–114]. It contains a number of phenolic hydroxyl groups, which have strong antioxidant activity [116, 117]. The average intake varies between countries but is approximately 23 mg/day [118].
By increasing the endogenous antioxidant defenses, flavonoids can modulate the redox state of organisms. The major endogenous antioxidant systems include superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), which is essential for the detoxification of lipid peroxides [119-121].
Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) have emerged as a central common pathway by which disparate influences may induce and exacerbate hypertension. Potential sources of excessive ROS in hypertension include nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, mitochondria, xanthine oxidase, endothelium-derived NO synthase, cyclooxygenase 1 and 2, cytochrome P450 epoxygenase, and transition metals. While a significant body of epidemiological and clinical data suggests that antioxidant-rich diets reduce blood pressure and cardiovascular risk, randomized trials and population studies using natural antioxidants have yielded disappointing results. The reasons behind this lack of efficacy are not completely clear, but likely include a combination of [122] ineffective dosing regimens, [123] the potential pro-oxidant capacity of some of these agents, [124] selection of subjects less likely to benefit from antioxidant therapy (too healthy or too sick), and inefficiency of nonspecific quenching of prevalent ROS versus prevention of excessive ROS production. Antioxidants as vitamins A, C and E, L-arginine, flavonoids, and mitochondria-targeted agents (Coenzyme Q10, acetyl-L-carnitine, and alpha-lipoic acid) can be use to treatment hypertension. Currently exist incomplete knowledge of the mechanisms of action of these agents, lack of target specificity, and potential interindividual differences in therapeutic efficacy preclude us from recommending any specific natural antioxidant for antihypertensive therapy at this time.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated by multiple cellular sources, including NADPH oxidase, mitochondria, xanthine oxidase, uncoupled endothelium-derived NO synthase, cycloxygenase, and lipoxygenase. The dominant initial ROS species produced by these sources is superoxide (O2−). Superoxide is short-lived molecule that can subsequently undergo enzymatic dismutation to hydrogen peroxide. Superoxide can oxidize proteins and lipids, or react with endothelium-derived nitric oxide (NO) to create the reactive nitrogen species peroxynitrite. Peroxynitrite and other reactive nitrogen species can subsequently oxidize proteins, lipids, and critical enzymatic cofactors that may further increase oxidative stress [125]. Hydrogen peroxide produced by enzymatic dismutation of O2− can be further convert to highly reactive hydroxyl radical (via Fenton chemistry) that can cause DNA damage. The balance between superoxide production and consumption likely keeps the concentration of O2− in the picomolar range and hydrogen peroxide in the nanomolar range [126]. These homeostatic levels of reactive oxygen species appear to be important in normal cellular signaling [127-132] and normal reactions to stressors [133, 134].
Randomized trials employing non-pharmacological dietary interventions emphasizing fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and nuts have shown impressive blood pressure lowering results in both hypertensive and normotensive subjects [135, 136]. Similar interventions demonstrated to reduce cardiovascular morbidity and mortality continue to maintain interest in the potential of isolating specific compounds enriched in these diets that may be responsible for the overall dietary benefits [137].
The dietary components in these studies are high in compounds known to have antioxidant properties leading many to ascribe the benefits of these diets to their increased content of natural antioxidants. However, prior randomized trials and population studies in healthy populations and patients at high risk for cardiovascular events that have employed combinations of some of these natural antioxidants as dietary supplements have, for the most part, shown disappointing results [138-145]. The reasons behind these disappointing results are not completely clear, but likely include a combination of 1) ineffective dosing and dosing regimens 2) the potential pro-oxidant capacity and other potentially deleterious effects of these some of these compounds under certain conditions [146-148], 3) selection of subjects less likely to benefit from antioxidant therapy (too healthy or too sick). Populations at intermediate cardiovascular risk may be better suitable to see effects of antioxidants in shorter term studies [149], 4) inefficiency of non-specific quenching of prevalent ROS versus prevention of excessive ROS production [150, 151].
When considering antioxidant therapy for hypertension, lessons from prior disappointing attempts to reduce blood pressure and cardiovascular risk with antioxidant therapy should be considered. The profile of an ideal agent is outlined in The importance of patient selection is being increasingly recognized in light of emerging data suggesting that antioxidant supplementation in healthy subjects may blunt the protective benefits of aerobic exercise training, suggesting ROS generation can be beneficial under certain circumstances.
\n\t\t\t\tAntioxidants neutralize the oxidative processes and modify levels in plasma \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
↑ Lipid peroxidation | \n\t\t\t↑ MDA (TBAR), F2-isoprostane | \n\t\t
↑ NO synthesis | \n\t\t\t↑ Nitrite, nitrate, nitrotyrosine | \n\t\t
↓ Circulating antioxidants | \n\t\t\t↓ Uric acid, protein SH groups, Bilirubin (unconjugated) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | ↓ Ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol, β-carotene, lycopene | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | ↓ Antioxidant enzymes (GSHPx) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | ↓ Selenium, zinc | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | ↓ GSH | \n\t\t
Xanthine oxidase activation | \n\t\t\t↑ Plasma xanthine oxidase | \n\t\t
Antioxidants neutralize the oxidative processes and modify levels in plasma. [150]
Vitamin A precursors and derivatives are retinoids that consist of a beta-ionone ring attached to an isoprenoid carbon chain. Foods high in vitamin A include liver, sweet potato, carrot, pumpkin, and broccoli leaf. Initial interest in vitamin A-related compounds focused primarily on beta-carotene, given initial promising epidemiological data with respect to its cardioprotective effects and some correlation with higher plasma levels to lower blood pressure in men. However, concerns about beta-carotene’s pro-oxidative potential came to light with a report suggesting adverse mitochondrial effects of beta-carotene cleavage products. Further, adverse mortality data with respect to beta-carotene has limited interest in this compound as an effective antihypertensive agent.
Recently, interest in vitamin A derivatives has turned to lycopene, itself a potent antioxidant [152], found concentrated in tomatoes. One small study has shown a reduction in blood pressure with a tomato-extract based intervention (containing a combination of potential anti-oxidant compounds including lycopene) in patients with stage I hypertension, [153] although second study showed no effect in pre-hypertensive patients [154].
L-ascorbic acid is a six-carbon lactone and, for humans, is an essential nutrient. In Western diets, commonly consumed foods that contain high levels of ascorbic acid include broccoli, lemons, limes, oranges, and strawberries. Toxicity potential of this compound is low, although an increased risk of oxalate renal calculi may exist at higher doses (exceeding 2 grams/day).
The initial purported mechanisms for the potential benefits of ascorbate supplementation were centered on quenching of single-electron free radicals. Subsequent research has demonstrated that the plasma concentrations of ascorbate required for this mechanism to be physiologically relevant are not attainable by oral supplementation [155]. However, vitamin C can concentrate in local tissues to levels an order of magnitude higher than that of plasma. At this ascorbate may to effectively compete for superoxide and reduce thiols [156]. Recent data also suggest potential suppressive effects of ascorbate on NADPH oxidase activity [157, 158]. Ascorbate appears to have limited pro-oxidant ability. [159].
Ascorbate’s anti-hypertensive efficacy has been evaluated in multiple small studies [160-163] but not all, show modest reductions in blood pressure in both normotensive and hypertensive populations. These data also suggest that supplementation has limited effect on systemic antioxidant markers and little additional blood pressure benefits are seen beyond the 500 mg daily dose. Large scale randomized trial data specific to ascorbate supplementation and its effects on hypertension are currently lacking. Data from Heart Protection Study (HPS) suggest no significant mortality from supplementation with 250mg/day of ascorbate supplementation. However, the relatively low dose of ascorbate, use of combination therapy, and high-risk patient population studied in HPS leave unanswered the key questions of appropriate dosing and target. In the inflammatory processes follow next scheme in the therapy antioxidant [164].
Restored normal endothelial function.
Vitamin E is a generic term for a group of compounds classified as tocopherols and tocotrienols [165]. While there are four isomers in each class of Vitamin E compounds, the overwhelming majority of the active form is α-tocopherol. [166, 167]. Dietary sources high in vitamin E include avocados, asparagus, vegetable oils, nuts, and leafy green vegetables.
Vitamin E is a potent antioxidant that inhibits LDL and membrane phospholipid oxidation. Interestingly, inflammatory cells and neurons have binding proteins for α-tocopherol, the actions of which may include inhibition of NADPH oxidase, lipoxygenase, and cyclo-oxygenase, actions which may lower oxidative stress [168]. However, studies demonstrating vitamin E’s pro-oxidant capacity under certain cellular conditions suggest that local condition may influence the vitamin E’s redox activity [169]. Initial excitement for vitamin E supplementation was based on the reduction of cardiovascular events seen in the CHAOS study. However, follow-up studies have been largely disappointing [170-171]. While one small study that used vitamin E in combination with zinc, vitamin C, and beta-carotene showed a modest, significant reduction in blood pressure over 8 weeks of therapy, other small studies, show either no effect from vitamin E supplementation. Further, the more definitive HOPE trial, failed to show blood pressure or mortality benefit for patients at high risk for cardiovascular disease [172]. Vitamin E inhibits free radicals reactions.
Antioxidants function in the organism.
L-arginine is an amino acid and the main substrate for the production of NO from eNOS in a reaction that is dependent on tetrahydrobiopterin [173]. Potential dietary sources include milk products, beef, wheat germ, nuts, and soybeans. Reduced levels of tetrahydrobiopterin leads to uncoupling of reduced NADPH oxidation and NO synthesis, with oxygen as terminal electron acceptor instead of L-arginine, resulting in the generation of superoxide by eNOS [174-176]. Low cellular levels of L-arginine have been demonstrated in human hypertension. While L-arginine deficiency itself does not appear to lead to uncoupling of eNOS, [177] low levels of L-arginine may lead to reduced levels of bioavailable NO which could contribute to hypertension. Thus, L-arginine supplementation could theoretically reduce blood pressure by allowing for restoration of normal NO bioavailability, perhaps overcoming overall L-arginine deficiency as well as more successfully competing fo the eNOS active site with circulating asymmetric dimet hylarginine, a circulating competitor of L-arginine that may be increased in the setting of hypertension.
This concept is supported by studies demonstrating the anti-hypertensive effect of L-arginine supplementation in salt-sensitive rats, healthy human subjects, hypertensive diabetics, patients with chronic kidney disease, and diabetic patients in combination with N-acetylcysteine, a precursor of glutathione [178] L-arginine’s anti-hypertensive response may be mediated in part by its suppressive effects on angiotensin II and endothelin-1, and its potentiating effects on insulin.
However, recent concerns about potential deleterious increases in homocysteine in the setting of L-arginine supplementation have been raised. The majority of L-arginine is processed into creatine, which leads increased homocysteine levels. Homocysteine can increase oxidative stress. A recent study confirms that this mechanism is relevant to L-arginine metabolism in humans [179] suggesting a potential mechanism for neutralizing the eNOS-related anti-oxidant effects of L-arginine.
Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds commonly found in concentrated amounts in multiple fruits, vegetables, and beverages, including apples, berries, grapes, onions, pomegranate, red wine, tea, cocoa, and dark chocolate. The exact structure and composition of the flavonoid compounds varies between food sources, and flavonoid content can be altered based on the manner of food preparation [180]. Interest in flavonoids as antioxidants therapy for cardiovascular disease originates from epidemiological data suggesting improved cardiovascular outcomes in individuals with high intake of food and beverages with high flavonoid content as well as cellular work suggesting a strong anti-oxidant effect of these compounds [181]. However, the limited oral bioavailability of flavonoids suggests cells signaling mechanism, rather than free radical quenching activity, is more likely to be root of sustained cardiovascular benefits from flavonoids [182, 183]. This concept is consistent with studies demondtrating that flavonoids can inhibit NADPH oxidase through ACE inhibition, increase eNOS-specific NO production through the estrogen receptor, and alter COX-2 expression [184]. Studies investigating the anti-hypertensive effects of flavonoids are inconclusive. While multiple small studies of short duration of dark chocolate therapy have demonstrated blood pressure lowering effects in hypertensives [185], studies in normotensive and pre-hypertensive individuals have demonstrated no benefit [186], further tea intake may, at least temporarily, increase blood pressure certain populations [187, 188]. The specific flavonoids and combination of flavonoids that exert the largest beneficial effects remain unknown. The follow table indicates a function of antioxidants in therapy.
Selenium | \n\t\t\tSeptic ICU patients; major burns in combination with Cu and Zn; trauma patients | \n\t\t\tCeiling "/>750 µg/day? | \n
Zinc | \n\tPneumonia in children: clinical course significantly shortened | \n\tImmune depression if doses"/>50 mg7day are provided | \n
Cu-Se-Zn | \n\tBurns: trials showing reduction of infectious complication (pneumonia) and improved wound healing | \n\tDoses were calculated to compensate for the exudative losses | \n
Vitamin E (α-tocoferol) | \n\tSIRS enteral supplementation | \n\tConvincing animal data | \n
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) | \n\tBurns, megadose during the first 24 h after injury; trauma, combined with vitamin E | \n\tPossible an endothelial mechanism (189) | \n
Antioxidants more indicated in treatments degeneratives chronics.
The antioxidants present in food playing an important role in preventing chronic diseases. A balanced diet can prevent diseases associated with oxidative stress and help keep the body in top condition.
In 1869, the first synthetic polymer was invented in response to a commercial $10,000 prize to provide a suitable replacement to ivory. A continuous string of discoveries and inventions contributed new polymers to meet the various requirements of society. Polymers are constructed of long chains of atoms, organized in repeating components or units often exceeding those found in nature. Plastic can refer to matter that is pliable and easily shaped. Recent usage finds it to be a name for materials called polymers. High molecular weight organic polymers derived from various hydrocarbon and petroleum materials are now referred to as plastics [1].
\nSynthetic polymers are constructed of long chains of smaller molecules connected by strong chemical bonds and arranged in repeating units which provide desirable properties. The chain length of the polymers and patterns of polymeric assembly provide properties such as strength, flexibility, and a lightweight feature that identify them as plastics. The properties have demonstrated the general utility of polymers and their manipulation for construction of a multitude of widely useful items leading to a world saturation and recognition of their unattractive properties too. A major trend of ever increasing consumption of plastics has been seen in the areas of industrial and domestic applications. Much of this polymer production is composed of plastic materials that are generally non-biodegradable. This widespread use of plastics raises a significant threat to the environment due to the lack of proper waste management and a until recently cavalier community behavior to maintain proper control of this waste stream. Response to these conditions has elicited an effort to devise innovative strategies for plastic waste management, invention of biodegradable polymers, and education to promote proper disposal. Technologies available for current polymer degradation strategies are chemical, thermal, photo, and biological techniques [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. The physical properties displayed in Table 1 show little differences in density but remarkable differences in crystallinity and lifespan. Crystallinity has been shown to play a very directing role in certain biodegradation processes on select polymers.
\nPolymer | \nAbbreviation | \nDensity (23/4°C) | \nCrystallinity (%) | \nLifespan (year) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Polyethylene | \nPE | \n0.91–0.925 | \n50 | \n10–600 | \n
Polypropylene | \nPP | \n0.94–0.97 | \n50 | \n10–600 | \n
Polystyrene | \nPS | \n0.902–0.909 | \n0 | \n50–80 | \n
Polyethylene glycol terephthalate | \nPET | \n1.03–1.09 | \n0–50 | \n450 | \n
Polyvinyl chloride | \nPVC | \n1.35–1.45 | \n0 | \n50–100+ | \n
Selected features of major commercial thermoplastic polymers [7].
Polymers are generally carbon-based commercialized polymeric materials that have been found to have desirable physical and chemical properties in a wide range of applications. A recent assessment attests to the broad range of commercial materials that entered to global economy since 1950 as plastics. The mass production of virgin polymers has been assessed to be 8300 million metric tons for the period of 1950 through 2015 [8]. Globally consumed at a pace of some 311 million tons per year with 90% having a petroleum origin, plastic materials have become a major worldwide solid waste problem. Plastic composition of solid waste has increased for less than 1% in 1960 to greater than 10% in 2005 which was attributed largely to packaging. Packaging plastics are recycled in remarkably low quantities. Should current production and waste management trends continue, landfill plastic waste and that in the natural environment could exceed 12,000 Mt of plastic waste by 2050 [9].
\nA polymer is easily recognized as a valuable chemical made of many repeating units [10]. The basic repeating unit of a polymer is referred to as the “-mer” with “poly-mer” denoting a chemical composed of many repeating units. Polymers can be chemically synthesized in a variety of ways depending on the chemical characteristics of the monomers thus forming a desired product. Nature affords many examples of polymers which can be used directly or transformed to form materials required by society serving specific needs. The polymers of concern are generally composed of carbon and hydrogen with extension to oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine functionalities (see Figure 1 for examples). Chemical resistance, thermal and electrical insulation, strong and light-weight, and myriad applications where no alternative exists are polymer characteristics that continue to make polymers attractive. Significant polymer application can be found in the automotive, building and construction, and packaging industries [12].
\nStructures of major commercial thermoplastic polymers [11].
The environmental behavior of polymers can be only discerned through an understanding of the interaction between polymers and environment under ambient conditions. This interaction can be observed from surface properties changes that lead to new chemical functionality formation in the polymer matrix. New functional groups contribute to continued deterioration of the polymeric structure in conditions such as weathering. Discoloration and mechanical stiffness of the polymeric mass are often hallmarks of the degradative cycle in which heat, mechanical energy, radiation, and ozone are contributing factors [13].
\nPolyolefins (PO) are the front-runners of the global industrial polymer market where a broad range of commercial products contribute to our daily lives in the form o packaging, bottles, automobile parts and piping. The PO class family is comprised of saturated hydrocarbon polymers such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), propylene and higher terminal olefins or monomer combinations as copolymers. The sources of these polymers are low-cost petrochemicals and natural gas with monomers production dependent on cracking or refining of petroleum. This class of polymers has a unique advantage derived from their basic composition of carbon and hydrogen in contrast to other available polymers such as polyurethanes, poly(vinyl chloride) and polyamides [14].
\nThe copolymers of ethylene and propylene are produced in quantities that exceed 40% of plastics produced per annum with no production leveling in sight. This continuous increase suggests that as material use broadens yearly, the amount of waste will also increase and present waste disposal problems. Polyolefin biological and chemical inertness continues to be recognized as an advantage. However, this remarkable stability found at many environmental conditions and the degradation resistance leads to environmental accumulation and an obvious increase to visible pollution and ancillary contributing problems. Desired environmental properties impact the polyolefin market on the production side as well as product recyclability [15].
\nBiodegradation utilizes the functions of microbial species to convert organic substrates (polymers) to small molecular weight fragments that can be further degraded to carbon dioxide and water [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. The physical and chemical properties of a polymer are important to biodegradation. Biodegradation efficiency achieved by the microorganisms is directly related to the key properties such as molecular weight and crystallinity of the polymers. Enzymes engaged in polymer degradation initially are outside the cell and are referred to as exo-enzymes having a wide reactivity ranging from oxidative to hydrolytic functionality. Their action on the polymer can be generally described as depolymerization. The exo-enzymes generally degrade complex polymer structure to smaller, simple units that can take in the microbial cell to complete the process of degradation.
\nPolymer degradation proceeds to form new products during the degradation path leading to mineralization which results in the formation of process end-products such as, e.g., CO2, H2O or CH4 [22]. Oxygen is the required terminal electron acceptor for the aerobic degradation process. Aerobic conditions lead to the formation of CO2 and H2O in addition to the cellular biomass of microorganisms during the degradation of the plastic forms. Where sulfidogenic conditions are found, polymer biodegradation leads to the formation of CO2 and H2O. Polymer degradation accomplished under anaerobic conditions produces organic acids, H2O, CO2, and CH4. Contrasting aerobic degradation with anaerobic conditions, the aerobic process is found to be more efficient. When considering energy production the anaerobic process produces less energy due to the absence of O2, serving the electron acceptor which is more efficient in comparison to CO2 and SO4−2 [23].
\nAs solid materials, plastics encounter the effects of biodegradation at the exposed surface. In the unweathered polymeric structure, the surface is affected by biodegradation whereas the inner part is generally unavailable to the effects of biodegradation. Weathering may mechanically affect the structural integrity of the plastic to permit intrusion of bacteria or fungal hyphae to initiate biodegradation at inner loci of the plastic. The rate of biodegradation is functionally dependent on the surface area of the plastic. As the microbial-colonized surface area increases, a faster biodegradation rate will be observed assuming all other environmental conditions to be equal [24].
\nMicroorganisms can break organic chemicals into simpler chemical forms through biochemical transformation. Polymer biodegradation is a process in which any change in the polymer structure occurs as a result of polymer properties alteration resulting from the transformative action of microbial enzymes, molecular weight reduction, and changes to mechanical strength and surface properties attributable to microbial action. The biodegradation reaction for a carbon-based polymer under aerobic conditions can be formulated as follows:
\n\n
Assimilation of the carbon comprising the polymer (Cpolymer) by microorganisms results in conversion to CO2 and H2O with production of more microbial biomass (Cbiomass). In turn, Cbiomass is mineralized across time by the microbial community or held in reserve as storage polymers [25].
\nThe following set of equations is a more complete description of the aerobic plastic biodegradation process:
\n\n
where Cpolymer and newly formed oligomers are converted into Cbiomass but Cbiomass converts to CO2 under a different kinetics scheme. The conversion to CO2 is referred to as microbial mineralization. Each oligomeric fragment is expected to proceed through of sequential steps in which the chemical and physical properties are altered leading to the desired benign result. A technology for monitoring aerobic biodegradation has been developed and optimized for small organic pollutants using oxygen respirometry where the pollutant degrades at a sufficiently rapid rate for respirometry to provide expected rates of biodegradation. When polymers are considered, a variety of analytical approaches relating to physical and chemical changes are employed such as differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry, and atomic force microscopy [26].
\nSince most polymer disposal occurs in our oxygen atmosphere, it is important to recognize that aerobic biodegradation will be our focus but environmental anaerobic conditions do exist that may be useful to polymer degradation. The distinction between aerobic and anaerobic degradation is quite important since it has been observed that anaerobic conditions support slower biodegradation kinetics. Anaerobic biodegradation can occur in the environment in a variety of situations. Burial of polymeric materials initiates a complex series of chemical and biological reactions. Oxygen entrained in the buried materials is initially depleted by aerobic bacteria. The following oxygen depleted conditions provide conditions for the initiation of anaerobic biodegradation. The buried strata are generally covered by 3-m-thick layers which prevent oxygen replenishment. The alternate electron acceptors such as nitrate, sulfate, or methanogenic conditions enable the initiation of anaerobic biodegradation. Any introduction of oxygen will halt an established anaerobic degradation process.
\nThis formulation for the aerobic biodegradation of polymers can be improved due to the complexity of the processes involved in polymer biodegradation [27]. Biodegradation, defined as a decomposition of substances by the action of microorganisms, leading to mineralization and the formation of new biomass is not conveniently summarized. A new analysis is necessary to assist the formulation of comparative protocols to estimate biodegradability. In this context, polymer biodegradation is defined as a complex process composed of the stages of biodeterioration, biofragmentation, and assimilation [28].
\nThe biological activity inferred in the term biodegradation is predominantly composed of, biological effects but within nature biotic and abiotic features act synergistically in the organic matter degradation process. Degradation modifying mechanical, physical and chemical properties of a material is generally referred to as deterioration. Abiotic and biotic effects combine to exert changes to these properties. This biological action occurs from the growth of microorganisms on the polymer surface or inside polymer material. Mechanical, chemical, and enzymatic means are exerted by microorganisms, thereby modifying the gross polymer material properties. Environmental conditions such as atmospheric pollutants, humidity, and weather strongly contribute to the overall process. The adsorbed pollutants can assist the material colonization by microbial species. A diverse collection of bacteria, protozoa, algae, and fungi are expected participants involved in biodeterioration. The development of different biota can increase biodeterioration by facilitating the production of simple molecules.
\nFragmentation is a material breaking phenomenon required to meet the constraints for the subsequent event called assimilation. Polymeric material has a high molecular weight which is restricted by its size in its transit across the cell wall or cytoplasmic membrane. Reduction of polymeric molecule size is indispensable to this process. Changes to molecular size can occur through the involvement of abiotic and biotic processes which are expected to reduce molecular weight and size. The utility of enzymes derived from the microbial biomass could provide the required molecular weight reductions. Mixtures of oligomers and/or monomers are the expected products of the biological fragmentation.
\nAssimilation describes the integration of atoms from fragments of polymeric materials inside microbial cells. The microorganisms benefit from the input of energy, electrons and elements (i.e., carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur and so forth) required for the cell growth. Assimilated substrates are expected to be derived from biodeterioration and biofragmentation effects. Non-assimilated materials, impermeable to cellular membranes, are subject to biotransformation reactions yielding products that may be assimilated. Molecules transported across the cell membrane can be oxidized through catabolic pathways for energy storage and structural cell elements. Assimilation supports microbial growth and reproduction as nutrient substrates (e.g., polymeric materials) are consumed from the environment.
\nThe polymer substrate properties are highly important to any colonization of the surface by either bacteria or fungi [29]. The topology of the surface may also be important to the colonization process. The polymer properties of molecular weight, shape, size and additives are each unique features which can limit biodegradability. The molecular weight of a polymer can be very limiting since the microbial colonization depends on surface features that enable the microorganisms to establish a locus from which to expand growth. Polymer crystallinity can play a strong role since it has been observed that microbial attachment to the polymer surface occurs and utilizes polymer material in amorphous sections of the polymer surface. Polymer additives are generally low molecular weight organic chemicals that can provide a starting point for microbial colonization due to their ease of biodegradation (Figure 2).
\nFactors controlling polymer biodegradation [30].
Weather is responsible for the deterioration of most exposed materials. Abiotic contributors to these conditions are moisture in its variety of forms, non-ionizing radiation, and atmospheric temperature. When combined with wind effects, pollution, and atmospheric gases, the overall process of deterioration can be quite formable. The ultraviolet (UV) component of the solar spectrum contributes ionizing radiation which plays a significant role in initiating weathering effects. Visible and near-infrared radiation can also contribute to the weathering process. Other factors couple with solar radiation synergistically to significantly influence the weathering processes. The quality and quantity of solar radiation, geographic location changes, time of day and year, and climatological conditions contribute to the overall effects. Effects of ozone and atmospheric pollutants are also important since each can interact with atmospheric radiation to result in mechanical stress such as stiffening and cracking. Moisture when combined with temperature effects can assist microbial colonization. The biotic contributors can strongly assist the colonization by providing the necessary nutrients for microbial growth. Hydrophilic surfaces may provide a more suitable place for colonization to ensue. Readily available exoenzymes from the colonized area can initiate the degradation process.
\nCommunities of microorganisms attached to a surface are referred to as biofilms [31]. The microorganisms forming a biofilm undergo remarkable changes during the transition from planktonic (free-swimming) biota to components of a complex, surface-attached community (Figure 3). The process is quite simple with planktonic microorganism encountering a surface where some adsorb followed by surface release to final attachment by the secretion of exopolysaccharides which act as an adhesive for the growing biofilm [33]. New phenotypic characteristics are exhibited by the bacteria of a biofilm in response to environmental signals. Initial cell-polymer surface interactions, biofilm maturation, and the return to planktonic mode of growth have regulatory circuits and genetic elements controlling these diverse functions. Studies have been conducted to explore the genetic basis of biofilm development with the development of new insights. Compositionally, these films have been found to be a single microbial species or multiple microbial species with attachment to a range of biotic and abiotic surfaces [34, 35]. Mixed-species biofilms are generally encountered in most environments. Under the proper nutrient and carbon substrate supply, biofilms can grow to massive sizes. With growth, the biofilm can achieve large film structures that may be sensitive to physical forces such as agitation. Under such energy regimes, the biofilm can detach. An example of biofilm attachment and utility can be found in the waste water treatment sector where large polypropylene disks are rotated through industrial or agriculture waste water and then exposed to the atmosphere to treat pollutants through the intermediacy of cultured biofilms attached to the rotating polypropylene disk.
\nMicrobial attachment processes to a polymer surface [32].
Biofilm formation and activity to polymer biodegradation are complex and dynamic [36]. The physical attachment offers a unique scenario for the attached microorganism and its participation in the biodegradation. After attachment as a biofilm component, individual microorganisms can excrete exoenzymes which can provide a range of functions. Due to the mixed-species composition found in most environments, a broad spectrum of enzymatic activity is generally possible with wide functionalities. Biofilm formation can be assisted by the presence of pollutant chemical available at the polymer surface. The converse is also possible where surfaces contaminated with certain chemicals can prohibit biofilm formation. Biofilms continue to grow with the input of fresh nutrients, but when nutrients are deprived, the films will detach from the surface and return to a planktonic mode of growth. Overall hydrophobicity of the polymer surface and the surface charge of a bacterium may provide a reasonable prediction of surfaces to which a microorganism might colonize [37]. These initial cell-surface and cell-cell interactions are very useful to biofilm formation but incomplete (Figure 4). Microbial surfaces are heterogeneous, and can change widely in response to environmental changes. Five stages of biofilm development: have been identified as (1) initial attachment, (2) irreversible attachment, (3) maturation I, (4) maturation II, and (5) dispersion. Further research is required to provide the understanding of microbial components involved in biofilm development and regulation of their production to assemble to various facets of this complex microbial phenomenon [38].
\nBiofilm formation and processes [34].
The activities envisioned in this scenario (depicted in Figure 4) are the reversible adsorption of bacteria occurring at the later time scale, irreversible attachment of bacteria occurring at the second-minute time scale, growth and division of bacteria in hours-days, exopolymer production and biofilm formation in hours-days, and attachment and other organisms to biofilm in days-months.
\nThe evaluation of the extent of polymer biodegradation is made difficult by the dependence on polymer surface and the departure of degradation kinetics from the techniques available for small pollutant molecule techniques [39]. For applications for polymer biodegradation a variety of techniques have been applied. Visual observations, weight loss measurements, molar mass and mechanical properties, carbon dioxide evolution and/or oxygen consumption, radiolabeling, clear-zone formation, enzymatic degradation, and compost test under controlled conditions have been cited for their utility [27]. The testing regime must be explicitly described within a protocol of steps that can be collected for various polymers and compared on an equal basis. National and international efforts have developed such protocols to enable the desired comparisons using rigorous data collecting techniques and interpretation [40].
\nThe conventional polymers such as (PE), (PP), (PS), (PUR), and (PET) are recognized for their persistence in the environment [41]. Each of these polymers is subject to very slow fragmentation to form small particles in a process expected to require centuries of exposure to photo-, physical, and biological degradation processes. Until recently, the commercial polymers were not expected to biodegrade. The current perspective supports polymer biodegradation with hopeful expectation that these newly encountered biodegradation processes can be transformed into technologies capable of providing major assistance to the ongoing task of waste polymer management.
\nThe polyolefins such as polyethylene (PE) have been recognized as a polymer remarkably resistant to degradation [42]. Products made with PE are very diverse and a testament to its chemical and biological inertness. The biodegradation of the polyolefins is complex and incompletely understood. Pure strains elicited from the environment have been used to investigate metabolic pathways or to gain a better understanding of the effect that environmental conditions have on polyolefin degradation. This strategy ignores the importance of different microbial species that could participate in a cooperative process. Treatment of the complex environments associated with polymeric solid waste could be difficult with information based on pure strain analysis. Mixed and complex microbial communities have been used and encountered in different bioremediation environments [43].
\nA variety of common PE types, low-density PE (LDPE), high-density PE (HDPE), linear low-density PE (LLDPE) and cross-linked PE (XLPE), differ in their density, degree of branching and availability of functional groups at the surface. The type of polymer used as the substrate can strongly influence the microbial community structure colonizing PE surface. A significant number of microbial strains have been identified for the deterioration caused by their interaction with the polymer surface [44]. Microorganisms have been categorized for their involvement in PE colonization and biodegradation or the combination. Some research studies did not conduct all the tests required to verify PE biodegradation. A more inclusive approach to assessing community composition, including the non-culturable fraction of microorganisms invisible by traditional microbiology methods is required in future assessments. The diversity of microorganisms capable of degrading PE extends beyond 17 genera of bacteria and nine genera of fungi [45]. These numbers are expected to increase with the use of more sensitive isolation and characterization techniques using rDNA sequencing. Polymer additives can affect the kinds of microorganisms colonizing the surfaces of these polymers. The ability of microorganisms to colonize the PE surfaces exhibits a variety of effects on polymer properties. Seven different characteristics have been identified and are used to monitor the extent of polymer surface change resulting from biodegradation of the polymer. The characteristics are hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, crystallinity, surface topography, functional groups on the surface, mechanical properties, and molecular weight distribution. The use of surfactants has become important to PE biodegradation. Complete solubilization of PE in water by a Pseudomonas fluorescens treated for a month followed by biosurfactant treatment for a subsequent month in the second month and finally a 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate treatment at 60°C for a third month led to complete polymer degradation. A combination of P. fluorescens, surfactant and biosurfactant treatments as a single treatment significantly exhibited polymer oxidation and biodegradation [46]. The metabolically diverse genus Pseudomonas has been investigated for its capabilities to degrade and metabolize synthetic plastics. Pseudomonas species found in environmental matrices have been identified to degrade a variety of polymers including PE, and PP [47]. The unique capabilities of Pseudomonas species related to degradation and metabolism of synthetic polymers requires a focus on: the interactions controlling cell surface attachment of biofilms to polymer surfaces, extracellular polymer oxidation and/or hydrolytic enzyme activity, metabolic pathways mediating polymer uptake and degradation of polymer fragments within the microbial cell through catabolism, and the importance of development of the implementation of enhancing factors such as pretreatments, microbial consortia and nutrient availability while minimizing the effects of constraining factors such as alternative carbon sources and inhibitory by-products. In an ancillary study, thermophilic consortia of Brevibacillus sps. and Aneurinibacillus sp. from waste management landfills and sewage treatment plants exhibited enhanced PE and PP degradation [48].
\nThe larval stage of two waxworm species, Galleria mellonella and Plodia interpunctella, has been observed to degrade LDPE without pretreatment [49, 50]. The worms could macerate PE as thin film shopping bags and metabolize the film to ethylene glycol which in turn biodegrades rapidly. The remarkable ability to digest a polymer considered non-edible may parallel the worm’s ability utilize beeswax as a food source. From the guts of Plodia interpunctella waxworms two strains of bacteria, Enterobacter asburiae YP1 and Bacillus sp. YP1, were isolated and found to degrade PE in laboratory conditions. The two strains of bacteria were shown to reduce the polymer film hydrophobicity during a 28-day incubation. Changes to the film surface as cavities and pits were observed using scanning electron microscopy and atomic-force microscopy. Simple contact of ~100 Galleria mellonella worms with a commercial PE shopping bag for 12 hours resulted in a mass loss of 92 mg. The waxworm research has been scrutinized and found to be lacking the necessary information to support the claims of the original Galleria mellonella report [51].
\nPolypropylene (PP) is very similar to PE, in solution behavior and electrical properties. Mechanical properties and thermal resistance are improved with the addition of the methyl group but chemical resistance decreases. There are three forms of propylene selectively formed from the monomer isotactic, syndiotactic, and atactic due to the different geometric relationships achievable through polymerization technology. PP properties are strongly directed by tacticity or the methyl group orientation as related the methyl groups in neighboring monomer units. Isotactic PP has a greater degree of crystallinity than atactic and syndiotactic PP and therefore more difficult to biodegrade. The high molar mass of PP prohibits permeation through the microbial cell membrane which thwarts metabolism by living organisms. It is generally recognized that abiotic degradation provides a foothold for microorganisms to form a biofilm. With partial destruction of the polymer surface by abiotic effects the microbes can then start breaking the damaged polymer chains [52].
\nPS is a sturdy thermoplastic commonly used in short-lifetime items that contribute broadly to the mass of poorly controlled polymers [53]. Various forms of PS such as general purpose (GPPS)/oriented polystyrene (OPS), polystyrene foam, and expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam are available for different commercial leading to a broad solid waste composition. PS has been thought to be non-biodegradable. The rate of biodegradation encountered in the environment is very slow leading to prolonged persistence as solid waste. In the past, PS was recycled through mechanical, chemical, and thermal technologies yielding gaseous and liquid daughter products [54]. A rather large collection of studies has shown that PS is subject to biodegradation but at a very slow rate in the environment. A sheet of PS buried for 32 years. in soil showed no indication of biotic or abiotic degradation [55]. The hydrophobicity of the polymer surface, a function of molecular structure and composition, detracts from the effectiveness of microbial attachment [56, 57]. The general lack of water solubility of PS prohibits the transport into microbial cells for metabolism.
\nA narrow range of microorganisms have been elicited for the environment and found to degrade PS [53]. Bacillus and Pseudomonas strains isolated from soil samples have been shown to degrade brominated high impact PS. The activity was seen in weight loss and surface changes to the PS film. Soil invertebrates such as the larvae of the mealworm (Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus) have been shown to chew and eat Styrofoam [57]. Samples of the larvae were fed Styrofoam as the sole diet for 30 days and compared with worms fed a conventional diet. The worms feeding Styrofoam survived for 1 month after which they stopped eating as they entered the pupae stage and emerged as adults after a subsequent 2 weeks. It appears that Styrofoam feeding did not lead to any lethality for the mealworms. The ingested PS mass was efficiently depolymerized within the larval gut during the retention time of 24 hours and converted to CO2 [51]. This remarkable behavior by the mealworm can be considered the action of an efficient bioreactor. The mealworm can provide all the necessary components for PS treatment starting with chewing, ingesting, mixing, reacting with gut contents, and microbial degradation by gut microbial consortia. A PS-degrading bacterial strain Exiguobacterium sp. strain YT2 was isolated from the gut of mealworms and found to degrade PS films outside the mealworm gut. Superworms (Zophobas morio) were found to exhibit similar activity toward Styrofoam. Brominated high impact polystyrene (blend of polystyrene and polybutadiene) has been found to be degraded by Pseudomonas and Bacillus strains [58]. In a complementary study, four non-pathogenic cultures (Enterobacter sp., Citrobacter sedlakii, Alcaligenes sp. and Brevundimonas diminuta) were isolated from partially degraded polymer samples from a rural market setting and each were found to degrade high impact polystyrene [59].
\nPVC is manufactured in two forms rigid and flexible. The rigid form can be found in the construction industry as pipe or in structural applications. The soft and flexible form can be made through the incorporation of plasticizers such as phthalates. Credit cards, bottles, and non-food packaging are notable products with a PVC composition. PVC has been known from its inception as a polymer with remarkable resistance to degradation [60]. Thermal and photodegradation processes are widely recognized for their role in the weathering processes found with PVC [61, 62]. The recalcitrant feature of polyvinyl chloride resistance to biodegradation becomes a matter of environmental concern across the all processes extending from manufacturing to waste disposal. Few reports are available relating the extent of PVC biodegradation. Early studies investigated the biodegradation of low-molecular weight PVC by white rot fungi [63]. Plasticized PVC was found to be degraded by fungi such as As. fumigatus, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Lentinus tigrinus, As. niger, and Aspergillus sydowii [64].
\nModifying the PVC film composition with adjuvants such as cellulose and starch provided a substrate that fungi could also degrade [65]. Several investigations of soil bacteria for the ability to degrade PVC from enrichment cultures were conducted on different locations [66]. Mixed cultures containing bacteria and fungi were isolated and found to grow on plasticized PVC [67]. Significant differences were observed for the colonization by the various components of the mixed isolates during very long exposure times [68]. Significant drift in isolate activity was averted through the use of talc. Consortia composed of a combination of different bacterial strains of Pseudomonas otitidis, Bacillus cereus, and Acanthopleurobacter pedis have the ability to degrade PVC in the environment [64]. These results offer the opportunity to optimization conditions for consortia growth in PVC and use as a treatment technology to degrade large collections of PVC. PVC film blends were shown to degrade by partnering biodegradable polymers with PVC [69].
\nPUR encompass a broad field of polymer synthesis where a di- or polyisocyanate is chemically linked through carbamate (urethane) formation. These thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers have been utilized to form microcellular foams, high performance adhesives, synthetic fibers, surface coatings, and automobile parts along with a myriad of other applications. The carbamate linkage can be severed by chemical and biological processes [70].
\nAromatic esters and the extent of the crystalline fraction of the polymer have been identified as important factors affecting the biodegradation of PUR [71, 72]. Acid and base hydrolysis strategies can sever the carbamate bond of the polymer. Microbial ureases, esterases and proteases can enable the hydrolysis the carbamate and ester bonds of a PUR polymer [71, 73, 74]. Bacteria have been found to be good sources for enzymes capable of degrading PUR polymers [75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82]. Fungi are also quite capable of degrading PUR polymers [83, 84, 85]. Each of the enzyme systems has their preferential targets: ureases attack the urea linkages [86, 87, 88] with esterases and proteases hydrolyzing the ester bonds of the polyester PUR as a major mechanism for its enzymatic depolymerization [89, 90, 91, 92]. PUR polymers appear to be more amenable to enzymatic depolymerization or degradation but further searches and inquiry into hitherto unrecognized microbial PUR degrading activities is expected to offer significant PUR degrading activities.
\nPET is a polyester commonly marketed as a thermoplastic polymer resin finding use as synthetic fibers in clothing and carpeting, food and liquid containers, manufactured objects made through thermoforming, and engineering resins with glass fiber. Composed of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol through the formation of ester bonds, PET has found a substantial role in packaging materials, beverage bottles and the textile industry. Characterized as a recalcitrant polymer of remarkable durability, the polymer’s properties are reflective of its aromatic units in its backbone and a limited polymer chain mobility [91]. In many of its commercial forms, PET is semicrystalline having crystalline and amorphous phases which has a major effect on PET biodegradability. The environmental accumulation of PET is a testament of its versatility and the apparent lack of chemical/physical mechanisms capable of attacking its structural integrity show it to be a major environmental pollution problem.
\nThe durability and the resulting low biodegradability of PET are due to the presence of repeating aromatic terephthalate units in its backbone and the corresponding limited mobility of the polymer chains [92]. The semicrystalline PET polymer also contains both amorphous and crystalline fractions with a strong effect on its biodegradability. Crystallinity exceeding 30% in PET beverage bottles and fibers having even higher crystalline compositions presents major hurdles to enzyme-induced degradation [93, 94]. At higher temperatures, the amorphous fraction of PET becomes more flexible and available to enzymatic degradation [95, 96]. The hydrolysis of PET by enzymes has been identified as a surface erosion process [97, 98, 99, 100]. The hydrophobic surface significantly limits biodegradation due to the limited ability for microbial attachment. The hydrophobic nature of PET poses a significant barrier to microbial colonization of the polymer surface thus attenuating effective adsorption and access by hydrolytic enzymes to accomplish the polymer degradation [101].
\nA wide array of hydrolytic enzymes including hydrolases, lipases, esterases, and cutinases has been shown to have the ability to hydrolyze amorphous PET polymers and modify PET film surfaces. Microbes from a vast collection of waste sites and dumping situations have been studied for their ability to degrade PET. A subunit of PET, diethylene glycol phthalate has been found to be a source of carbon and energy necessary to the sustenance of microbial life. Enzyme modification may be effectively employed to improve the efficiency and specificity of the polyester degrading enzymes acknowledged to be active degraders of PET [102]. Significant efforts have been extended to developing an understanding of the enzymatic activity of high-performing candidate enzymes through selection processes, mechanistic probes, and enzyme engineering. In addition to hydrolytic enzymes already identified, enzymes found in thermophilic anaerobic sludge were found to degrade PET copolymers formed into beverage bottles [103].
\nRecently, the discovery of microbial activity capable of complete degradation of widely used beverage bottle plastic expands the range of technology options available for PET treatment. A microorganism isolated from the area adjacent to a plastic bottle-recycling facility was shown to aerobically degrade PET to small molecular daughter products and eventually to CO2 and H2O. This new research shows that a newly isolated microbial species, Ideonella sakaiensis 201-F6, degrades PET through hydrolytic transformations by the action of two enzymes, which are extracellular and intracellular hydrolases. A primary hydrolysis reaction intermediate, mono (hydroxy-2-ethyl) terephthalate is formed and can be subsequently degraded to ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid which can be utilized by the microorganism for growth [104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109].
\nThis discovery could be a candidate as a single vessel system that could competently accomplish PET hydrolysis as an enzyme reactor. This may be the beginning of viable technology development applicable to the solution of the global plastic problem recognized for its terrestrial component as well as the water contamination problem found in the sea. These remarkable discoveries offer a new perspective on the recalcitrant nature of PET and how future environmental management of PET waste may be conducted using the power of enzymes. The recognition of current limiting steps in the biological depolymerization of PET are expected to enable the design of a enzymes-based process to reutilized the natural assets contained in scrap PET [110] (Figure 5).
\nMicrobial depolymerization of poly(ethylene terephthalate).
The major commercial polymers have been shown to be biodegradable in a variety of circumstances despite a strong predisposition suggesting that many of these polymers were recalcitrant to the effects of biodegradation. The question of whether bioremediation can play a significant role in the necessary management of polymer waste remains to be determined. Treatment technology for massive waste polymer treatment must be sufficiently robust to be reliable at large scale use and adaptable to conditions throughout the environment where this treatment is required. The status of information relating to the application of biodegradation treatment to existing and future polymer solid waste is at early stages of development for several waste polymers. The discovery of that invertebrate species (insect larvae) can reduce the size of the waste polymer by ingesting and degradation in the gut via enzymes which aid or complete degradation is rather amazing and requires additional scrutiny. There is an outside change that a polymer recycling technology based on these findings is a future possibility.
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\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
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LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
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The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
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\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
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\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
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\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
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\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
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