\r\n\tTherefore, the objective of this book is to provide an outlook of the present research on Applied Geomorphology in different parts of the world, highlighting the main challenges mankind faces on this subject. The debate on future perspectives of anthropogenic impacts on the Earth surface and systems, the evolution of concepts on Applied Geomorphology, processes and landforms evaluation and modeling, recurring to recent technologies and methods, geomorphological hazard analysis, as well as strategies for landform conservation and promotion (for non-extractive and destructive activities, e.g. geotourism), are also objectives to pursuit on this book.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-423-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-422-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-424-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f9f0fe8910dc02818cad71316650d297",bookSignature:"Prof. António Vieira",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11491.jpg",keywords:"Theory, Processes, Methodologies, GIS, Remote Sensing, UAV, Human Impact, Anthropocene, Slope Instability, Climate Change, Geomorphosites, Geotourism",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 13th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A geographer with a career of more than 20 years devoted mainly to geomorphological research, centered in the topics of granitic geomorphology, soil erosion, and geomorphological heritage, and responsible for Ph.D. and Pos-doc researchers and for research project leadership. He is an assistant professor in the Department of Geography, University of Minho (UM), Portugal, and an integrated member of the Communication and Society Research Centre (CECS), UM.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"103627",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"antonio-vieira",fullName:"António Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103627/images/system/103627.png",biography:"Antonio Vieira is a geographer with a Ph.D. in Geography from the University of Coimbra, Portugal (2009). He is an assistant professor in the Department of Geography, University of Minho (UM), Portugal, and an integrated member of the Communication and Society Research Centre (CECS), UM. He is a member of several scientific organizations, including the Portuguese Association of Geomorphologists (Chair from 2017 to 2019) and the Portuguese Association of Risk, Prevention and Security (vice-president since 2015). He is also a member of FuegoRED and coordinator of the FESP International Network. Dr. Vieira’s main research includes granitic geomorphology, geomorphological heritage and changes in land use, GIS and remote sensing, and their application to land use, geomorphological heritage, and soil erosion following forest fires and mitigation measures.",institutionString:"University of Minho",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Minho",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444318",firstName:"Nika",lastName:"Karamatic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444318/images/20011_n.jpg",email:"nika@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10409",title:"Soil Erosion",subtitle:"Current Challenges and Future Perspectives in a Changing World",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"100d8afa798aacadca65a149a4f902b5",slug:"soil-erosion-current-challenges-and-future-perspectives-in-a-changing-world",bookSignature:"António Vieira and Silvio Carlos Rodrigues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10409.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103627",title:"Prof.",name:"António",surname:"Vieira",slug:"antonio-vieira",fullName:"António Vieira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5962",title:"Estuary",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43058846a64b270e9167d478e966161a",slug:"estuary",bookSignature:"William Froneman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5962.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109336",title:"Prof.",name:"William",surname:"Froneman",slug:"william-froneman",fullName:"William Froneman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"44711",title:"Fractures and Fracturing - Hydraulic fracturing in Jointed Rock",doi:"10.5772/56366",slug:"fractures-and-fracturing-hydraulic-fracturing-in-jointed-rock",body:'Rock in situ is arguably the most complex material encountered in any engineering discipline. Deformed and fractured over many millions of years and different tectonic stress regimes, it contains fractures on a wide variety of length scales from microscopic to tectonic plate boundaries.
Hydraulic fractures, sometimes on the scale of hundreds of meters, may encounter such discontinuities on several scales. Developed initially as a technology to enhance recovery from petroleum reservoirs, hydraulic fracturing is now applied in a variety of subsurface engineering applications. Often carried out at depths of kilometers, the fracturing process cannot be observed directly.
Early analyses of the hydraulic fracturing process assumed that a single fracture developed symmetrically from the packed off-pressurized interval of a borehole in a stressed elastic continuum. It is now recognized that this is often not the case. Pre-existing fractures can and do have a significant influence on fracture development, and on the associated distributions of increased fluid pressure and stresses in the rock.
Given the usual lack of information and/or uncertainties concerning important variables such as the disposition and mechanical properties of pre-existing fracture systems and properties, rock mass permeabilities, in-situ stress state at the depths of interest, fundamental questions as to how a propagating fracture is affected by encounters with pre-existing faults, etc., it is clear that design of hydraulic fracturing treatments is not an exact science.
Fractures in fabricated materials tend to occur on a length of scale that is small; of the order of the ‘grain size’ of the material. Increase in the size of the structure does not introduce new fracture sets.
Numerical modeling of fracture systems has made significant advances and is being applied to attempt to assess the extent of these uncertainties and how they may affect the outcome of practical fracturing programs. Geophysical observations including both micro-seismic activity and P- and S-wave velocity changes during and after stimulation are valuable tools to assist in verifying model predictions and development of a better overall understanding of the process of hydraulic fracturing on the field scale. Fundamental studies supported by laboratory investigations can also contribute significantly to improved understanding.
Given the widening application of hydraulic fracturing to situations where there is little prior experience (e.g., Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS), gas extraction from ‘tight shales’ by fracturing in essentially horizontal wellbores, etc.) development of a greater understanding of the mechanics of hydraulic fracturing in naturally fractured rock masses should be an industry-wide imperative. HF 2013 International Conference for Effective and Sustainable Hydraulic Fracturing is very timely!
This lecture will describe examples of some current attempts to address these uncertainties and gaps in understanding. And, it is hoped, it will stimulate discussion of how to achieve more effective practical design of hydraulic fracturing treatments.
The term ‘rock’ covers a wide variety of materials and widely different rheological properties often proximate to each other in the subsurface. Tectonic and gravitational forces, sustained over millions of years, have deformed and fractured the rock on many scales. These forces are transmitted in part through the solid skeleton of the rock, and in part through the fluids under pressure in the pore spaces. Long-term circulation through rock at high temperatures at depth involves dissolution and precipitation along the fluid pathways, producing changes in the chemical composition of the fluids and modifying the overall fluid circulation.
Rock in situ is ‘pre-loaded’ and in a state of changing equilibrium. Any engineering activity changes this equilibrium (see Appendix 1). Often the changes can be accommodated in stable fashion, but serious instabilities can develop.
The rock mass is opaque. Although geophysics is making impressive advances in defining large structures such as faults and bedding planes, most of the features that influence the rock response to engineering activities remain hidden. Mining and civil engineering activities allow three-dimensional access to the underground and direct observation of smaller features such as fracture networks, but most of the newer engineering applications involve essentially one-dimensional access by borehole. Rock engineering problems fall into the ‘data –limited’ category, as defined by Starfield and Cundall (1988), and strategies to address them must follow a different strategy than engineering problems where detailed and precise design information is available.
Faced with such complexity and lack of structural details, traditional subsurface engineering design has been guided by empirical procedures developed and refined through long experience.
Projects are now venturing well beyond current experience, and for many, ‘novel’ applications now considered (e.g., Enhanced Geothermal Systems, Carbon Sequestration, see Appendix 1). There is little experience, few guiding rules and very little data to guide the engineering approach.
Such obstacles notwithstanding, subsurface processes, both long–term geological and short term responses, to engineering activities do obey the laws of Newtonian Mechanics.
Classical continuum mechanics has long been used to guide some aspects of design, but considerable care is required in practical application, due to the need to simplify the representation of the real conditions in order to obtain analytical solutions.
The remarkable developments in high-speed computation and associated modeling techniques over the past one to two decades provide an important new tool, which complemented by the appropriate field instrumentation, can augment the classical continuum analyses and help overcome the lack of prior experience. Some empiricism and general practical guidelines may still be useful for the design engineer, but these can and should be mechanics-informed.
This lecture attempts to illustrate the ‘mechanics-informed’ approach with respect to the practical application of hydraulic fracturing and related engineering procedures to rock engineering.
Hydraulic fracturing first was used successfully in the late 1940’s to increase production from petroleum reservoirs (Howard and Fast, 1970). The technology has evolved since and is now a major, essential technique in oil and gas production. This and other impressive oil industry developments, such as directional drilling, have attracted interest in application of these technologies to a variety of other subsurface engineering operations. Enhanced Geothermal Energy (EGS) is a notable example. Geothermal Energy is a huge resource. Commenting on the EGS resource in the USA, Tester et al. (2005), state:
“….we have estimated the total EGS resource base to be more than 13 million exajoules (EJ) 1 exajoule =1018 joules = 1018 watt.seconds. Future of Geothermal Energy (2005) Synopsis and Executive Summaryp.1-4 (2).
“At this point, the main constraint is creating sufficient connectivity within the injection and production well system in the stimulated region of the EGS reservoir to allow for high per-well production rates without reducing reservoir life by rapid cooling.” Future of Geothermal Energy (2005)Synopsis and Executive Summaryp.1-5 (5).
Field experiments to extract geothermal energy from rock at depth by hydraulic fracturing were started in 1970 by scientists of the Los Alamos National Laboratory, USA. Two boreholes were drilled into crystalline rock (one 2.8 km deep, rock temperature 195°C; the other 3.5 km rock, 235°C) at Fenton Hill, New Mexico. Hydraulic fracturing was used to develop fractures from the boreholes in order to create a fractured region through which water could be circulated to extract heat from the rock. The experiment was terminated in 1992. Commenting on what was learned from the Fenton Hill study, Duchane and Brown (2002) note:
“The idea that hydraulic pressure causes competent rock to rupture and create a disc-shaped fracture was refuted by the seismic evidence. Instead, it came to be understood that hydraulic stimulation leads to the opening of existing natural joints that have been sealed by secondary mineralization. Over the years additional evidence has been generated to show that the joints oriented roughly orthogonal to the direction of the least principal stress open first, but that as the hydraulic pressure is increased, additional joints open.”
This is an early indication that pre-existing fractures mass significantly affect how hydraulic fractures propagate in a rock mass.
Hydraulic fracturing can be considered as a technique to overcome the strength of a rock mass in situ, initiation and propagation of a crack through a system of pre-existing fractures, essentially planar discontinuities (e.g., bedding planes), and intact rock.
In examining the fracture propagation process, the pioneering work of Griffith (1921, 1924) is a logical point of departure. Griffith had identified planar discontinuities, or flaws, in fabricated materials as the reason why the observed technical strength of brittle materials was about three orders of magnitude lower than the theoretical inter-atomic cohesive (tensile) strength. A fractured rock mass is typically about two orders of magnitude lower in strength than the strength of a laboratory specimen taken from the rock mass [Cundall (2008); Cundall et al, (2008)]. Hydraulic fractures generated in classical petroleum applications typically extend (2b) of the order of 25m ~ 50m from a wellbore. The fracture aperture (2a) at the wellbore then will be typically of the order of 0.01 m. Thus, the tensile stress concentration at the tip is very high of the order of 103.
But would the crack continue to extend and lead to macroscopic failure? To address this question, Griffith invoked the In his second paper, Griffith (1924), demonstrated that tensile stresses also developed around similar cracks loaded in compression, provided the cracks were inclined to the direction of the major principal (compressive) stress.(He also assumed that the cracks did not close under the compression.) For the optimum crack inclination, an applied compressive stress of eight times the magnitude of the tensile strength was required to develop a tensile stress on the crack boundary (close to, but not at the apex of the crack) equal to the limiting value in the tensile test. He concluded that the uniaxial compressive strength of a brittle material should be eight times greater than the tensile strength. Interestingly, he did not invoke his second (minimum potential energy) criterion. It was later determined that although a tensile crack could initiate in a compressive stress regime as predicted by Griffith (1924), the crack was stable (i.e., did not satisfy the minimum potential energy criterion). The compressive/tensile strength ratio is greater than 8 (see Hoek and Bieniawski, 1966).
Griffith’s classical work has provided the foundation for the field of “Fracture Mechanics” [Knott (1973); Anderson (2005)] responsible for major continuing advances in the development of high-performance fabricated materials.
Since we will make reference later to this specific definition by Griffith, it is useful to re-state it here.
“The stable equilibrium state of a system is that for which the potential energy of the system is a minimum. The equilibrium position, if equilibrium is possible, must be one in which rupture of the solid has occurred, if the system can pass from the unbroken to the broken condition by a process involving a continuous decrease of potential energy.“
Although much of classical Fracture Mechanics has emphasized applications to problems of Linearly Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) it is important to recognize that the theorem of minimum potential applies equally to inelastic problems.
As used classically in petroleum engineering, hydraulic fracturing involves sealing off an interval of a borehole at depth in an oil or gas bearing horizon, subjecting the interval to increasing fluid pressure until a fracture is generated, injecting some form of granular proppant into the fracture as it extends a considerable distance from the borehole into the petroleum bearing formation, and then releasing the pressure. This causes the sides of the fracture to compress onto the proppant, creating a high-permeability pathway to allow oil and/or natural gas to flow back to the well and to the surface.
Figure 1 shows a simple two-dimensional cross-section through an idealized hydraulic fracture. The borehole injection point is at the center of the fracture, which is assumed to be a narrow ellipse that has extended in a plane normal to the direction of the maximum Tension is assumed to be positive in Figure 3.
Left) Major and (right) minor principal stresses in the vicinity of an internally pressurized elliptical crack in an impermeable rock.
In the case shown, the crack major/minor axis ratio a/b is 10:1. The internal fluid pressure p = 1.2, while the least compressive principal stress σx = 1.0. This results in a tensile stress concentration at the crack tip. The magnitude of the elastic stress concentration at the crack tip increases directly with 2a/b, (Inglis, 1913). Hence for the case of a>>b, i.e., a ‘sharp’ crack A typical hydraulic fracture may have a length (2a) of the order of 50m and a maximum aperture (2b) of 5mm, so that the stress concentration will be of the order of 2000:1.
An analytical solution for the stresses in the elastic medium and the crack-opening displacement along the crack was first published by Inglis (1913) and served as the basis for early applications to hydraulic fracturing and fracture treatment design. The Perkins, Kern (1961) and Nordgren (1972) (PKN) and Geertsma and de Klerk (1969) (GDK) models are still used, although numerical models and combinations are now popular. Details of the PKN and GDK models can be found on the SPE website: http://petrowiki.spe.org/Fracture_propagation_models. Several differences between the stationary crack assumed by Inglis (1913) and a hydraulic fracture introduce significant difficulties in developing an accurate model of the fracturing process. Thus, the fracture is generated by application of an increasing fluid pressure until the fracture is initiated and extends away from the injection point. Flow of fluid in the fracture is governed by classical fluid flow equations of Poiseuille and Reynolds (lubrication); the pressure drop along the fracture depends on the viscosity of the fluid, and the permeability of the rock (leading to fluid ‘leak-off’); the fracture aperture depends on the stiffness of the rock mass and the fluid pressure distribution along the crack; and fracture extension depends on the mechanical energy supplied to the region around the crack tip. The tip may propagate ahead of the fluid, leading to a ‘lag,’a dry region between the crack tip and fluid front.
Radial Model of Axi-symmetric Flow and Deformation associated with Hydraulic Fracturing.
Figure 2 illustrates these features for the classical Radial Model in which it is assumed that the fracture propagates symmetrically away from the borehole in a plane normal to the minimum (least compressive) principal in-situ stress, σ0.
Development of efficient and robust Hydraulic Fracturing (HF) simulators is central to successful practical HF treatment of petroleum reservoirs. As noted earlier, competing physical processes are operative during the fracturing operation. This has led to a sustained effort over many years to understand and map the multi-scale nature of the tip asymptotics that arise as a result of these competing physical processes in fluid-driven fracture. These asymptotics solutions are critical to the construction of efficient and robust HF simulators. For example, in an impermeable medium, the viscous energy dissipation associated with driving fluid through the fracture competes with the energy required to break the solid material. Breaking of the bonds corresponds to the familiar asymptotic form of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), i.e., the opening in the tip region is of the form, e.g., (Rice, 1968), with denoting the distance from the tip. However, under conditions where viscous dissipation dominates, the coupling between the fluid flow and solid deformation leads to (Spence and Sharp, 1985; Lister, 1990; Desroches et al., 1994), on a scale that is considerably larger than the size of the LEFM-dominated region, but still small relative to the overall fracture size. In other words, in the viscosity-dominated regime, the zone governed by the LEFM asymptote is negligibly small compared to the crack length. Thus, in the viscosity-dominated regime, the HF simulator should embed a 2/3 power law asymptote rather than the classic 1/2 asymptote of LEFM. Garagash et al.(2011) discuss the generalized asymptotics near the tip an advancing hydraulic fracture, an extension of two particular asymptotics obtained at Schlumberger Cambridge Research Laboratory in the early 1990‘s (Desroches et al., 1994; Lenoach, 1995).
Three classes of numerical algorithms for HF simulators have now been built: (i) a moving grid for KGD, radial, PKN and P3D fracture simulators; (ii) a fixed grid for plane strain and axisymmetric HF with allowance for a lag between the fluid front and the crack tip, and fracture curving (a versatile code has been developed at CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization.
Fluid Pressure Distribution along the Central Axis (Ox) of
Figure 3 is presented to illustrate that the fluid pressure in a permeable rock can continue to flow away from the point of injection even after the borehole pressure is reduced to zero. The example shows the distribution of fluid pressure in the rock mass (permeability 5 mD) after (i) 2 days of pressurization up to the peak pressure of 20 MPa in the fracture; (ii) stop pumping and reduce fluid pressure quickly to 12MPa at the point of injection; (iii) hold the pressure constant for 2 days; and (iv) drop the pressure to zero.
It is seen that the pressure in the rock (red curve) has a maximum at some distance from the borehole such that fluid continues to flow into the rock for some time after the pressure in the borehole is reduced to zero. Different combinations of rock permeability, pumping rates and durations can lead to higher peak pressure values in the rock, and longer periods during which fluid can continue to flow away from the well. Such flow may contribute to slip on pre-existing fractures after the pressure in the borehole is reduced to zero.
Hydraulic fracturing is considered to be initiated from a packed–off interval borehole when the net state of stress around the well bore reaches the tensile strength of the rock. It is important to recognize that fluid pressurization of a well in permeable rock will result in flow of the fluid into the rock as soon as the fluid pressure stimulation process is started. This changes the effective stress state in the rock mass and can lead to slip on pre-existing fractures at fluid pressures below the pressure required to crate and extend a hydraulic fracture. This process of inducing slip on pre-existing fractures is termed ‘Hydro-shear’. Flow of pressurized fluid into the rock reduces the effective normal stress (σn – p) everywhere in the rock { σn = normal stress at any point; p = fluid pressure.] If c and µ respectively represent the cohesion and coefficient of friction acting across the surfaces of a fracture in the rock, then the effective resistance of the fracture to (shear) sliding, τr, will be:
Thus, if the pressure p is raised progressively then τr will be reduced correspondingly until it reaches the limit at which sliding will occur. The situation is illustrated graphically in Figure 3. The rock is subjected to a three-dimensional state of stress represented by the principal stresses σ1, σ2, σ3 and the fluid pressure p. The series of points ‘X’ indicate the effective state of stress on an array of pre-existing fractures in the rock. As illustrated in Figure 5, the effect of increasing the fluid pressure in the medium is to move the stress state on these cracks close to the limiting shear resistance, i.e., to the limiting value represented by the Mohr-Coulomb limit. As the stress state reaches this limit, the cracks will slip. In order to initiate a hydraulic fracture, the fluid pressure would need to be increased further, until the limiting Mohr circle reaches the tensile strength limit of the failure envelope. Since crack surfaces are often not smooth, shear slip will tend to result in crack dilation, and an associated increase in fluid conductivity. It is suggested that hydro-shearing could be more effective than hydraulic fracturing as a stimulation technique in certain applications, e.g., in stimulation of high-temperature geothermal reservoirs. Cladouhos et al. (2011) discuss the application of hydro-shearing as a geothermal stimulation technique. The possibility that silica proppant may dissolve in the aggressive high-temperature fluid environment of some geothermal reservoirs whereas slip on rough fractures develops aperture increase without the need for proppant is also presented as an argument in favor of hydroshearing.
Hydro-shearing — a procedure to generate slip on pre-existing fractures by increasing the fluid pressure to a level below that required to generate a hydraulic fracture.
As with fabricated materials, the deformation and failure of brittle rock is also dependent strongly on fractures and discontinuities. In a rock mass, however, the fractures occur over a very wide range of scales from sub-microscopic to the size of tectonic plates. A large specimen of rock will probably include some large fractures, and as the scale of the rock mass increases, fractures from different tectonic epochs.
Study of fracture systems underground in mines and in civil engineering projects allow systems of fractures to be identified and classified statistically into discrete fracture networks (DFN’s). The network will include intersecting sets of planar fractures, but individual fractures will tend to be of different lengths, and though organized in two or three spatial orientations, of variable, finite length and not collinear.
Figure 7 presents a two-dimensional illustration of the application of DFN’s to the numerical modeling of a fractured rock mass. The in-situ rock mass is considered as a large specimen of intact rock that has been transected by the DFN determined from field observations and fracture mapping underground or at surface outcrops. The properties of the intact rock are built into a Bonded Particle Model of the rock (using the Particle Flow Code (
The Synthetic Rock Mass (SRM ) representation of a fractured rock mass (in two dimensions).
Cohesion and friction values are assigned to the joint planes. Typically, computer tests indicate the unconfined strength of a Synthetic Rock Mass of the order of 50-m to 100-m side length, to be a few percent of the unconfined strength of the laboratory specimen.
Extracts from simulation of the propagation of a hydraulic fracture in a two-dimensional impermeable SRM (Synthetic Rock Mass). (The horizontal stress σmax is 29 MPa and the vertical stress σmin is 12 MPa –
Figure 5 presents selected extracts from a two–dimensional A number of important subsurface engineering problems involve borehole access only. This often means difficulty in establishing reliable, realistic DFN’s. In such cases there is no recourse, at least at the start of the project, other than to try to infer fracture networks from borehole observations, perhaps supplemented by local observations of structural geological features . The DFN for Northparkes was available and convenient to use in the example shown in Figure 5.
Jeffrey et al. (2009) conducted an underground test in the Northparkes Mine, Australia to observe the propagation of a hydraulic fracture in naturally fractured tock. Figure 7 shows part of the path of the fracture, as seen in a tunnel excavated into the fractured rock. The fracture path shows similar characteristics to those shown in the
Hydraulic fracture (green plastic) crossing a shear zone on the face of a tunnel excavated through the fracture. “The arrows indicate the trace of the fracture with green plastic contained in it. There is no clear fracture between points 1 and 2 but the fracture may have crossed this zone either deeper into the rock or in the rock that has been excavated. Approximately 2 m of fracture extent is visible” (
Energy changes during propagation of a fracture through heterogeneous rock.
The energy required to initiate crack propagation is represented by the area OAC in Figure 7(a). Whether or not the crack will extend depends on the energy that becomes available from the intact rock around the crack. If the energy released from the rock mass, represented by the area under the red curve AB, is greater than the energy required to extend the crack, represented by the area under curve AE, then the crack will extend; the excess energy represented by the shaded area serves to accelerate the crack and release seismic energy. If the energy required to extend the crack is represented by the area under the green curve AD, it is greater than the energy that would be released from the rock mass, and hence the crack would not extend. It is possible that the crack could exhibit some form of time-dependent weakening (e.g., due to fluid flow to the crack, viscous behavior, etc.) such that the energy required to extend the crack would be reduced. This could lead to crack extension, i.e., as the slope AD increased to overlap AB, but with no excess energy to produce seismicity. Figures 7(b) and 7(c) Adapted from Fairhurst (1971).
It is worth noting that all of these processes of fracture propagation, albeit complex, develop in accordance with the principle of seeking the minimum potential energy of the system.
Much of the preceding discussion has focused on two-dimensional analysis or models. In reality, we are dealing with three- dimensional space (as noted in Figure 6), plus the influence of time (e.g., with respect to fluid flow, or time-dependent rock properties). Figure 8 provides an example from an actual record of hydraulic fracture propagation.
Figure 8 shows the sequence of microseismic events observed during hydraulic fracture stimulation (‘treatment’ in Figure 8(a)) of a borehole. Early time events are shown as green dots; later events are in red. The microseismic pattern indicates that fracturing started on both sides of the borehole at the injection horizon, but then moved up some 100 m to a higher horizon. As pumping continued, fracturing continued (red locations) on both horizons. It was concluded that the initial fracture in the lower horizon had intercepted a high-angle fault, allowing injection fluid to move to the higher level where it opened up and extended another fracture. Continued pumping led to fracture extension on both horizons. Numerical analysis Figure 8(b) indicated that initial fracture propagation at the lower level resulted in induced tension on the fault above the horizon, but compression on the fault below the lower injection horizon. This explains why injection fluid did not penetrate along the fault below the horizon, and provides a good illustration of the benefit of combining numerical analysis with field observation in understanding fracturing processes.
a) Microseismicity observed during hydraulic fracturing in a deep borehole; (b) numerical ‘explanation’ of the behavior observed in (a).
Microseismicity stimulated during hydraulic fracturing and associated stimulation techniques (e.g., hydroshear) is often used to indicate slip and deformation on fractures in the rock. In some cases, it is tacitly assumed that absence of microseismicity indicates absence of slip or deformation. In fact, there is growing evidence that microseismicity does not present a complete picture of deformations induced by stimulation or other effects leading to stress change. Figure 9, reproduced from Cornet (2012) (with permission from the author), shows P-wave velocity changes observed by 4D (time-dependent) tomography during the stimulation of the borehole GPK2 in the year 2000. A detailed discussion of the procedure used to observe and determine the P-wave changes is presented by Calo et al. (2012).
It is seen that the region of detected microseismicity (the cloud of black dots is small compared to the region where the P-wave velocity is reduced by as much as 20% in some regions). Some of the changes in velocity were temporary, suggesting that they may be related to temporal changes in fluid pressure; other changes appeared to be more permanent deformation that occurred aseismically.
These observations indicate that microseismicity, although a valuable indicator of the response of a rock mass to stimulation by fluid injection, does not identify the complete region influenced by a stimulation.
Aseismic slip induced by forced fluid flow as detected by P-wave tomography. (Soultz- sous- Fôrets, France. (a) The injection program (black curve is flow rate, blue curve is well head pressure, horizontal axis is time in days); (b) 3D view of the seismic cloud with respect to the GPK2 borehole. Vertical axis is depth and horizontal axes are distances respectively toward the north and toward the east; and (c) horizontal projections corresponding to the yellow horizontal plane. The vertical green plane is shown as line AB in the plots of part c. P-wave velocity tomography for sets 2, 3 and 4 are indicated respectively by orange, yellow and green colors in the injection program. The vertical axis corresponds to North.
As already noted, hydraulic fractures tend to develop in a more or less planar fashion, extending normal to the minimum regional principal stress. Determining the direction, and perhaps the magnitude, of the regional minimum stress is an important element of hydraulic fracturing strategy, especially with the development of directional drilling, which allows borehole to be drilled in the direction considered most favorable for fracturing with respect to stress direction. (see e.g., Figure 15 and related discussion).
Determination of the in-situ stress state also can be a significant challenge.
Stress in rock is distributed throughout the mass, and is influenced by the complicated structure of the mass See also footnote 17 –Appendix 1.
Influence of frictional cracks on the distribution and orientation of principal stresses, illustrative example.
The exercise serves to illustrate the difficulty of making stress determinations from local point measurements, be they in a borehole or on the surface. Stresses can change in orientation and magnitude locally due to geological inhomogeneities, fractures, faults, etc., many of which may be hidden or cannot be observed from the measurement location. Although determinations made at points A and B are reasonably close to the boundary values, point C is considerably different, and the directions of principal stress, as indicated by the principal stress trajectories, can be very different from the (regional) orientations, i.e., at the model boundary.
Normal stress variation across a thrust fault, Underground Research Laboratory, Canada.
Figure 12 provides an actual example of the variability of stress over relatively short distances. (The vertical and horizontal scales are equal in Figure 12). In this case, the main interest was to assess how normal stresses were affected by the thickness of gouge in the plane of the thrust fault.
Observed stress distributions in argillite and limestones at the Underground Research Laboratory, Bure, France.
Figure 13 illustrates another important geological influence on stress distribution, changing lithology. This example is from the French Underground Research Laboratory (URL) The URL at Bure was developed in order to determine the suitability of the Calllovo-Oxfordien Argillite formation for permanent storage of high–level nuclear waste.
Test specimens from the limestones above and below the argillite do not appear to exhibit such viscosity. The stress distributions determined from field measurements support such differences in rheological characteristics of the rock formations.
Commenting on the in-situ stresses observations at Bure (i.e., as shown in Figure 13)\n\t\t\t\tCornet (2012) notes as follows:
“Further, the complete absence of microseismicity in the Paris Basin (Grünthal and Wahlström, 2003, Fig. 4) and the absence of large scale horizontal motion as detected by GPS monitoring (Nocquet and Calais, 2004) indicate that no significant horizontal large-scale active deformation process exists today in this area.
“The important conclusion here is that the natural stress field measured on a 100 km2 area at depth ranging between 300 m and 700 m does not vary linearly with depth and is not controlled by friction on preexisting well- oriented faults. Rather, the stress magnitudes seem to be controlled by the creeping characteristics of the various layers rather than by their elastic characteristics, with a loading mechanism that remains to be identified but which is neither related directly to gravity nor apparently to present tectonics.
“It is concluded here that the smoothing out of stress variations with depth into linear trends may be convenient for gross extrapolation to greater depth. But it should not be taken as a demonstration that vertical stress profiles in sedimentary rocks are governed by friction along optimally oriented faults, given the absence of both microseismicity and actively creeping fault. It should not be used for integrating together stress tensor components obtained within layers with different rheological characteristics.”
Other examples could be cited, but the message is clear. Determination of in-situ stress in rock is an extremely challenging task, with results subject to considerable variability and uncertainty.
Stress orientations can be estimated from consideration of regional tectonics, faulting and interpretation of evidence from local structural geology supported in some cases by evidence based on borehole logs (e.g., tensile fractures induced along the well bore). Stress magnitudes are, in general, more difficult to determine and usually less significant, except as indicators of how stresses may be distributed across a site where the geology and engineering design are complex. In such cases, interpretation of stress distribution is best done in conjunction with a numerical model of the site, preferably one that includes the influence of important uncertainties and discussion with structural geologists familiar with the area under study.
It is sometimes asserted that the Earth’s crust is everywhere close to a ‘critical state of stress,’ i.e., that a small change in the devatoric stress in the rock is likely to produce slip on one or more faults with associated seismic activity. The current global interest in development of major resources of natural gas, the central role of hydraulic fracturing in this development, and the public apprehension that hydraulic fracturing will ‘trigger earthquakes’ has led to strong opposition to fracturing, and even legislation to ban the use of hydraulic fracturing in some countries and some States in the USA.
As illustrated by Figure 14, the seismic hazard, (i.e., probability of a damaging earthquake) varies very considerably from place to place. Thus, an earthquake of a given magnitude is 1000 times more likely to occur in Southern California than it is in the Eastern United States. The hazard is even lower in regions such as Texas, North Dakota and in the stable Canadian Shield region of the North American tectonic plate. While many earthquakes are initiated at depths considerably greater than depths where hydraulic fracturing is applied, it seems plausible to suggest that there may be less potential for fracturing to induce seismic activity in regions that have low seismic hazard. Also, as indicated by the comments of Cornet in the previous section of this paper, there is evidence that the critical stress hypothesis warrants detailed scrutiny, at least. This could have major implications for development of the world’s major natural gas and EGS (enhanced geothermal systems) resources. Two recent studies, National Research Council (2012) and Royal Society – Royal Academy of Engineering (2012), have each concluded that the risk that hydraulic fracturing as used in development of energy resources would trigger significant seismic activity is small, but it would be valuable to examine the critical stress hypothesis more rigorously than has been done to date.
Seismic hazard map of the United States — US Geological Survey.
The development of inclined and horizontal drilling (see Appendix 1 - Figure A1-2) has helped stimulate intense activity to develop natural gas production from so-called tight shale, i.e., rock in which natural gas is held tightly within the very fine pore structure of the rock. Figure 15 illustrates the procedure used to stimulate these shales. The well is drilled horizontally in the gas-bearing formation, more or less in the direction of the minimum principal stress. Hydraulic fractures are generated (and propped) at intervals along the well to generate a network of connected flow paths that will allow the gas to flow to the well. Depth (i.e., extent) and spacing of the fractures should be optimized to produce the formations effectively. Bunger et al. (2012) discuss the factors in the design of an effective fracture strategy.
Staged hydraulic fracturing in a horizontal well. There may be many such wells along the horizontal well.
The volume of rock defined by microseismicity is a very small fraction of the volume producing gas.
Figure 16 shows a slide from a recent presentation by Prof. Mark Zoback, who kindly agreed to allow the author to include it here. Although on a somewhat smaller scale, the fact that considerable deformation and fracturing must be taking place that is not associated with detected microseismicity is similar to the phenomena discussed in connection with Figure 10. Prof. Zoback refers to such aseismic deformation as slow slip, and is conducting research to understand the underlying mechanisms, including the possible influence of the clay content of the shale. As can be seen in Figure 17 (courtesy of Prof. Zoback), the clay content can be large.
Clay content of some typical ‘tight’ gas shales.
Figure 18 illustrates the very fine, micron scale, pore structure of a typical tight shale. Although the mechanism(s) by which flow pathways are established in such a fine structure is not clear, the level of microseismic energy release associated with brittle breakage of one or a few bonds will be very small and of high frequency (such that the radiated energy would be rapidly attenuated), and hence, not detectable by any geophone. Thus, absence of microseismicity may not indicate an absence of breakage of brittle bonds. Some mechanism must be operative that generates flow pathways. Intuitively, it might be expected that the clay content of the shale might lead to ductile and viscous deformation that could tend to close the pathways.
a) Outer surface of a FIB-SEM (Focused Ion Beam- Scanning Electron Microscope) volume of Eagle Ford Shale; (b) Transparency view of the distribution of connected pores (blue), isolated pores (red) and organic matter (green). (Courtesy of Prof. Amos Nur and J.
Micro-rupture of bonds within a
This paper has emphasized the central role of fractures in rock, primarily natural fractures developed on a wide spectrum of scales over many tectonic epochs and many millions of years. These fractures and fracture systems are of special significance with respect to hydraulic fracturing and related techniques of fluid injection into rock since the fluid will tend to seek out those fractures that can be more readily opened against the local in-situ stress field as the fluid is injected. Given the complexity and lack of information on the fracture system, stress environment, etc., how can the engineering of hydraulic fracturing and related fluid injection programs advance most effectively?
Confronted with the same complexity of rock in situ, civil engineers and mining engineers have tended to adopt the ‘Observational Approach’ (Peck, 1969). In essence, this approach involves developing an initial engineering design for the problem, based on a first assessment/estimate of the rock (or soil) properties. Observe the actual performance and modify the initial design as needed to arrive at the desired performance. An example of the Observational Approach (as used in the New Austrian Tunnelling Method) is discussed in Fairhurst and Carranza-Torres (2002), see pp. 24-30.
Application of the Observational Approach to Hydraulic Fracturing and related fluid injection techniques faces some disadvantages and some advantages. We do not have 3D access to the engineering site. We do have powerful numerical modeling tools to help make a more informed initial estimate of how the system will perform; and we have sensing systems, both downhole and remote. Figure 20 illustrates a procedure that tries to apply the Observational Approach to hydraulic fracturing and related systems. The illustration describes an application to the extraction of Geothermal Energy.
Fracture network engineering system.
In this application, an initial design approach is developed based on a numerical modeling study incorporating any available data, insight, etc., on the site. This model provides an initial prediction of the performance. Instrumentation, both downhole and on-surface observes the initial response of the system and compares it with the prediction. This triggers a feedback signal to modify the design input to move the performance closer to the one desired. This iteration continues, changing progressively towards the performance desired.
Although the writer knows of no such Fracture Network Engineering system currently in operation, many of the components are available and it is time to start.
Expectations for higher living standards of a rising world population, and the associated demand for Earth’s resources of energy, minerals and water, lead inevitably to greater focus on resources of the subsurface.
This focus includes the need to develop improved technology to develop these resources, and a better understanding of the nature of the subsurface environment as an engineering material.
Earthquakes and dynamic releases of energy are a daily reminder that on the global scale, Earth is critically stressed, and constantly trying to adjust seeking to achieve a condition of minimum potential energy for the entire system.
On going for many, many millions of years, such adjustments have resulted in the heterogeneous assembly of blocks of rock bounded by essentially planar surfaces; fault, fractures and similar ‘discontinuities’ varying in scale from tectonic plates and continents down to micron and even nanometers.
Some of these volumes are critically stressed; others are far from a critical condition. National maps of seismic hazards provide evidence of this heterogeneity on a larger scale.
Although Earth Resource Engineering activities may be kilometers in extent, they are small-scale within the larger Earth context. Subsurface engineering in a critically stressed region can be a much different challenge than in a stable region. It is important to assess the initial conditions carefully for each case, and especially where fluid injection is a main component of a project.
The sub-surface is opaque in several ways. Details of the key features that can control the response to an engineering activity in the sub-surface are often unknown. Problems are data-limited. This is particularly the case when the engineering is based on deep borehole systems, as in hydraulic fracturing and related fluid injection technologies.
Although operating in ways that may appear complex, the response of the subsurface to stimulation does obey the laws of Newtonian mechanics, and it is clear that pre-existing natural discontinuities have a major influence on how the subsurface responds to engineered changes.
The advent of powerful computers and developments in numerical modeling provide a potentially major tool to help develop better-informed strategies of subsurface engineering. Used interactively in close conjunction with instrumentation, both downhole and surface based, it should be possible to progressively develop a mechanics-informed understanding and path forward for more effective subsurface engineering.
Much as the field of Fracture Mechanics has led, and continues to lead, to major technological improvements for fabricated materials, so can development of the field of Rock Fracture Mechanics be of transformative value to subsurface engineering, and to society in general.
Hydraulic fracturing and related injection-stimulation systems will certainly be a central element in the future of Earth Resource Engineering. The organizers of HF 2013 are to be commended for focusing attention on this critically important topic.
In 2006, the US Academy of Engineering introduced the term ‘Earth Resources Engineering’ to replace ‘Petroleum, Mining and Geological Engineering’ in recognition of the broader range of engineering activities and concerns associated with use of the subsurface. The new title, it is hoped, will also stimulate important synergies between the various disciplines involved. Mining and civil engineers, for example, have direct three-dimensional access to the subsurface not available to colleagues in other subsurface activities. This access provides a major opportunity to conduct research and gain understanding of the mechanics of subsurface processes under actual in-situ conditions, as exemplified by Jeffrey et al. (2009), see Figure A1-1.
The restless Earth. Earth Resource Engineering activities are all confined to a very shallow part of the 40 km -700 km thick Earth’s solid crust (lithosphere). Deepest borehole ~ 12 km; mine ~ 4km. Rock stress increases vertically σv ~ 27MPa/km; laterally σh~ (0.5- 3.0).σv: Pore water pressure p = 10 MPa /km; temperature increase ~25°C /km depth.
Study of slip on active faults is a good example.
“The physics of earthquake processes has remained enigmatic due partly to a lack of direct and near-field observations that are essential for the validation of models and concepts. DAFSAM DAFSAM -Drilling Active Faults in South African Mines. http://www.icdp-online.org/front_content.php?idcat=460
Petroleum engineers can now reach depths in excess of 6 km and have developed advanced drilling control technologies that allow precise access to locations extending horizontally to more than 10-15 km from a single vertical hole (see Figure 2).
Schematic illustration of directional drilling for petroleum production.
These and related developments are stimulating interest in application of borehole technologies to other areas of subsurface engineering, including the development of less-invasive mining technologies, i.e., borehole extraction of minerals. Some applications, e.g., where crystalline rocks are involved, are contingent on the development of significantly lower-cost drilling technologies. The critical dependence of society on reliable and economic subsurface engineering is illustrated by the fact that currently more than 60% of the world’s energy is delivered via a borehole. The Deepwater Horizon accident in the Gulf of Mexico in April 2010 provides a sober example of the consequences of error. In summary, hydraulic fracturing and related stimulation technologies are likely to see application to an increasing range of subsurface engineering challenges. HF2013, the first International Conference for Effective and Sustainable Hydraulic Fracturing, is very timely.
Tensile stress concentrations induced in a brittle rock during coring.
The consequences of disturbing a pre-stressed rock medium are illustrated by examining the rock coring operation. Figure A2-1 shows the stress concentrations in a rock core in a brittle rock. If the in-situ stress normal to the axis of drilling is sufficiently high tensile cracks can develop in the core. Where lateral stresses are very high, then tensile ‘spalling’ may result, as shown in the photograph of the bottom right of Figure A2-1. Where the rock is more ‘ductile’ the core may undergo permanent deformation without fracturing. In both cases, the mechanical properties of these cores may differ significantly from those of the rock in situ from which the core was obtained.
Skin is the largest organ of human organism, approximately 2m2. This envelop, in constant contact with the environment, can be divided into three layers: a deep layer, the hypodermis; then an intermediate layer, the dermis; and finally, a superficial layer, the epidermis. This top layer is mainly constituted of keratinocytes, which form the first physical and chemical barrier between the external environment and our body. To maintain this function, keratinocytes undergo a multistep process of differentiation, from proliferating cells of the
Despite its major keratinocyte content, epidermis is also composed of other cell populations in order to ensure protection of our organisms [1, 2]. Its immunity is guaranteed by Langerhans cells, a dendritic cell that contributes to innate and adaptative immunity [1, 2]. The sensory nerve endings passing through the epidermis (C-fibers and Aδ-fibers) were thought to be the exclusive transducers for the detection of environmental factors such as heat and pain, but Merkel cells can also act as mechanosensors [3]. Free intra-epidermal sensory nerve endings are all unmyelinated: C-fibers are unmyelinated, while Aδ-fibers lose their myelination when they enter the epidermis, allowing them to come into direct contact with the epidermal keratinocytes (Figure 1A) [4]. Therefore, in addition to the intra-epidermal sensory nerve endings, the epidermal keratinocytes also function as a sensory hub, able to detect environmental changes [5, 6]. Finally, the epidermis is constituted by another cell population: the melanocytes, located in the basal layer. With one for 4–10 keratinocytes, melanocytes provide a barrier from ultraviolet (UV) thanks to their ability to produce melanin, a photoprotector pigment [1, 2]. Opposite to the epidermis, the dermis is mainly composed of extracellular matrix produced by dermal fibroblasts. This intermediate layer also supports dermal blood vessels, nerve fibers, and epidermal appendages (pilosebaceous unit and sweat glands). Finally, hypodermis is composed of adipocytes separated by connective tissue. This deep layer insulates and protects the skin from mechanical injuries [1, 2]. Thus, the skin allows a protection against externals insults (ultraviolet, pathogens, mechanical pressure, etc.…) but also contributes to the maintenance of homeostasis such as information transfer, vitamin and metabolites secretions, hydric and thermal regulation.
Schematic representation of skin and TRPV1/TRPV3 location. A. Skin structure. Skin and its three layers: epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. Nerve fibers are present in the epidermis or in the dermis depending on their properties and their type. Two major groups of skin nerve fibers are represented: Aδ fibers (green) poorly myelinated and able to pass through the dermo-epidermal junction, and Aβ fibers (yellow) strongly myelinated and not able to reach the epidermis. C-fibers are unmyelinated and able to pass through the dermo-epidermal junction. B. TRPV1 and TRPV3 location. TRPV1 is expressed in various cell types with a dominance in keratinocytes and sensory nerves (C fibers). TRPV3 expression is restricted to keratinocytes with a putative expression on sensory nerves.
To cope with various externals constrains, various cells of the skin express transmembrane sensors called Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) channels, which are involved in thermosensation, chemosensation, nociception, and mechanosensation [7]. TRP channels can be divided into six subfamilies: TRPA (ankyrin), TRPC (canonical), TRPM (melastatin), TRPML (mucolipin), TRPP (polycystin), and TRPV (vanilloid). Although TRPV channels have a major role in thermosensation [8], they also contribute to keratinocyte differentiation, skin barrier formation, and permeability thanks to calcium regulation. However, it appears that an aberrant TRP channel expression and function might contribute to some skin inflammatory diseases. In this review, we will focus on TRPV1 and TRPV3 structures, activation mechanisms, and their physiological roles in skin. We will also provide a new approach to study TRPV1 and TRPV3 channels in a very common chronic inflammatory disease, such as psoriasis.
Among the six members of TRPV channels, thermosensors TRPV1 and TRPV3 are calcium channel both highly expressed in the skin, with different cells types expression (Figure 1B). The TRPV1 channel was firstly described on nociceptive sensory nerves from Dorsal Root sensory Ganglia (DRG) by Caterina
Unlike TRPV1, TRPV3 channels tissue expression is more restricted. Peier
TRPV1 (chr17:3,565,446-3,609,411) and TRPV3 (chr17:3,513,190-3,557,805) genes exist in tandem on human chromosome 17, with the same transcriptional orientation and are distant from less than 7650 base pairs, indicative of an ancestral gene duplication. In humans, the TRPV1 gene spans 17 exons encoding an 839 amino acids (aa) protein. Alternative splicing may occur and give rise to a modified amino acids sequence in the first 150 residues. The TRPV3 gene spans 18 exons encoding a prevalent isoform of 790 amino acids. As for TRPV1, TRPV3 might be differentially spliced, yielding two additional isoforms of 791 (additional A in position 760) and 765 amino acids (peptide sequence at 760–765 modified from DFNKIQ to GTVAVR together with deletion of residues 766–790). The most prevalent forms of TRPV3 (790 aa) and TRPV1 (839 aa) share 43% sequence homology.
The TRP superfamily is the second largest class of ions channels with a voltage-dependent activation mechanism. However, TRP members not only respond to electric signal but are also able to sense several environmental stimuli, rendering them polymodal sensors of the environment. These channels share a highly conserved protein architecture and require a tetrameric assembly to generate a functional central cation permeation pore. Apart from this ion channel pore, different subdomains of the TRPV proteins are responsible for their ability to be responsive to various environmental signals. Each subunit of the tetrameric complex is composed of six transmembrane segments (S1–S6), with the cation permeable pore formed by a reentrant loop located between S5 and S6 (Figure 2). The S1–S4 bundle likely forms the voltage sensor module, although TRPV1 and TRPV3 exhibit a weak voltage dependence for gating. This relatively low capacity of TRPV channels to respond to electric current may be due to the scarcity of positively charged amino acids in the S4 domain that contains a single arginine residue [17, 18]. The large cytoplasmic N-terminal part of a monomer comprises six ankyrin repeats, each consisting of a 33-residue motif forming two antiparallel alpha helices separated by loops linking the adjacent repeats. The ankyrin repeat domains (ARDs) are highly conserved in TRPV1 and TRPV3. The C-terminal part is also a large intracellular region containing a TRP-domain, another highly conserved distinctive and fundamental feature of TRP channels, consisting of a 25 amino acids α-helix structure with a conserved sequence IWKLQR called the TRP box. This TRP domain is running parallel to the inner plasma membrane and intimately lodged within the intracellular side of the S1–S4 module [19, 20]. A coiled-coil motif comprising residues of E684–R721 and overlapping with the TRP domain in the C-terminus of TRPV1 has been identified as an association domain and appears to be the molecular determinant of tetramerization [21]. In TRPV3, the C-terminal domain additionally forms a loop of 19 residues from V737 to V756, which has not been observed in other TRPV channels. This unique C-terminal loop domain extends along the TRPV3 intracellular skirt and forms an extensive network of interactions with ankyrin repeats 2–5 of the ARD [22]. Among all of these domains, several regions and specific residues have been mapped within TRPV1 and TRPV3 to regulate the channel gating. Indeed, heat, voltage, and ligand stimuli are sensed by TRPV channels by different structural domains.
TRPV1 and TRPV3 structure. Left – Highlighting the fixation sites of TRPV1 activators (heat, capsaicin) and interacting protein (calmodulin). Right – Fixation sites of TRPV3 activators (2-APB, carvacrol, camphor, heat), interacting protein (calmodulin) and mutations involved in the establishment of the inflammatory response (G573A, G573C, G573S). Ankyrin repeat domain and TRP domain are conserved in TRPV1 and TRPV3 structures.
Both pores of TRPV1 and TRPV3 are prone to dilatation during stimulation, rendering them permeable for large cations [19, 23]. Thus, TRPV1 and TRPV3 are cation-selective channels exhibiting a notable preference for divalent cations, with the following permeability sequence: Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na + ≈K+. As for all TRPV channels, negatively charged amino acids in the pore play a central role in cation permeation, and furthermore, the opened pore is blocked by both extra- and intracellular cations. The S5-S6 segments are forming the central pore and the lower gate. This lower gate is formed by a hydrophobic seal, blocking permeation by hydrated ions when the channels are in their closed state. This hydrophobic seal is ensured by the critical residue I679 on S6 for TRPV1 and M677 on S6 for TRPV3 [20, 22]. An additional upper gate is formed by a short loop and helix between S5 and S6, called the pore helix (PH), and acts as a selectivity filter. TRPV1 displays a prolonged loop of 23 residues between S5 and the PH, named the pore turret. This pore turret is a mandatory structural domain for conformational rearrangements during heat activation of the TRPV1 channel, but is not part of the capsaicin agonist activation pathway [24, 25]. In TRPV3, the three key amino acids I644, N647, and Y661 located in the S6 are responsible for heat activation of the channel, since single-point mutants of these generate total loss of temperature activation, without affecting the overall TRPV3 structure [26]. Interestingly, the temperature sensitivity of the TRPV1 channel also implies the C-terminal domain [27].
TRPV1 can be activated by numerous exogenous agonists including capsaicin, plant toxin resiniferatoxin (RTX), natural substances such as capsaicin-related compounds from peppers, aromatic components, and animal vanillotoxins from the venom of the tarantula [28, 29]. For TRPV1, the three amino acids R491, Y511, and S512 in the S3 transmembrane segment are responsible for capsaicin sensitivity, while the region between S481 and T550 is responsible for binding of the antagonist capsazepine, without affecting the temperature activation [30, 31]. Natural substances also activate TRPV3, including camphor (C612 and C619), carvacrol, thymol, and eugenol [32]. Moreover, TRPV3 can be activated by synthetic molecules such as the well-documented 2-Aminoethoxydiphenyl Borate (2-APB).
2-APB is a common activator ligand of TRPV1 and TRPV3 channels [27]. In TRPV3, several transmembrane segments are implicated in the binding of the agonist 2-APB. In fact, there are three different sites of 2-APB fixation in TRPV3. A first site of fixation is involving S444 of S1, E501 and W493 of S2, and Y565, H523, and F526 of S3 that establish complementary interactions with different atoms of 2-APB [22]. A second site of 2-APB binding is mostly mediated by polar residues, such as H417 and T421 of the linker domain, H426 and H430 of the pre-S1 helix, and R693 and R696 of the TRP domain. Interestingly, the mutation H426A completely abolishes TRPV3 activation by 2-APB but not by camphor neither by carvacrol [22, 33, 34]. However, the residue R696 in the TRP domain appears critical in TRVP3 activation by external ligands since the mutation R696K abolishes 2-APB- and carvacrol-induced calcium influx [34]. The third site of 2-APB fixation is nested in a cavity formed by the extracellular portions of helices S1-S4 and is mediated through both hydrophobic and hydrophilic residues including V458, Y540, R487, and Q483 [22]. The binding of 2-APB on the first two sites described above does not induce gating-associated conformational changes. In opposite, dramatic structural rearrangements are observed when 2-APB binds the third site [22]. Thus, binding of 2-APB to the first two sites is likely a prerequisite for gating, by stabilizing the multiple domains during channel opening.
Endogenous ligands were also reported for TRPV1 and TRPV3: unsaturated N-acyldopamines, lipoxygenase products of arachidonic acid, linoleic acid, Phospholipase C metabolites, and the endocannabinoid anandamide [35].
In both TRPV1 and TRPV3, the N-terminus module contains a domain able to bind calmodulin (CaM) in a Ca2+-dependent manner [36]. This domain is located between the ankyrin repeats 2 and 3, which comprise a conserved site (K155 and K160 for TRPV1; K169 and K174 for TRPV3) involved in both CaM and ATP binding [37, 38]. In a resting cell, ATP is bound, and the channel is sensitized. Indeed, it has been shown that ATP binding to the TRPV1-ARD generates larger currents in response to capsaicin application [39, 40]. Hence, after channel opening, Ca2+ flows inward and chelates the ATP, which is released from TRPV1-ARD, thus freeing the binding site. In parallel, the Ca2+ influx activates CaM, and Ca2+-CaM can replace the sensitizer and engages the ARD to close the channel [40]. Thus, CaM is involved in Ca2+-dependent desensitization of TRPV1 [41].
The binding of ATP and Ca2+-CaM to the N-terminal ARD observed in TRPV1 is conserved in TRPV3 [38], although differences exist. TRPV1 is desensitized after cumulative stimulations. In contrast, TRPV3 is the only member among the TRP channels that sensitizes upon repeated application of stimuli. In addition, the sensitization of TRPV3 is independent of the origin of the stimulus, it will sensitize regardless whether it is activated by heat or chemical ligands. TRPV3 also displays cross-sensitization to stimuli of a different nature, as camphor stimulation causes a sensitization to heat [42]. It is known that sensitization is due to the decrease of the inhibition by calcium from both sides of cells [43]. In the intracellular side, Ca2+-CaM binds ARD and inhibits TRPV3, as described above for TRPV1. The TRPV3-ARD structure is very close to ARD from other members of TRPV channel family, except it exhibits a unique particular conformation of finger 3 loop. This linker region in between the ankyrin repeats 3 and 4 is greatly stabilized by a network of hydrogen bonds and an hydrophobic environment, instead of being flexible as seen in the other TRPV-ARD arrangements [44]. This stabilized finger 3 of TRPV3-ARD may cause steric hindrance, which impedes the binding of CaM. Therefore, CaM binding to ARD probably forces a conformational change of finger 3, thus resulting in an inhibition of TRPV3 function. Upon successive simulations, the finger 3 of TRPV3-ARD undergoes conformational change that decreases the binding of CaM, causing the channel to open more easily. Thus, the finger 3 of TRPV3-ARD functions as a switch in regulation of TRPV3 upon stimulation. Moreover, this distinctive finger 3 segment precedes a conserved threonine 264, which has been identified as a putative site for the ERK1-dependent modulation of TRPV3 [45]. Phosphorylation events could, therefore, alter the conformation of this important loop and powerfully influence the binding of regulatory factors [46]. In others contexts, the influence of phosphorylation events has been demonstrated especially for TRPV1, where phosphorylation of the channel induces sensitization, whereas dephosphorylation is associated to desensitization [47]. The TRPV1 C-terminus also contains modulatory domains able to be phosphorylated and to bind CaM through the 35 amino acids segment E767–T801 [41, 48].
In contrast to TRPV1, the naive TRPV3 channel does not show any intrinsic voltage-dependent activation. The voltage dependence only appears when the TRPV3 channel is primo-stimulated by chemicals or heat stimulus [43, 49]. This voltage dependence of TRPV3 is established by Ca2+ binding on N641 at the pore loop after opening. In addition, the voltage dependence is strongly influenced by Ca2+-CaM binding at the cytoplasmic N terminus. Sensitization is accompanied by a decrease in the voltage dependence. Finally, the sensitized TRPV3 channels are less inhibited than the naive ones, showing faster activation at positive potentials and less deactivation at negative potentials. This gradual shift in Ca2+-dependent regulation or TRPV3 activity is likely related to conformational changes after successive stimulations [43, 44, 46]. Considering the huge complexity in the structural arrangement and interactions of the multiple domains of the TRPV channels, it has been difficult to fully decipher the mechanisms of gating, and many questions remain open.
Ca2+ is well known to contribute to epidermal homeostasis and thus to the formation of an effective skin barrier [50, 51]. In order to maintain its barrier function, the epidermis needs to be renewed every 28 days depending on a calcium gradient. The increase in calcium concentration in the outer layer is essential for the terminal differentiation of keratinocytes, which will lead to the formation of the
The role of TRPV3 in the epidermal differentiation process was highlighted after aberrant expression of early differentiation markers (i.e., KRT1/KRT10) in keratinocytes from
TRPV1 is a major nonselective cation channel with polymodal mechanisms of activation [54]. Functional TRPV1 serves as a thermal sensor since it is gated by noxious heat greater than 42°C and also chili pepper [9, 55]. The heat nociception was almost abolished following ablation of TRPV1-expressing neurons in mice [56], but
In contrast to TRPV1, TRPV3 was reported as a warm sensor for innocuous temperatures (approximately 33°C) in different
Psoriasis is a chronic multifactorial inflammatory disease, resulting from the interaction between genetic predisposing factors and environmental triggers, with a global incidence ranging between 0.09% and 5.1% [65]. This dermatosis results from altered signaling between epidermal keratinocytes and the immune system leading to an uncontrolled keratinocyte proliferation (hyperplasia), impaired keratinocyte differentiation (hyperkeratosis), and chronic inflammation. The immune cells (i.e., dendritic and T cells) infiltrating skin lesions produce a wide variety of cytokines (IL-23, IL-17, IFNγ), which activate keratinocytes [66, 67]. Once activated, keratinocytes produce pro-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., IL-6, TNFα), chemokines (i.e., CXCL1, CCL2, CCL13), and antimicrobial peptides (cathelicidin, β-defensine) that further stimulate immune cells and thus maintain the disease in a chronic state. Therefore, keratinocytes not only respond to inflammation but also contribute to the recruitment and the activation of immune cells. Moreover, TRPV1 and TRPV3 channels have a predominant role in inflammation, pain, and pruritus and could be involved in the vicious cycle of the inflammation process in psoriasis.
Indeed, TRPV1 overexpression has been found in the skin of psoriatic patients and in the mouse model of “imiquimod-induced psoriasis” [68, 69]. Imiquimod (IMQ) is a potent immune activator stimulating the IL-23/IL-17 axis and thus mimicking psoriasis inflammation [70]. In 2014, Riol-Blanco
TRPV1 and TRPV3 in the physiopathology of psoriasis. Left – Inflammatory environment in skin psoriasis stimulates PAR2 on keratinocytes. Activated PAR2 stimulates TRPV3, which leads to the production of TSLP, an activator of the IL-23/IL-17 axis (red arrows). Inflammation also directly activates TRPV3, which leads to the production and the fixation of ATP and PGE2 on C-fibers, leading to pain and itch (blue arrows). Activated TRPV3 also stimulates and activates EGFR. In this context, the EGFR activation induces the transcription of NF-κB, allowing the production of inflammatory cytokines that sustain the inflammatory process in the skin. Right – In a psoriasis skin, keratinocytes release NGF in the extracellular environment. NGF can interact with TrkA present on the TRPV1+/Nav1.8 nerve endings. This interaction activates TRPV1 and leads to pain and pruritus. The interaction of dermal dendritic cells (DDC) with TRPV1+/Nav1.8 nerve endings potentiates the activation of the IL-23/IL-17 axis.
In contrast to TRPV1, TRPV3 channels seem to act on psoriasis from upper cell layers, such as keratinocytes. Indeed, TRPV3 channel expression is increased in psoriatic skin lesions, with significant labeling within the epidermis [68, 75]. Moreover, many studies have supported the role of TRPV3 on inflammation. Upon stimulation, TRPV3 can activate the EGFR/NFκB pathway and induce the release of mediators, such as IL-1α, IL-6, IL-8, TNFα, ATP, and PGE2 [53, 76], which will in turn act on sensory nerves and provoke pain and itching [62, 63]. In addition, Zhao
Altogether, these data support that TRPV1 and TRPV3 are actors of inflammation, either from sensory nerve fibers or from keratinocytes. Both channels seem to have fundamental role in the pathogenesis of psoriasis due to their ability to activate immune cells or to induce cytokine production. It could also be hypothesized that these two channels cooperate during the initiation process of psoriasis.
The well-known biological strategies to treat an inflammatory disease such as psoriasis consist of using a specific blocking antibody to freeze the interaction of a cytokine with its receptor and then blocking the underlying cytokine-specific biological response. As mentioned earlier, both TRPV1 and TRPV3 are involved in the inflammatory process of psoriasis and could also be potential therapeutic targets in this disease. Indeed, TrkA appears to be a potential target because its inhibition with CT327 blocks the overactivation of TRPV1 on sensory neurons. The discovery of this new molecule is promising since the decrease in pain and pruritus has been observed in psoriatic patients [72]. Interestingly, another study also demonstrated a decrease in skin hyperplasia and erythema in psoriasis murine models treated with the TRPV1 antagonist SB366791 [82]. Research on the inhibition of TRPV1 in psoriasis disease has already emerged and needs to be further explored.
As the TRPV3/TGFα/EGFR signaling complex seems to play a role in psoriasis, EGFR also becomes a potential therapeutic target. A recent clinical study showed that erlotinib, an EGFR inhibitor, significantly decreases hyperkeratosis and pain in Olmsted syndrome patients displaying a TRPV3 overactivation mutation [83]. This highlights that inhibition of EGFR could decrease keratinocytes hyperproliferation/differentiation and might also act on inflammation and pain. Since TRPV3 acts at the first line, directly targeting this channel could also be very promising. Indeed, we reported above some anti-inflammatory molecules, such as 17(R)-resolvin D1, which suppresses TRPV3-induced pain and inflammation. Another potential promising molecule is the TRPV3 antagonist called 74a, which has already proved its efficacy on another inflammatory skin disease [77].
It could be suggested that inflammatory environment activates TRPV3 from keratinocytes and TRPV1+ nerves for the induction of pain, itching, and inflammation. The cooperation of these two channels, with the potential activation of TRPV1 induced by downstream mediators of TRPV3, cannot be excluded. To increase further the complexity of the TRPV1 and TRPV3 relationship, it has been demonstrated that TRPV1 and TRPV3 could form interacting partners, therefore assembling heterochannels [84, 85]. The biological significance of these heterochannels is still not known, but this could be involved in a very fine-tuning of sensitivity. In addtion, a recent study showed that the intergenic region between TRPV1 and TRPV3 coding sequences contained a human specific transposable element (SVA: SINE-VNTR-Alu retrotransposon) insertion, located upstream of the TRPV3 promoter and downstream of the 3′ end of TRPV1 [86]. This SVA insertion acts as a cis-regulatory element allowing coexpression of TRPV1 and TRPV3 in multiple human tissues, which is not observed in mice. Thus, targeting these two channels simultaneously could be a very promising approach for the treatment of psoriasis in human.
TRPV1 and TRPV3 are important channels for maintaining the skin homeostasis and its function. A deregulation of their expression and/or activity is associated to the establishment of an inflammatory response. Several studies already demonstrated their contribution in psoriasis by highlighting their capacities to activate typical inflammatory pathways (IL-23/IL-17 axis, NF-κB pathway) and/or to provoke the release of inflammatory mediators. It would therefore be interesting to explore the exact contribution of TRPV1 and TRPV3 in the psoriasis typical chronic skin inflammation: are they the trigger or are they one of the multiple factors involved in maintaining inflammation?
It would be interesting to explore the presence of TRPV1 and TRPV3 in other tissues of the body subjected to chronic inflammation, such as the intestinal epithelium. The future challenge will be to develop specific compounds that target the TRPV1/TRPV3 to limit chronic inflammation without affecting their physiological functions.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
All of the artworks used were adapted from the illustration bank of Biorender (https://biorender.com).
Content alerts
",metaTitle:"Content alerts",metaDescription:"Content alerts",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/content-alerts",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Content alerts
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Content alerts
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6654},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5944},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2452},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12681},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1014},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17700}],offset:12,limit:12,total:133951},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"9"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11446",title:"Industry 4.0 - Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"be984f45b90c1003798661ef885d8a34",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Meisam Gordan and Dr. Khaled Ghaedi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11446.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"303193",title:"Dr.",name:"Meisam",surname:"Gordan",slug:"meisam-gordan",fullName:"Meisam Gordan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11447",title:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f68e3c3430a74fc7a7eb97f6ea2bb42e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11447.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11448",title:"Artificial Neural Networks - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e57ff97a39cfc6fe68a1ac62b503dbe9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Chi Leung Patrick Hui",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11448.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"22866",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi Leung Patrick",surname:"Hui",slug:"chi-leung-patrick-hui",fullName:"Chi Leung Patrick Hui"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11547",title:"Information Security and Privacy in the Digital World - Some Selected Topics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b268e581d5e458cb91b82c518f2717eb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jaydip Sen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11547.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11549",title:"Data Integrity and Data Governance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"97a93f73a55957a70eb2a40de891b344",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. B. Santhosh Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11549.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"330426",title:"Dr.",name:"B. Santhosh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"b.-santhosh-kumar",fullName:"B. Santhosh Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11554",title:"Information Systems Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f9b559ad26f909f0423ba9d111663218",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rohit Raja",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11554.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11556",title:"Numerical Simulation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0a68fbeb303684344bda285aa06769af",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ali Soofastaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11556.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"257455",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Soofastaei",slug:"ali-soofastaei",fullName:"Ali Soofastaei"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11911",title:"Scientometrics - Evolution, Methods, and Applications in Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"21cabdc221ee3c4ce67965075c22211f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mohan Bairwa, Dr. M. Mahbub Hossain, Dr. Neeraj Sharma and Dr. Manju Pilania",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11911.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"181864",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohan",surname:"Bairwa",slug:"mohan-bairwa",fullName:"Mohan Bairwa"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11912",title:"Expert Systems With Recent Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"514907388f7a2b291f71f9b93b58b795",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ercan Oztemel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11912.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"306974",title:"Prof.",name:"Ercan",surname:"Oztemel",slug:"ercan-oztemel",fullName:"Ercan Oztemel"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11913",title:"Scheduling Algorithms for Information and Communication Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"51b9b6eb5e1f6fd01c84879bc8182486",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yann H. Chemin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11913.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"270578",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",surname:"Chemin",slug:"yann-chemin",fullName:"Yann Chemin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11914",title:"E-service Digital Innovation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"92c25420000e8d708ce07782c747cba5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kyeong Kang and Ms. Fatuma Namisango",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11914.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"2114",title:"Dr.",name:"Kyeong",surname:"Kang",slug:"kyeong-kang",fullName:"Kyeong Kang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11915",title:"Ontology in Information Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b52397215f6b5e05a22368f629695704",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11915.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:39},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:66},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:122},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:34},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10774",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:"protein-detection",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1392",title:"Classical Mechanics",slug:"classical-mechanics",parent:{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:14,numberOfWosCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1392",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7794",title:"Kinematics",subtitle:"Analysis and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"635ed08afa8375b1476982ff8f1b2847",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",bookSignature:"Joseph Mizrahi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"60744",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Mizrahi",slug:"joseph-mizrahi",fullName:"Joseph Mizrahi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6229",title:"Kinetic Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"789a1f7f0e0f9f4717d6fef84d47f013",slug:"kinetic-theory",bookSignature:"George Z. Kyzas and Athanasios C. Mitropoulos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6229.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"Z.",surname:"Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56964",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70748",title:"Discrete Boltzmann Modeling of Compressible Flows",slug:"discrete-boltzmann-modeling-of-compressible-flows",totalDownloads:1336,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Mathematically, the typical difference of discrete Boltzmann model (DBM) from the traditional hydrodynamic one is that the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations are replaced by a discrete Boltzmann equation. But physically, this replacement has a significant gain: a DBM is roughly equivalent to a hydrodynamic model supplemented by a coarse-grained model of the thermodynamic non-equilibrium (TNE) effects, where the hydrodynamic model can be and can also be beyond the NS. Via the DBM, it is convenient to perform simulations on systems with flexible Knudsen number. The observations on TNE are being obtaining more applications with time.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Aiguo Xu, Guangcai Zhang and Yudong Zhang",authors:[{id:"42273",title:"Prof.",name:"Aiguo",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"aiguo-xu",fullName:"Aiguo Xu"},{id:"110958",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangcai",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"guangcai-zhang",fullName:"Guangcai Zhang"},{id:"209189",title:"Dr.",name:"Yudong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yudong-zhang",fullName:"Yudong Zhang"}]},{id:"66493",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85224",title:"Modeling and Design of Flexure Hinge-Based Compliant Mechanisms",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-flexure-hinge-based-compliant-mechanisms",totalDownloads:3587,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"A compliant mechanism gains its mobility fully or partially from the compliance of its elastically deformable parts rather than from conventional joints. Due to many advantages, in particular the smooth and repeatable motion, monolithic mechanisms with notch flexure hinges are state of the art in numerous precision engineering applications with required positioning accuracies in the low micrometer range. However, the deformation and especially motion behavior are complex and depend on the notch geometry. This complicates both the accurate modeling and purposeful design. Therefore, the chapter provides a survey of different methods for the general and simplified modeling of the elasto-kinematic properties of flexure hinges and compliant mechanisms for four hinge contours. Based on nonlinear analytical calculations and FEM simulations, several guidelines like design graphs, design equations, design tools, or a geometric scaling approach are presented. The obtained results are analytically and simulatively verified and show a good correlation. Using the example of a path-generating mechanism, it will be demonstrated that the suggested angle-based method for synthesizing a compliant mechanism with individually shaped hinges can be used to design high-precise and large-stroke compliant mechanisms. The approaches can be used for the accelerated synthesis of planar and spatial flexure hinge-based compliant mechanisms.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Sebastian Linß, Stefan Henning and Lena Zentner",authors:null},{id:"57137",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70768",title:"Kinetic Theory of Creep and Long-Term Strength of Metals",slug:"kinetic-theory-of-creep-and-long-term-strength-of-metals",totalDownloads:1195,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter deals with the simulation of the creep process and the effect of long-term strength of metals, notably, in both uniaxial and complex stress states. A description of a creep experiment and the simplest creep models are presented, that is, the theory of steady creep, the theory of ageing, the theory of flow and the theory of hardening. In creep process simulation, a kinetic theory based on the introduction of structural parameters characterising the state of the metal at a given time is widely used. Among such parameters, metal damage in the creep process, work of stresses on creep deformations (energy version) and concentration of an aggressive medium in the metal were studied. The coupled problem of creep and long tensile strength is also considered taking into account the mutual influence of damage accumulation and one-dimensional diffusion of the aggressive medium. The times to fracture are determined both in the presence of an aggressive medium and in the absence of one. A significant contribution of Soviet (Russian), European, American and Japanese scientists to the development of continuum damage mechanics is highlighted.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Alexander Lokoshchenko and Leonid Fomin",authors:[{id:"215612",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid",middleName:null,surname:"Fomin",slug:"leonid-fomin",fullName:"Leonid Fomin"},{id:"215613",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Lokoshchenko",slug:"alexander-lokoshchenko",fullName:"Alexander Lokoshchenko"}]},{id:"67535",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86682",title:"The General Kinematic Pair of a Cam Mechanism",slug:"the-general-kinematic-pair-of-a-cam-mechanism",totalDownloads:1274,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"At present, there are still increasing demands on the performance parameters of machinery equipment as well as cam mechanisms that belong to it. For this reason, the operating speeds and hence inertial effects of moving bodies, which limit the utilizable working frequency of machines, are increasing. These facts are the cause of higher wear and a decrease of the overall lifetime and reliability of machines. The force ratios in the general kinematic pair created by contact between the cam and the follower cause the contact stress. The generated stresses are transient and have a pulse shape. Fatigue damage of the cam working surface or the follower working surface may occur after exceeding a certain limit value of these stresses during the cam mechanisms running. This damage is in the form of cavities (pitting), which develop from cracks on the working surface. The chapter aim is to outline the issues of the dynamic stress of a general kinematic pair of a cam mechanism. One of the possible methods of the complex solution of the stress of the general kinematic pair is to use the possibilities of the finite element method in combination with the knowledge and conclusions of the contact mechanics.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Jiří Ondrášek",authors:null},{id:"57376",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70843",title:"Plasma Kinetic Theory",slug:"plasma-kinetic-theory",totalDownloads:1750,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The description of plasma using fluid model is mostly insufficient and requires the consideration of velocity distribution which leads to kinetic theory. Kinetic theory of plasma describes and predicts the condition of plasma from microscopic interactions and motions of its constituents. It provides an essential basis for an introductory course on plasma physics as well as for advanced kinetic theory. Plasma kinetics deals with the relationship between velocity and forces and the study of continua in velocity space. Plasma kinetics mathematical equations provide aid to the readers in understanding simple tools to determine the plasma dynamics and kinetics as described in this chapter. Kinetic theory provides the basics and essential introduction to plasma physics and subsequently advanced kinetic theory. Plasma waves, oscillations, frequencies, and applications are the subjects of kinetic theory. In this chapter, mathematical formulations essential for exploring plasma kinetics are compiled and described simplistically along with a precise discussion on basic plasma parameters in simple language with illustrations in some cases.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Auwal Mustapha Imam, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi\nand Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57376",title:"Plasma Kinetic Theory",slug:"plasma-kinetic-theory",totalDownloads:1750,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The description of plasma using fluid model is mostly insufficient and requires the consideration of velocity distribution which leads to kinetic theory. Kinetic theory of plasma describes and predicts the condition of plasma from microscopic interactions and motions of its constituents. It provides an essential basis for an introductory course on plasma physics as well as for advanced kinetic theory. Plasma kinetics deals with the relationship between velocity and forces and the study of continua in velocity space. Plasma kinetics mathematical equations provide aid to the readers in understanding simple tools to determine the plasma dynamics and kinetics as described in this chapter. Kinetic theory provides the basics and essential introduction to plasma physics and subsequently advanced kinetic theory. Plasma waves, oscillations, frequencies, and applications are the subjects of kinetic theory. In this chapter, mathematical formulations essential for exploring plasma kinetics are compiled and described simplistically along with a precise discussion on basic plasma parameters in simple language with illustrations in some cases.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Auwal Mustapha Imam, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi\nand Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"}]},{id:"66493",title:"Modeling and Design of Flexure Hinge-Based Compliant Mechanisms",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-flexure-hinge-based-compliant-mechanisms",totalDownloads:3588,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"A compliant mechanism gains its mobility fully or partially from the compliance of its elastically deformable parts rather than from conventional joints. Due to many advantages, in particular the smooth and repeatable motion, monolithic mechanisms with notch flexure hinges are state of the art in numerous precision engineering applications with required positioning accuracies in the low micrometer range. However, the deformation and especially motion behavior are complex and depend on the notch geometry. This complicates both the accurate modeling and purposeful design. Therefore, the chapter provides a survey of different methods for the general and simplified modeling of the elasto-kinematic properties of flexure hinges and compliant mechanisms for four hinge contours. Based on nonlinear analytical calculations and FEM simulations, several guidelines like design graphs, design equations, design tools, or a geometric scaling approach are presented. The obtained results are analytically and simulatively verified and show a good correlation. Using the example of a path-generating mechanism, it will be demonstrated that the suggested angle-based method for synthesizing a compliant mechanism with individually shaped hinges can be used to design high-precise and large-stroke compliant mechanisms. The approaches can be used for the accelerated synthesis of planar and spatial flexure hinge-based compliant mechanisms.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Sebastian Linß, Stefan Henning and Lena Zentner",authors:null},{id:"67535",title:"The General Kinematic Pair of a Cam Mechanism",slug:"the-general-kinematic-pair-of-a-cam-mechanism",totalDownloads:1274,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"At present, there are still increasing demands on the performance parameters of machinery equipment as well as cam mechanisms that belong to it. For this reason, the operating speeds and hence inertial effects of moving bodies, which limit the utilizable working frequency of machines, are increasing. These facts are the cause of higher wear and a decrease of the overall lifetime and reliability of machines. The force ratios in the general kinematic pair created by contact between the cam and the follower cause the contact stress. The generated stresses are transient and have a pulse shape. Fatigue damage of the cam working surface or the follower working surface may occur after exceeding a certain limit value of these stresses during the cam mechanisms running. This damage is in the form of cavities (pitting), which develop from cracks on the working surface. The chapter aim is to outline the issues of the dynamic stress of a general kinematic pair of a cam mechanism. One of the possible methods of the complex solution of the stress of the general kinematic pair is to use the possibilities of the finite element method in combination with the knowledge and conclusions of the contact mechanics.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Jiří Ondrášek",authors:null},{id:"66017",title:"Kinetostatic Nonlinear Stiffness Characteristic Generation Using the Kinematic Singularity of Planar Linkages",slug:"kinetostatic-nonlinear-stiffness-characteristic-generation-using-the-kinematic-singularity-of-planar",totalDownloads:854,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The theory of nonlinear stiffness characteristic by employing the kinematic limb-singularity of planar mechanisms with attached springs is proposed. After constructing the position formula with closed-loop form of the mechanism, the kinematic limb-singularity can be identified. The kinetostatic model can be obtained based on the principle of virtual work. The influences of spring stiffness on the force-displacement or torque-angle curve are analysed. Different spring stiffness results in one of four types of stiffness characteristic, which can be used to design an expected stiffness characteristic. After replacing corresponding joints with flexures, the pseudo-rigid-body model of the linkage with springs is obtained. The compliant mechanisms with nonlinear stiffness characteristic can further be synthesised based on the pseudo-rigid-body model.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Baokun Li and Guangbo Hao",authors:null},{id:"67222",title:"Kinematic Absolute Positioning with Quad-Constellation GNSS",slug:"kinematic-absolute-positioning-with-quad-constellation-gnss",totalDownloads:1027,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The absolute positioning technique is based on a point positioning mode with a single Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver, which has been widely used in many fields such as vehicle navigation and kinematic surveying. For a long period, this positioning technique mainly relies on a single GPS system. With the revitalization of Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) constellation and two newly emerging constellations of BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and Galileo, it is now feasible to carry out the absolute positioning with quad-constellation of GPS, GLONASS, BDS, and Galileo. A combination of multi-constellation observations can offer improved reliability, availability, and accuracy for position solutions. In this chapter, combined GPS/GLONASS/BDS/Galileo point positioning models for both traditional single point positioning (SPP) and precise point positioning (PPP) are presented, including their functional and stochastic components. The traditional SPP technique has a positioning accuracy at a meter level, whereas the PPP technique can reach an accuracy of a centimeter level. However, the later relies on the availability of precise ephemeris and needs a long convergence time. Experiments were carried out to assess the kinematic positioning performance in the two different modes. The positioning results are compared among different constellation combinations to demonstrate the advantages of quad-constellation GNSS.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Lin Pan, Changsheng Cai, Jianjun Zhu and Xianqiang Cui",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1392",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82212",title:"Protein Prenylation and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104700",signatures:"Khemchand R. Surana, Ritesh B. Pawar, Ritesh A. Khairnar and Sunil K. Mahajan",slug:"protein-prenylation-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Modifications of Biomolecules",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11098.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:31,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"11475",title:"Food Security Challenges and Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11475.jpg",hash:"090302a30e461cee643ec49675c811ec",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 5th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"292145",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Haseeb Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-haseeb-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11450",title:"Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 Pandemic on the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11450.jpg",hash:"a58c7b02d07903004be70f744f2e1835",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11477",title:"Public Economics - New Perspectives and Uncertainty",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11477.jpg",hash:"a8e6c515dc924146fbd2712eb4e7d118",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 27th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"414400",title:"Dr.",name:"Habtamu",surname:"Alem",slug:"habtamu-alem",fullName:"Habtamu Alem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",hash:"8df7150b01ae754024c65d1a62f190d9",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"June 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"317087",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Samec",slug:"pavel-samec",fullName:"Pavel Samec"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11474",title:"Quality of Life Interventions - Magnitude of Effect and Transferability",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11474.jpg",hash:"5a6bcdaf5ee144d043bcdab893ff9e1c",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 7th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"245319",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sage",surname:"Arbor",slug:"sage-arbor",fullName:"Sage Arbor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11473",title:"Social Inequality - Structure and Social Processes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:31,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",volumeInSeries:32,fullTitle:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195290/images/system/195290.png",institutionString:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institution:{name:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",slug:"protein-detection",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",volumeInSeries:31,fullTitle:"Protein Detection",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:"Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",slug:"cell-culture-advanced-technology-and-applications-in-medical-and-life-sciences",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",volumeInSeries:30,fullTitle:"Cell Culture - Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",slug:"hydrolases",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",volumeInSeries:29,fullTitle:"Hydrolases",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110708/images/system/110708.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",volumeInSeries:28,fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",volumeInSeries:26,fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts",subtitle:"Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",slug:"fibroblasts-advances-in-inflammation-autoimmunity-and-cancer",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Katja Lakota",hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",volumeInSeries:25,fullTitle:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",middleName:null,surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/328755/images/system/328755.jpg",institutionString:"BioMed X Institute",institution:{name:"University Hospital of Zurich",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinases",subtitle:"Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",slug:"protein-kinases-promising-targets-for-anticancer-drug-research",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rajesh Kumar Singh",hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",volumeInSeries:24,fullTitle:"Protein Kinases - Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9753",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",subtitle:"Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9753.jpg",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids-recent-advances",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shagufta Perveen and Areej Mohammad Al-Taweel",hash:"575689df13c78bf0e6c1be40804cd010",volumeInSeries:21,fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids - Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:12}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"93",type:"subseries",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",keywords:"Social contract, SDG, Human rights, Inclusiveness, Equity, Democracy, Personal learning, Collaboration, Glocalization",scope:"