These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\n
Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6303",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Uranium - Safety, Resources, Separation and Thermodynamic Calculation",title:"Uranium",subtitle:"Safety, Resources, Separation and Thermodynamic Calculation",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This edited volume Uranium: Safety, Resources, Separation, and Thermodynamic Calculation is a collection of reviewed and relevant research chapters, offering a comprehensive overview of recent developments in the study of uranium. This publication aims at providing a thorough overview of the latest research efforts by international authors on uranium studies and opens new possible research paths for further novel developments.",isbn:"978-1-78923-119-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-118-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-387-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69413",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"uranium-safety-resources-separation-and-thermodynamic-calculation",numberOfPages:152,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4812c0bc91279bd79f03418aca6d17c5",bookSignature:"Nasser S. Awwad",publishedDate:"May 9th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6303.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7891,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:22,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 19th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 10th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 6th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 4th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 5th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/145209/images/system/145209.jpg",biography:"Nasser Awwad received his Ph.D. in inorganic and radiochemistry in 2000 from Ain Shams University . Nasser Awwad was an Associate Professor of Radiochemistry in 2006 and Professor of Inorganic and Radiochemistry in 2011. He has been a Professor at King Khalid University, Abha, KSA, from 2011 until now. Prof Awwad has edited four books (Uranium, New trends in Nuclear Sciences, Lanthanides, and Nuclear Power Plants) and he has co-edited two books (Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments and Biochemical Analysis Tools). He has also published 205 papers at ISI journals. He has supervised 4 Ph.D. and 18 MSc students in the field of radioactive and wastewater treatment. He has participated in 26 international conferences in South Korea, the USA, Lebanon, KSA, and Egypt. He has reviewed 2 Ph.D. and 15 MSc theses. He participated in 10 big projects with KACST at KSA and Sandia National Labs in the USA. He is a member of the Arab Society of Forensic Sciences and Forensic Medicine. He is a permanent member of the American Chemical Society, and a rapporteur of the Permanent Committee for Nuclear and Radiological Protection at KKU. He is Head of the Scientific Research and International Cooperation Unit, Faculty of Science, King Khalid University.",institutionString:"King Khalid University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"King Khalid University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"752",title:"Nuclear Engineering",slug:"nuclear-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"57723",title:"History of Uranium Mining in Central Europe",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71962",slug:"history-of-uranium-mining-in-central-europe",totalDownloads:1457,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The Central European deposits were the first industrially mined uranium deposits in the world. Uranium minerals were noticed by miners in the Ore Mts. area (Saxony, Bohemia) for a long time prior the uranium discovery. The uranium mineral pitchblende was reported from this ore district as early as 1565. Pitchblende was firstly extracted for production of colouring agents used in the glassmaking industry. The German chemist Klaproth in 1789 detected uranium by analysing pitchblende. In 1896, A.H. Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity. His student Marie Sklodowska-Curie recognized that pitchblende has higher radioactivity as pure uranium salts. Later, together with her husband P. Curie, they discovered two new elements: radium and polonium. Research by O. Hahn and its colleges led later to using of uranium as first nuclear weapons. The significant amount of uranium ores for producing of the Russian nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants in the former Eastern Bloc was mined in the East Germany (GDR) and Czechoslovakia. The total production of uranium ores in GDR from 1946 to 2012 was 219,626 t U. In Czechoslovakia, the total uranium production from 1945 to 2017 was 112,250 t U.",signatures:"Miloš René",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57723",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57723",authors:[{id:"142108",title:"Dr.",name:"Miloš",surname:"René",slug:"milos-rene",fullName:"Miloš René"}],corrections:null},{id:"58748",title:"Safety and Economics of Uranium Utilization for Nuclear Power Generation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72647",slug:"safety-and-economics-of-uranium-utilization-for-nuclear-power-generation",totalDownloads:1190,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Safety and economics of uranium utilization for nuclear power generation were investigated and discussed. In order to sustain energy supply with nuclear power generation, uranium resources should be abundant. From the viewpoint of depletion of the resources, fast breeder reactor (FBR), which is breeder reactor of plutonium, has been developed. In this context, the uranium utilization and plutonium utilization with breeding by FBR are compared and discussed from the viewpoint of safety, sustainability, and energy security. In addition, the significance of partitioning and transmutation (P&T), which is one of the advantages of FBR, was also discussed from the viewpoint of environmental burden from radioactive waste.",signatures:"Yuji Fukaya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58748",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58748",authors:[{id:"212471",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuji",surname:"Fukaya",slug:"yuji-fukaya",fullName:"Yuji Fukaya"}],corrections:null},{id:"57693",title:"Shear Zone-Hosted Uranium Deposits of the Bohemian Massif (Central European Variscan Belt)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71967",slug:"shear-zone-hosted-uranium-deposits-of-the-bohemian-massif-central-european-variscan-belt-",totalDownloads:908,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Bohemian Massif hosts a significant quantity of uranium deposits bound by brittle shear zones developed in high-grade metamorphic rocks (Rožná, Okrouhlá Radouň, Zadní Chodov and Dyleň) and/or granites (Vítkov II and Lhota). According to the international atomic energy agency (IAEA) uranium deposits classification, these deposits are classified as metamorphic deposits. For shear zone-hosted uranium mineralisation, the no direct relationship between ore mineralisation and granite bodies is significant. Ore lenses and/or disseminated ore mineralisation form the shear zone-hosted uranium deposits. The host rocks of these deposits are transformed in aceites. Aceites are defined as low-temperature alkaline metasomatic rocks, which are closely associated with uranium mineralisation. Complex coffinite-uraninite or coffinite-uraninite-brannerite assemblages form the shear zone mineralisation with predominance coffinite about uraninite.",signatures:"Miloš René",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57693",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57693",authors:[{id:"142108",title:"Dr.",name:"Miloš",surname:"René",slug:"milos-rene",fullName:"Miloš René"}],corrections:null},{id:"58667",title:"Uranium in Poland: Resources and Recovery from Low-Grade Ores",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72754",slug:"uranium-in-poland-resources-and-recovery-from-low-grade-ores",totalDownloads:1269,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The presented studies deal with an assessment of the possibility of uranium recovery from the low-grade uranium resources in Poland. Uranium was leached from the ground uranium ores with efficiencies in 81–100% range that depend on the type of ore and leaching solution used. In the next step, the post-leaching solution was treated by the solvent extraction or ion exchange chromatography to separate uranium from other metals present in the ore. The novel routes of leaching by using membrane methods were examined. The final product, “yellow cake,” was obtained in precipitation step. The studies of precipitation of uranium as ammonium diuranate or uranium peroxide from diluted uranium solutions are presented in this chapter. The work was completed with tentative economic analysis and environmental impact assessment along with radiation protection issues connected to uranium production.",signatures:"Katarzyna Kiegiel, Agnieszka Miskiewicz, Dorota Gajda, Sylwester\nSommer, Stanislaw Wolkowicz and Grazyna Zakrzewska-\nKoltuniewicz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58667",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58667",authors:[{id:"213312",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",surname:"Kiegiel",slug:"katarzyna-kiegiel",fullName:"Katarzyna Kiegiel"},{id:"213313",title:"Prof.",name:"Grazyna",surname:"Zakrzewska-Koltuniewicz",slug:"grazyna-zakrzewska-koltuniewicz",fullName:"Grazyna Zakrzewska-Koltuniewicz"},{id:"213314",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",surname:"Miskiewicz",slug:"agnieszka-miskiewicz",fullName:"Agnieszka Miskiewicz"},{id:"213315",title:"MSc.",name:"Dorota",surname:"Gajda",slug:"dorota-gajda",fullName:"Dorota Gajda"},{id:"213316",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylwester",surname:"Sommer",slug:"sylwester-sommer",fullName:"Sylwester Sommer"},{id:"213317",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw",surname:"Wolkowicz",slug:"stanislaw-wolkowicz",fullName:"Stanislaw Wolkowicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"58946",title:"Remotely Monitoring Uranium-Enrichment Plants with Detection of Gaseous Uranium Hexafluoride and HF Using Lidar",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73356",slug:"remotely-monitoring-uranium-enrichment-plants-with-detection-of-gaseous-uranium-hexafluoride-and-hf-",totalDownloads:908,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A sudden release of UF6 inside a building or to the atmosphere could conceivably cause undesirable health effects to workers and the public in general, mainly associated with the exposure to hydrolysis products HF and UO2F2. Although the hydrolysis reaction of UF6 is fast, after escaping of UF6 into the atmosphere, besides HF and UO2F2, UF6 may also be found in the atmosphere. This chapter proposes a real-time technique to provide information to technical personnel and facility operators on the atmospheric release of UF6 to ensure that the workers, the public, and the environment are adequately protected. The system comprises a combined differential absorption lidar (DIAL) and Raman lidar to detect gaseous UF6 and HF, simultaneously. The DIAL provides information on UF6 concentration using a frequency-quadrupled Nd:YAG laser at 266 nm as the off-wavelength and a Nd:YAG-pumped Coumarin 450 dye laser using a Littrow grating mounting operating in the frequency doubled at 245 nm as the on-wavelength. Recording Raman scattering of molecular HF at wavelength of 297.3 nm (with Raman frequency shift of 3959 cm−1) is a versatile technique to identify HF as a probe for real-time detection and localization of UF6 leaks.",signatures:"Gholamreza Shayeganrad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58946",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58946",authors:[{id:"121092",title:"Dr.",name:"Gholamreza",surname:"Shayeganrad",slug:"gholamreza-shayeganrad",fullName:"Gholamreza Shayeganrad"}],corrections:null},{id:"58445",title:"Thermodynamics and Separation Factor of Uranium from Fission Products in “Liquid Metal-Molten Salt” System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72451",slug:"thermodynamics-and-separation-factor-of-uranium-from-fission-products-in-liquid-metal-molten-salt-sy",totalDownloads:1019,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present chapter contains the results of studying electrochemical and thermodynamic properties of La, Nd, and U in “liquid metal-molten salt” systems, where liquid metals were binary Ga-Al and Ga-In alloys of various compositions. The apparent standard potentials of ternary U-Ga-In, U-Ga-Al, La-Ga-In, La-Ga-Al, Nd-Ga-In, and Nd-Ga-Al alloys at various temperatures were determined, and the temperature dependencies were obtained. Primary thermodynamic properties (activity coefficients, partial excess Gibbs free energy change, partial enthalpy change of mixing, and excess entropy change) were calculated. The influence of the bimetallic alloy composition and the nature of lanthanide on thermodynamic properties of compounds are discussed. The values of U/Nd separation factors on gallium-aluminum and U/La on gallium-indium alloys were calculated. The value of the separation factors strongly depends on the alloy composition. Uranium in this case is accumulating in the metallic phase and lanthanides in the salt melt. Analysis of the data obtained showed the perspective use of the active cathodes (Ga-Al and Ga-In instead of single Cd) in future innovative methods for reprocessing spent nuclear fuels (SNF) and high-active nuclear wastes in the future of closed nuclear fuel cycle.",signatures:"Valeri Smolenski, Alena Novoselova, Alexander Bychkov, Vladimir\nVolkovich, Yana Luk’yanova and Alexander Osipenko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58445",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58445",authors:[{id:"50536",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Osipenko",slug:"alexander-osipenko",fullName:"Alexander Osipenko"},{id:"211118",title:"Prof.",name:"Valeri",surname:"Smolenski",slug:"valeri-smolenski",fullName:"Valeri Smolenski"},{id:"211120",title:"Prof.",name:"Alena",surname:"Novoselova",slug:"alena-novoselova",fullName:"Alena Novoselova"},{id:"211121",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Volkovich",slug:"vladimir-volkovich",fullName:"Vladimir Volkovich"},{id:"211123",title:"Ms.",name:"Yana",surname:"Luk’yanova",slug:"yana-luk'yanova",fullName:"Yana Luk’yanova"},{id:"220760",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Bychkov",slug:"alexander-bychkov",fullName:"Alexander Bychkov"}],corrections:null},{id:"57834",title:"Chemical Thermodynamics of Uranium in the Soil Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72107",slug:"chemical-thermodynamics-of-uranium-in-the-soil-environment",totalDownloads:1141,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Uranium is present in the soil environment because of human activity, including the usage of U-bearing phosphorus fertilizers. In oxic and many suboxic soil environments, U(VI) is the dominant uranium valence species. With pH, pe (Eh), the partial pressure of CO2, the mineralogy of the adsorbing surfaces and the uranium concentration as the key master variables, U(VI) will predictably participate in hydrolysis, ion-pairing, complexation, ion-exchange, mineral precipitation and adsorption reactions. An extensive listing of thermochemical data is currently available for detailed simulations to assist with model setup, data interpretation and system understanding. In this chapter, simulations of U(VI) hydrolysis with variable pCO2 activities, U(IV) and U(VI) precipitation, U(VI) reduction and U(VI) complexation with carbonate and phosphate assemblages illustrate the usefulness and applicability of simulations in data analysis and experimental design.",signatures:"Michael Thomas Aide",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57834",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57834",authors:[{id:"185895",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Aide",slug:"michael-aide",fullName:"Michael Aide"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7287",title:"New Trends in Nuclear Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2156d3fb99aa1fd640aabf95d1ca9f4c",slug:"new-trends-in-nuclear-science",bookSignature:"Nasser Sayed Awwad and Salem A. 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1. Introduction
It is now, generally, agreed that access to advanced forms of energy is associated with improved and sustainable lifestyles; this has reinforced aspirations for universal access to clean and modern energy for all. Energy access is understood to mean the user’s ability to access and utilise both electricity and clean cooking technologies. Achieving this universal access in the developing world especially in sub-Saharan Africa has, however, faced several challenges. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) refers to the area lying south of the Sahara desert; it consists of all countries that are fully or partially located south of the Sahara and mainly excludes all countries in North Africa and all countries that may lie in sub-Saharan Africa but belonging to the Arab states. It is highly contended that SSA remains the most energy (modern~) impoverished region of the world. For instance, the International Energy Agency (IEA) says that more than 600 million people do not have access to electricity, and close to 800 million people rely on traditional biomass fuels and unimproved cookstoves in sub-Saharan Africa [1]. In the year 2000, only 22.6% of the population in sub-Saharan Africa had access to electricity, compared with 40.8% in Asia, 86.6% in Latin America and 91.1% in the Middle East [2]. Although it can be argued that this situation has some historical connotations, it is also quite true that it has persisted this long due to variations in national developmental priorities, as well as inefficient governance and suboptimal resources utilisation. Historically, electricity development in sub-Saharan Africa came about for three major reasons: as an amenity or symbol of modernity for non-African settlers, a source of power for mines and industry, or as a stimulus for industrial development [3]. During the colonial era, African residential areas were systematically and deliberately excluded from connection to grids, since Africans were not considered to have any need for electricity.
Nonetheless, the need to resolve the problem of low or lack of access to clean and modern energy services has been reaffirmed nationally and internationally as expressed by the Sustainable Energy for All initiative [4], the Paris Agreement [5], the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [6] and the Agenda 2063 [7]. In the pursuit for solutions, it is worth noting the consensus, however, that this should be done in a sustainable and environmentally benign manner.
This chapter presents a situational review of the energy sector in SSA and examines possible complementary strategies that could strengthen efforts to attaining universal access to clean and modern energy. Section 2 examines electricity supply; Section 3 explores clean fuels and technologies for cooking, while Section 4 presents a review on biofuels for transportation; and finally Section 5 windups the chapter with conclusion and a way forward.
2. Electricity
Currently, on a global level, more than 1 billion people live without access to electricity, with more than half of them found in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Electricity is a clean and efficient source of energy; access to affordable, reliable and sustainable electricity supplies is important for the delivery of clean water, sanitation and healthcare services, as well as for providing reliable and efficient lighting, heating, cooking, mechanical power, and transport and telecommunications services. Lack or limited access to electricity, therefore, has negative socio-economic implications [8].
Electricity supply technologies refer to combinations of primary energy resources, electricity generating equipment and distribution infrastructure; the energy resources maybe fossil (coal, oil, gas) or nuclear (uranium, plutonium) or renewables (solar PV, wind, small and large hydro, biomass and waste, biofuels, geothermal), or any mixes thereof. The distribution infrastructure maybe grid-connected and would include transmission and distribution networks, or maybe based on distributed energy technologies. Distributed energy resources encompass mini-grids, micro-grids, stand-alone systems (such as solar home systems, solar lanterns), energy efficiency and storage technologies.
The first electricity supply power plant in Africa was established in the British southern African settler Cape Colony in the 1880s; in the early twentieth century, electricity generation gradually spreads across the continent. In the decades following the end of World War II, electricity systems evolved into large centralised plants, especially hydroelectric plants, mainly to serve mining interests particularly for refining aluminium [3].
The long-lasting effects of this historical exclusion of indigenous populations continue to be evident to date despite post-independence efforts at national and regional grid roll out and rural electrification. The 2012 World Bank reports show the extent of electricity access in sub-Saharan Africa as indicated in Table 1.
Traditionally, the electricity supply systems developed into bulk, centralised coal-fired, gas and nuclear-powered plants, hydroelectric dams and large-scale solar power stations and required electricity to be transmitted over long distances to load centres through high voltage (400, 275 and 132 kV) transmission and medium voltage (33 kV, 11 kV, 3.3 kV and 440 V) distribution three-phase systems [9].
In the quest to find solutions to the electricity access problems, several options have been considered including: opening up the energy market to private participation and developing necessary market and regulatory policy framework; streamlining the performance and operation of state owned electricity enterprises; diversifying the energy mix thereby also integrating distributed energy resources and renewables; promoting sub-continental regional relations and trade in electricity; and developing effective and innovative electricity sector investment financing, and revenue payment and collection systems. The overriding principle behind this paradigm shift is to have efficient, secure and cost-effective electricity services within a framework of market opportunities for competitive business without negating the obligations of national governments to improving access to electricity by unaffording, low income, and quite often rural-based households. Some of these efforts are examined in detail in the following sub-sections:
2.1. Opening up the energy market to private participation
Unbundling of state owned electricity systems can be effected ‘vertically’ (e.g. for electricity supply, separating generation, transmission, distribution, metering and supply) and/or ‘horizontally’ (separating companies of the same type so there is market competition wherever possible). Table 2 shows some of the common structures for unbundling of the otherwise vertically integrated and state owned electricity supply system:
% of National population having access to electricity
2.2. Developing necessary market and regulatory policy framework
Market and regulatory policy frameworks include need for fair and effective sharing and generation of relevant market information and data between stakeholders; addressing difficulties in sourcing investment capital for relatively newer investment markets; the need to develop procedures for resolution of investment, maintenance and operational costs and financial compensation resulting from changes to the power system commercial mechanisms; and provision of long-term market assurances to promote investment and long-term planning.
To this end, most countries have passed legislation establishing national regulation boards with varying mandates to oversee the liberalisation schemes; Table 3 shows some of the countries that have passed such legislation. Table 4 shows renewable energy feed-in-tariffs, auctions, net metering and investment incentives adopted by some countries in sub-Saharan Africa.
Country
Legislation
Kenya
Kenya Energy Act 2006: converted an advisory regulator into a decision making regulator, the Energy Regulation Commission. It also makes the new commission the sole authority over imports and exports of electricity
Mozambique
Mozambique Minister of Energy’s directive July 2006 creates a ‘strong’ advisory regulator, emphasises the need for transparency and public hearings by the advisory regulator. It also entrusts the regulator with the responsibility of monitoring the performance contract between the government and Electricidade de Moçambique (EdM), the state owned power utility
Namibia
The electricity acts of 2000 and 2007 which established the Electricity Control Board that regulates the issuance of licences for electricity generation and related matters
South Africa
The National Energy Regulator (NERSA) established through the 2006 legislation gives the regulator powers to oversee the registration and issuance of licences for the generation, transmission, distribution, as well as the local and international trade of electricity
Tanzania
The Tanzania Electricity Act 2008 provides for the facilitation and regulation of generation, transmission, transformation, distribution, supply and use of electricity; it also makes provisions for regional trade in electricity as well as for the planning and regulation of rural electrification The section on regulation of rural electrification authorises EWURA, the national electricity regulator to:
vary the nature of its regulation depending on the characteristics of the entity performing the electrification;
delegate regulatory responsibilities to other entities.
Uganda
The electricity act of 1999 provided for the creation of regulatory authority to oversee the licencing and regulation of electricity generation, transmission, distribution, sale and use. It also enforces matters pertaining to plant and equipment and safety. It was also entrusted with the responsibility of liberalisation and introduction of competition in the electricity sector
Zambia
The Energy Regulatory Board, established through a legislative act of 1995, gives the board the responsibility of issuing licences for the production and handling of energy and petroleum products
2.3. Streamlining the performance and operation of state-owned electricity enterprises
This focuses mainly on the following three aspects:
Lack of system capacity: in terms of both generation, and transmission and distribution infrastructure; this has adversely affected economic and industrial development resulting in inadequate ability for the sector to reinvest for sustainable and expanding power supply.
Poor sector management: power sector has consistently failed to reach sustainable operational efficiency for recovery of both recurrent and capital costs.
High system losses: both technical losses from the ailing transmission and distribution networks, and commercial losses from poor tariffs collection
2.4. Diversifying the energy mix
The majority of households in many sub-Saharan countries lack grid connection due to the poor state and low coverage of the electricity transmission and distribution networks. Diversification of the energy system is one way of resolving this problem. Some factors to consider are as follows:
Dependence on large dams: the seasonal variability of hydropower output and the impact of prolonged droughts in the region create fragile power systems and increase the financial and climate risks; secondly owing to very high upfront costs, long-term financial viability is not assured.
Dependence on fossil fuels: the challenges include local air pollution and public health concerns, as well as susceptibility to global fluctuations in fossil fuels prices.
Distributed energy resources (DERs): the modular nature of renewables such as solar and small-scale hydropower and the improved knowledge and management of energy distribution systems have made DERs an attractive option especially for off-grid applications. Product systems include solar lanterns, solar home systems and solar micro-grids.
Renewables: offer opportunities for improving and developing energy access as they can be deployed at different levels from small to large systems.
Micro-grids: a micro-grid is a lower level electricity supply generation and distribution system that delivers electricity to several structures in a village. Micro-grids can supply power to even remote locations because advances in ICTs facilitate demand projecting and pay-as-you-go services. Also, micro-grids do not need huge investments and lengthy construction times—notwithstanding that capital costs are still prohibitive for small- and medium-sized businesses. Initial micro-grids were based on fossil fuels such as diesel; their performance was highly dependent on reliability of fuels supplies as well as fuel prices. However, advancement in renewables has made micro-grids more appealing. An example of a micro-grid is that at a village called Motshegaletau in central Botswana, the village had a population of about 700 as at 1997 projections; the micro-grid consisted of a PV array with an output of 5.7 kW, 48 V dc from 20 x 285 W panels arranged in five parallel rows; two sine wave inverters convert 48 V DC to 230 V AC. Forty-eight batteries rated 2 V DC, 1200 Ah connected in two parallel strings form the battery storage bank rated 48 V DC nominal and 2400 Ah. The grid supplied nine residential houses, a bar, a clinic and a school.
Energy efficiency: supply side and demand side inefficiencies certainly implicate negatively on improving access to electricity supplies; cogeneration and trigeneration technologies can enhance supply side electricity efficiencies. A successful case of biofuel-based cogeneration has been demonstrated in the sugar industry where the bagasse by-product is used to fire steam generators for heat and electricity production. For instance, Mauritius has been able to meet about half of her electricity needs from bagasse cogeneration plants following reforms aimed at making the sugar industry more attractive for investment. A number of countries in East Africa and Southern Africa have large sugar industrial sectors.
2.5. Promoting sub-continental regional relations and trade in electricity
Regional power pools:
Currently, the sub-continent has four regional power pools; intra- and inter-regional power pools collaborations could help improve performance of the power sector through economies of scale, security of supply from a rich energy mix, and cost efficiency through shared energy storage and improved demand side response management.
2.6. Developing effective and innovative revenue payment and collection systems such as flexible payment schemes
Pay-As-You-Go (PAYG) business model: Under this model, consumers can finance off-grid renewable electricity systems such as solar lanterns, solar home systems and solar micro-grids either by paying the full cost upfront or by paying in instalments over time using mobile money mechanisms such as M-PESA and Airtel MTN. Two companies, M-Kopa and Mobisol, have adopted this model and are using it in East Africa where off-grid low-income and rising middle-class customers who are unable to pay a once off full purchase price for solar home systems, have been enabled to access electricity services. The M-Kopa systems consist of 8 W solar panels, LED lights, a rechargeable radio, and a cell-phone charger. As of 2016, M-Kopa had connected more than 300,000 homes to solar power (website: www.pwc.co.uk [14]; website: m-kopa.com [15]) while Mobisol, has to date installed more than 3 MW of solar home system capacity in Rwanda and Tanzania (website: [16] energy-access.gnesd.org) (Figure 1).
Fee-for-Use (F4U) business model: Under this model, the customer does not buy the stand-alone system, but only pays rent to use it. A solar company retains ownership, ensures that the system is operating properly and is responsible for maintenance. The customer makes a one-time installation payment as well as reoccurring fixed payments based on the size of the system. The M-POWER company offers to Tanzania rural people a solar home system (SHS) which includes: the hardware to generate solar energy (solar panel, storage and wires) and energy using products (EUP) (two lights and phone charger). Customers pay as a pay per period (daily fees). Off Grid Electric maintains proprietorship of SHS and EUPs and develops a network of local artisans/dealers for installation and technical support [17] (Figure 2).
Figure 1.
A 100 W solar home system with kit of DC appliances from Mobisol (source: Mobisol, 2017).
Figure 2.
A client showing an M-power solar product based on a ‘pay-per-period’ concept.
The foregoing discussion illustrates that widespread electricity access is achievable as demonstrated by the two countries, Seychelles and Mauritius, with 100% electricity access; it also points to the complexities associated with tackling the problem of electricity access; for instance, three countries have less than 10% access and 50 of the 70 countries recorded have less than 50% access.
It is also noted that several countries are taking measures to deal with the problem of electricity access. Some of these measures include market liberalisation and development of appropriate legislations. Other initiatives are the promotion of sub-regional integration and development of innovative financing capital and client flexible repayment schemes.
3. Clean and improved cooking technologies
Clean cooking solutions or clean fuels and technologies for cooking refer to combinations of clean cooking fuels and compatible improved cooking equipment; as well as the infrastructure for fuel production and distribution. Clean fuels are fuels which during combustion emit little to no pollutants that are harmful to health and the environment. They include ethanol, biogas and jatropha oil; liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and kerosene may also be admissible. Improved cooking stoves are safer to use and have higher energy efficiencies thus consuming less fuel. Examples of equipment for the production of fuel include biogas digesters, ethanol distillation equipment and jatropha oil extracting machinery, whereas examples of distribution infrastructure embrace local selling points for bottled LPG and pump stations for kerosene. Solar cookers and electricity are also considered clean cooking solutions but have not attained wide spread usage in the sub-Saharan Africa region [4]. Current statistics show that 3.04 billion people are living without clean cooking globally. Around 600 million people residing in sub-Saharan Africa, 76% of the populace rely upon conventional solid biomass fuels as their principal energy resource [18].
Traditional fuels produce dangerous emissions which are a health hazard especially when used indoors and under poor ventilation; in addition, these fuels have very low energy efficiencies, and the heat produced is highly difficult to control. Traditional biomass fuels mainly refer to non-processed or semi-processed solid biomass used mainly for generating heat for cooking and for space heating usually in the form of a simple open fire or with basic wood and charcoal stoves. Traditional forms of biomass energy mainly include wood, wood waste, charcoal, animal waste and other agricultural residues. These fuels are characterised by low efficiency, poor handling and storage. Table 5 shows woodfuel usage patterns in some sub-Saharan African countries.
3.1. Improved traditional fuels and technologies
These are traditional biomass-based fuels that have characteristics of improved efficiencies and/or sustainably produced. They include improved biomass cookstoves, charcoal, fuel briquettes and sustainable woodfuel.
3.1.1. Improved cookstoves
Initial attempts at finding solutions to the inefficient traditional biomass fuels have been to integrate improved cookstoves into the traditional biomass fuels setting. In the absence of a formally agreed definition of an advanced cookstove, it for the most part implies a stove that cooks more effectively than the customary three-stone stove [1]. Potential benefits of adopting use of improved cookstoves are reductions in indoor air pollution resulting from improved combustion rates, and reduced cooking times and fuel requirements. Cookstoves that incorporate forced ventilation are capable of eliminating pollutants all together. Improved cookstove designs vary depending on the fuel being used; fuels used range from solid fuels such as fuelwood, charcoal, coal, fuel briquettes to liquid/gel fuel and gas fuels; as such local specific aspects need to be built into the stoves; in South Africa, for instance, there is wide spread use of coal for cooking and heating; thus necessitating research and development work on clean coal stoves such as those undertaken by the South Africa’s council for scientific and industrial research (CSIR) and New Dawn Engineering’s Mr. Crispin Pemberton-Pigott (website: www.pciaonline.org [19]). Figure 3 shows some of the improved cookstoves exhibited at the people energy network (PEN) workshop 2009 at University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
Figure 3.
Pictures of combustors on exhibit at inaugural PEN workshop 2009. (source: Author).
3.1.2. Charcoal
Perhaps one fuel, among traditional biomass fuel types, requiring special mention is charcoal. It is a porous carbonaceous black solid fuel produced through the pyrolysis treatment of unprocessed solid biomass fuels. In sub-Saharan Africa, it is mainly produced through the slow burning of woodfuel in earth kilns and under restricted air flow. It emits fewer pollutants and has a higher energy density than firewood thus making is less bulk and relatively easier to transport. It has widespread usage especially among the low and middle income urbanites. It is, however, still not considered a clean fuel as it is inefficient and has levels of pollutants not ideal for household cooking. Table 6 shows charcoal usage pattern in some sub-Saharan African countries.
Country
Percentage of total population living in rural and urban areas
Percentage of rural, urban and total population dependent on firewood
Rural (%)
Urban (%)
Rural (%)
Urban (%)
Total (%)
Tanzania
76.9
23.1
95.6
26.7
77.4
Uganda
87.7
12.3
91.3
22.1
81.6
Senegal
59.3
40.7
89.1
15.9
54.7
Zambia
65.4
34.6
87.7
10.1
60.9
Malawi
85.6
14.4
98.5
69.0
94.3
Kenya
64.1
35.9
88.4
9.6
68.8
Table 5.
Firewood usage in some sub-Saharan African countries [18].
Country
Rural (%)
Urban (%)
Total (%)
Tanzania
3.6
52.9
16.7
Uganda
7.0
66.8
15.4
Senegal
1.8
12.1
6.6
Zambia
9.5
52.1
24.3
Malawi
0.4
15.5
2.5
Kenya
6.0
20.8
9.7
Table 6.
Level of charcoal use for fuel in selected African nations [18].
3.1.3. Fuel briquettes
Fuel briquettes are made from powdery or granular industrial waste such as coal dust, charcoal dust, saw dust and wood shavings, waste paper and pulp, or bagasse, and so on. This powdery waste material is normally mixed with a binder; this is followed by moulding under pressure. It is then either simply dried or subjected to carbonisation process that is exposed to intense heat under limited airflow. The environmental performance and combustion efficiency of fuel briquettes are highly dependent on the type and source of materials used in its manufacture.
3.1.4. Sustainable woodfuel
Woodfuel is cultivable. One idea that is normally considered is that of sustainable woodfuel, implying that the forest stock used as fuel is replenished through tree planting thus contributing carbon neutrality of the type of fuel.
3.2. Modern fuels and technologies
Modern cooking fuels are so referred and distinguished from traditional cooking fuels on account of ease of handle ability and controllability during use, higher energy efficiency and clean burning with little or no harmful emissions and as such possessing health and environmental benefits. Both LPG and biogas are considered examples of gaseous clean fuels while ethanol and jatropha oil are examples of liquid clean fuels. The discussion also covers electricity and solar thermal for cooking, two clean cooking fuels that have not been successfully adopted in the region; kerosene is also discussed as it is considered relatively cleaner that the traditional fuels [20].
3.2.1. Kerosene
Kerosene is a fossil fuel produced as a distillate mainly from crude oil refineries. It is not considered a clean cooking fuel but considered a slight improvement on traditional biomass fuels in that its combustion does not produce as much harmful pollutants, and that it is easier to handle, transport, store and control during use. It is widely used in the urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa. It is predominantly used in two types of combustors, wick type and pressurised cookstoves.
3.2.2. Jatropha oil
Jatropha curcas is a small bush-like plant. The oil from jatropha seeds has a wide range of useful applications. It is traditionally used for medicinal purposes and could find some ground in the pharmaceutical industries. It is widely used for biodiesel production. Further advancements in biofuel stoves technology are needed in order for jatropha to become attractive as an alternative to traditional biomass fuels.
3.2.3. Biogas
Biogas is a clean gaseous fuel suitable for household cooking. It is a gaseous mixture rich in methane gas, produced through anaerobic digestion of biodegradable domestic waste, landfill/municipal waste or agricultural residues; it can also be used for lighting or at larger scales for electricity generation. However, its widespread uptake has been constrained by lack of reliable and adequate availability of feedstock such as in areas where farmers practice free range livestock keeping, as well as socio-cultural factors such as the acceptance of human excreta as feedstock.
3.2.4. Liquefied petroleum gas
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases mainly propane and butane. Despite being a fossil fuel, LPG has low carbon content and a high calorific value of around 50 kilojoules per gram; it burns clean and completely with a blue smokeless flame, producing fewer soot particulates. It is also safe, nontoxic and considered relatively affordable. It is potentially a better substitute for traditional biomass fuels.
3.2.5. Ethanol and gelfuel
Several countries in Africa are currently distilling ethanol which is mainly used as an additive in transportation fuels. Ethanol is very well suited as a household cooking fuel. Ethanol production is a matured technology, though there are several controversies surrounding the use of food crops (cassava, sorghum, maize, wheat, etc.) for biofuels. Further conversion of ethanol to gelfuel is thought to improve its handle ability and reduce risks associated with burning ethanol for household cooking.
3.2.6. Electricity
Ideally, electricity would be the fuel of choice. It is a clean and highly efficient energy suitable for cooking; but sub-Saharan Africa’s grid network is so underdeveloped and the installed capacity so low, the majority of households cannot access electricity supply.
3.2.7. Solar cooking
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurisation. Solar cooking offsets fuel costs, reduces demand for fuel or firewood, and improves air quality by reducing or removing a source of smoke.
The simplest type of solar cooker is the box cooker. A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. These cookers can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach 50–100°C.
Concentrating solar cookers use reflectors to concentrate solar energy onto a cooking container. The most common reflector geometries are flat plate, disc and parabolic trough type. These designs cook faster at higher temperatures (up to 350°C) but require direct light to function properly.
An example of a concentrating technology is that known as the Scheffler reflector. This technology was first developed by Wolfgang Scheffler in 1986. A Scheffler reflector is a parabolic dish that uses single axis tracking to follow the Sun’s daily course. These reflectors have a flexible reflective surface that is able to change its curvature to adjust to seasonal variations in the incident angle of sunlight. Scheffler reflectors have the advantage of having a fixed focal point which improves the ease of cooking and are able to reach temperatures of 450–650°C. The world’s largest Scheffler reflector system is found in Abu Road, Rajasthan India and it is capable of cooking up to 35,000 meals a day. A number of pilot solar cooking systems have been constructed in sub-Saharan Africa, such as those installed in Botswana and South Africa. A company called Rural Industries Innovation Centre (RIIC) made six installations of a 7m2 Scheffler cooker in Botswana in the late 1990s; 16 units of smaller version cooker, SK14, were also distributed to families in the mining town of Jwaneng in Botswana [21]. Figures 4 and 5 show solar cookers on exhibition and in-use, respectively.
Figure 4.
A collection of solar cookers at international conference on solar cooking, Kimberley-South Africa 27-27 November 2000 (source: Author).
Figure 5.
Preparing meals using SK12-Improved version of SK14 Kimberley-South Africa 27-27 November 2000 (source: Author).
From the preceding discussion, it is evident that a diversity of improved and clean cooking technologies is available in varying formats and mixes for different parts of the sub-continent. Barriers to effective adoption of these technologies are quite wide-ranging and include lack of technological support (localised technology manufacture and maintenance, localised fuels production and distribution networks), higher costs and lack of flexible purchase and repayment schemes, as well as lack of information and awareness. Some efforts are being undertaken to address these barriers; for instance, the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, an initiative hosted by the UN Foundation in support of Sustainable Energy for All, a public-private partnership that seeks to save lives, improve livelihoods, empower women, and protect the environment by creating a thriving global market for clean and efficient household cooking solutions; the alliance has a goal of enabling an additional 100 million homes to adopt clean and efficient stoves and fuels by 2020 (website: www.unfoundation.org [22]).
4. Biofuels for transportation
Transportation energy technologies refer to all forms of energy and corresponding infrastructure for facilitation of mobility of vehicular objects. As such they include fossil based fuels technologies, biofuel-based technologies, electricity based technologies and nuclear energy-based propulsion technologies. Clean transportation fuels technologies refer to various fuel-technology combinations in the transport sector characterised by reduced or no greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Electrically powered transportation in the form of electric trains and ships has been in existence for centuries, from the 1830s when the Scottish, Robert Anderson invented the first crude electric carriage to the (website: www.pbs.org [23]) to the futuristic notion of all-cars-electric by 2040 (website: news.nationalgeographic.com [24]); numerous efforts for electric automobiles are currently under consideration or development by several technology and manufacturing companies. Efforts for replacement of fossil fuels by biofuels have also been widely explored.
Biofuels are liquid and gaseous fuels produced from biomass, used in the transport sector. Biofuels can be classified into conventional and advanced forms [25]:
Conventional biofuels (also referred to as first generation) are well-established technologies that are, currently, under commercial production; they include ethanol (processed from corn, sugarcane, wheat, sugarbeet, cassava, etc.), biodiesel (from rapeseed, soybean, oil palm, sunflower, etc.) and biogas (produced via anaerobic digestion of energy crops such as maize silage and waste such as bio-waste including manure).
Advanced biofuels, also referred to as second generation biofuels, are to a larger extend still at developmental stage, and are mainly produced from non-edible biomass such as cellulose (plant stalks), non-food crops such as jatropha and tobacco, and bio-waste or by-products of food industries such as molasses from sugar processing. Third generation (biofuels from algae) and fourth generation (microbial biotechnology) are still at conceptual stages.
Bioethanol and biodiesel are the most common types of biofuels. The use of bioethanol and biodiesel as transport fuels is very attractive due to reduction of combustion emissions, accessibility from renewable resources, and biodegradability [12, 18, 26]. Over the past decade, the production of bioethanol and biodiesel has been extensively investigated worldwide and their production methods have proved successful in the USA and Brazil [4, 18, 27]. However, in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), large-scale industrial production and commercialization are stagnant. This section provides a brief review on the potential for biofuels as a transportation fuel in SSA [4].
Access to reliable and affordable transportation infrastructure and services, although, and probably justifiably so, not considered as critical as access to electricity and/or clean cooking technologies, has a greater bearing on any meaningful developmental initiatives, including on the development of infrastructure for adequate provision of electricity and clean cooking. Access to affordable and reliable ‘fuel’ cannot be divorced from transportation and in turn to socio-economic development. Many countries, in SSA, face insecure fuel supplies due to fluctuating fossil fuel prices, inadequate distribution networks, civil wars, as well as lack of foreign currency. A well-developed biofuels industry will contribute to solving the transportation problem; in addition a number of spin-off benefits to be gained from a well-developed biofuels industry will include:
ensuring availability of affordable fuel to rural communities for household electrification, powering farming machinery, and transportation;
stabilising the sub-continent’s energy supply and diversifying its fuel options and reducing the burden on oil importing countries;
creating opportunities for exports of biofuel feedstocks to industrialised countries by African farmers;
providing many employment opportunities to African people and boost the continent’s economy; and
assisting industrialised sub-Saharan Africa countries, such as Egypt, Nigeria, and South Africa that are among the leading carbon emitters in the continent in mitigating carbon emissions.
In closing the discussion under this section, it suffices to point out that sub-Saharan Africa presents greater potential for development of a strong biofuel industry. There are several ongoing and commenced initiatives regarding biofuels development in sub-Saharan Africa. Table 7 shows some of such initiatives:
Country
Biofuel initiatives
Burkina Faso
A Dutch funded government project, Fondation Fasobiocarburant (FFB) has promoted planting of 70,000 trees of jatropha oil seeds in 2009.
Ghana
Ghana’s bioenergy policy aims at attaining 20% blend of biofuels with petroleum fuels by 2030. Initial production of ethanol has been from cassava and sugarcane. Other feedstocks considered are maize and jatropha oil seeds.
Mali
an NGO, Mali-Folkecenter Nyetaa has developed an innovative project whereby the local farmers of Garalo village, in the vicinity of the centre, have grouped themselves into cooperatives for growing of jatropha, intercropped with other cereals; the jatropha seeds are pressed into oil that is supplied to the centre; in turn the centre operates a 300 kW installed capacity plant with a 15 km mini-grid supplying electricity to the 10,000 inhabitants of the village.
Malawi
Bioethanol for fuel is produced by two captive distilleries at Dwangwa and Nchalo sugar estates at annual capacities of 15–20 million litres and 12 million litres, respectively. The fuel grade bioethanol is blended at 20% (v/v) with petrol by the petroleum industry. Local farmers are also involved in the sugarcane production under out-growers schemes; local farmers have also been engaged to grow over ten million jatropha trees under a 5 years project.
Mozambique
Mozambique Government has implemented a 5–10% (v/v) blend for bioethanol with petroleum. Ndzilo plant delivers close to two million litres of ethanol from cassava. Biodiesel is produced from jatropha oil seeds by two companies, Petromoc and SunBiofuels.
Nigeria
Five big companies distil about 134 million litres of ethanol every year in Nigeria. Biodiesel is produced by companies such as Biodiesel Nigeria Limited in Lagos State, Aura Bio-Corporation in Cross River State, and the Shashwat Jatropha in Kebbi State.
South Africa
Government plans to reduce fossil fuels imports by substituting it with biofuels. It has thus passed legislation that requires a mandatory 2% blend for all petrol and diesel products as of 2015; with plans to increase the blend proportion as the biofuels industry grows. A few companies have been issued licences for the production of bioethanol and biodiesel. Biomethane, bioelectricity and biohydrogen are also under consideration for incorporation in the mix for clean fuels for transportation.
Tanzania
Seven companies and NGOs include Diligent Tanzania Ltd., Kakute Ltd., ARI-Monduli, MVIWATA, Kikuletwa Farm, Jatropha Products Tanzania Limited, and Tanzanian Traditional Energy Development and Environment Organisation are involved in jatropha tree planting and production of biodiesel
Lack of access to clean and modern energy, including energy poverty, is quite prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, with the majority of the population relying on traditional biomass fuels. Traditional biomass fuels are associated with low energy efficiencies, difficult to control and are a health hazard. Electricity supply and connectivity is far outstripped by demand and is beyond the means of the majority poor people. It is widely acknowledged that access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all is a common necessity for socio-economic development as espoused by the sustainable development goal number seven (SGD 7).
More than half of all Africans have no access to electricity; regrettably, this also represents more than half of all people without electricity globally. The traditional electricity system in most countries evolved as large, centralised, fossil fuel or large hydropower systems operating on a monopolistic, state-owned, vertically-integrated model characterised by inefficient management and poor performance. Some of the efforts aimed at redressing this situation include liberalisation of the electricity market, development of market and legal frameworks, streamlining the performance of state-owned electricity utilities, promoting sub-regional electricity trade, as well as development of innovative financing and revenue repayment and collection mechanisms.
Improved traditional cooking technologies include improved cookstoves and higher energy-content traditional fuel forms. These, generally, do not meet the requirements clean, modern cooking technologies. Modern fuels and cooking technologies include cleaner fossil fuels (kerosene and LPG), biofuels (jatropha oil, biogas and ethanol), and electricity and solar cooking. Lack of awareness, lack of technological support and higher costs are the main barriers to the widespread adoption of modern cooking technologies.
Biofuels for transportation are at different developmental stages with bioethanol and biodiesel being the most advanced and commercialised globally. In sub-Saharan Africa, however, the biofuel industry remains largely underdeveloped, although isolated significant developments have been recorded. Substantial potential for the biofuel industry is substantial and so are the potential benefits.
As an ending to this chapter, it worth noting the following:
There is no ‘One-Size-Fits-All’ or ‘Cut-and-Paste’ solution to the problems of energy access and poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa; each scenario requires a unique solution apt to its details; that is, the stakeholders (users included), available energy resources, level of socio-economic and industrial development, and so on.
Lessons can be learnt from success stories such as the 100% electricity access in Mauritius and Seychelles, LPG roll out program in Senegal (website: stoves.bioenergylists.org [29]), Free Basic Electricity (FBE) scheme in South Africa (website: flash.co.za [30]).
Notwithstanding the merits of a competitive and profitable energy model, it remains governments’ obligation to develop systems that ensure universal modern and sustainable energy access is availed to those that cannot afford.
Department of Industrial Design and Technology, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
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Užík",authors:[{id:"205926",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Beáta",middleName:null,surname:"Gavurová",fullName:"Beáta Gavurová",slug:"beata-gavurova"},{id:"206104",title:"Mr.",name:"Viliam",middleName:null,surname:"Kováč",fullName:"Viliam Kováč",slug:"viliam-kovac"},{id:"206107",title:"Prof.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Užík",fullName:"Martin Užík",slug:"martin-uzik"},{id:"223599",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Wladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Schubert",fullName:"Wladimir Schubert",slug:"wladimir-schubert"}]},{id:"57201",title:"Modeling Default Probability via Structural Models of Credit Risk in Context of Emerging Markets",slug:"modeling-default-probability-via-structural-models-of-credit-risk-in-context-of-emerging-markets",signatures:"Maria Kovacova and Boris Kollar",authors:[{id:"207972",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Kovacova",fullName:"Maria Kovacova",slug:"maria-kovacova"},{id:"208036",title:"Mr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Kollar",fullName:"Boris 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
If a society wants all its function working efficiently, it requires many elements that meet its needs. Basic functions such as food, water, electricity and transportation require all types of structures to fulfill its purpose. Infrastructure embraces all the buildings that support the goods and services of the community, with an integral and optimal functioning.
\n
All the services of the society require some type of support to be carried out. An engineer, architect or lawyer needs a space to develop their businesses and support its clients; a merchant needs a highway to transport their products to their final destination; supplying water to any destination requires pipes, pipelines and tanks. There are many examples where each service requires some type of infrastructure.
\n
As a general example, consider the construction of an international airport. The main purpose is the aerial communication of the city, which can be used for traveling, tourism and transportation of goods. Listing all the needs of any airplane, there will be at least the following requirements to fulfill:
Landing strip to perform effectively the air traveling.
Control tower for monitoring the air traffic flow.
Airport building to perform all administrative activities.
Hangar for airplane maintenance and storage purposes.
Water supply, storage, pipelines and sewage for the entire place.
Fuel supply and storage for the airplanes.
Land highways and bridges to connect the city with the airport.
Electricity towers and electrical station to supply energy.
\n\n
According the previous example, there are many construction elements and buildings that enhance the aerial communication. The combinations of these structures contribute with the airport to operate efficiently. This type of infrastructure can contribute enabling tourism, transportation, productivity and employment opportunities, increasing the economic activity. Therefore, the infrastructure has a wide variety of structures which can be part of a specific sector and fulfill a simple function.
\n
If any infrastructure element of the airport fails, there will be issues with its functionality; for example, if any bridge is closed due any malfunction or maintenance, the transport of the passengers, goods and services will be affected.
\n
Bridges have a special place in transportation infrastructure due its direct relationship with other places. These structures have the purpose to carry on the traffic loads of the highway, crossing any obstacle and perform an effective communication between two destinations. Since there are many variables to consider in the performance of the bridges, such geometry, span clearance, traffic flow and available materials, there are many options of bridges to choose.
\n
Planning, design and construction process for any bridge looks logical and necessary steps, looking for the good behavior of the structure during any traffic load or resisting flood or seismic events. However, maintenance process guarantee the life of the structure, which applied correctly, will avoid any closure of the bridge and traffic issues.
\n
On this chapter, the main purpose is to focus on bridges as part of land transportation infrastructure, its behavior and the performance during the design, construction and maintenance process.
\n
\n
\n
2. Infrastructure
\n
Basically, all the buildings are part of the infrastructure and fulfill a specific function. According to the American Society of Civil Engineers (A.S.C.E.), there are 16 categories in the infrastructure: Aviation, bridges, dams, drinking, water, energy hazardous waste, inland waterways, levees, parks, ports, rail, roads, schools, solid waste, transit and wastewater [1]. Due to a wide variety structures, the infrastructure can be classified according to its use.
Transportation infrastructure
\n\n
Related to all structures used by the people, products, goods or services to move forward its final destination. Depending on the type of transport, these can be divided into three categories:
\nLand: City roads, highways, train rails and bridges.
\nMaritime: Structures used by ships or vessels, for example ports and channels.
\nAerial: Airports and heliports.
\n
Energy infrastructure
\n\n
Related to all structures intended for the generation and distribution of any types of energy. Depending on the energy type, it can be divided into:
\nElectricity: Electrical stations and supply networks.
\nOil and gas: Refineries and pipelines.
\nAlternative energy sources: Wind towers, nuclear plants and geothermal plants.
\n
Hydraulic infrastructure
\n\n
Structures intended for water distribution and supply, divided into:
\nWater distribution network: Related to water supply, distribution and irrigation. Examples include open channels, pipelines and aqueducts.
\nDrainage networks: Related to distribution and storage purposes, including gray water from industry and rain. Examples include sewer and drainage.
\nWaste water treatment plants: Related to structures with waste water cleaning purposes, including removing sediments to biological cleaning process.
\nWater storage: Related to structures to retain water. Examples include dams and storage tanks.
\n
Telecommunication infrastructure
\n\n
Related to all structures intended for telecommunication industry:
\nCellphone network: All structures supporting signal development for cellphone operations, including antennas and signal structures.
\nTelevision, radio and internet network: Related to antennas for signal distribution via cable wires and wireless signal.
\n
Building infrastructure
\n\n
Related to all structures intended for industry requirements, business community, energy operations and living places.
\nIndustry and business: Structures used for industry and business operation purposes. Examples include a single or multiple story structures and may be used as offices, machinery, equipment and industrial process.
\nLiving places: Intended for population housing, including buildings of single or multiple story levels.
\nBasic services: Structures related to operation services as water distribution, electricity and general supplies.
\nPrimary services and recreational purposes: Places designed for city assistance, including fire and police stations, hospitals, schools, theaters and stadiums.
\n\n
\n\nFigure 1\n shows a general view of Mexico City and the Vidalta cable-stayed bridge as transportation infrastructure, connecting via highways the whole series of multi-story buildings in the background.
\n
Figure 1.
View of Vidalta cable-stayed bridge, Mexico City [2].
\n
According the previous infrastructure classification, all described structures do not work as isolated buildings. Instead, all elements must be connected looking for the harmony in a society, working effectively and should not affect any building performance.
\n
As an example, there is a hospital that provides all types of medical treatment in an urban area. If the city’s electrical stations stop working, the hospital will cease to be fully functional due to lack of electrical power, affecting medical equipment and lighting requirements. Now, if the same hospital has no enough roads for access, its capacity will be very limited, including medical staff and patients.
\n
\n
\n
3. Bridges, a general overview
\n
We recognize that all structures are part of the infrastructure and each one works together. The bridges take a special role, due its function to connect two different points, crossing valleys, rivers, lakes and cliffs.
\n
Bridges are needed on land transportation infrastructure because they connect different points that usually can be inaccessible. If we analyze a single bridge crossing a river, it can have many views, depending on each person’s perspective [3]:
A person who lives in the city can visualize the bridge as a simple access to schools, parks and theaters, or a simple way to visit a family member.
An engineer or architect visualizes the bridge as a way to connect the road with two points of the city, such as hospitals or fire stations.
From the business community, the bridge can be viewed as access to different areas for trade, distribution of goods and services.
\n\n
Depending on the needs of the society to have a bridge, it would be its importance. A bridge that serves as a quick link to recreational parks with a low traffic flow will have less impact than a bridge crossing a large river and connecting two points of the city with high traffic flow.
\n
Taking into account the sentence above, we can realize that bridges are not built arbitrarily; a whole planning should be performed including design, construction, operation and maintenance of the structures. Therefore, for the transportation system, the bridge is a key element [3] according to the following reasons:
Capacity control
Bridges must comply with traffic flow needs during its life period.
\n\n
If a bridge has a small number of lanes, narrow sizes or poor spaces, the structure cannot maintain a continuous vehicular flow.
ii. Bridges must comply with required loads during its life period.
\n\n
This means that the analysis and structural design must take into account all the loads that the bridge must support. For example, if the structure is located on an interstate highway and was not designed to support heavy truck loads, it will have limited vehicle traffic and those trucks will not be able to use the bridge; therefore, these trucks will have to plan an alternate route.
b. High cost for the entire road system
i. Bridges represent a high percentage of road’s budget.
\n\n
If we analyze the construction process of a road and measure the cost per unit distance, the bridges are very expensive compared to the highway.
ii. High cost variability for different bridge geometries.
\n\n
Depending on the number of lanes required, types of vehicles to be supported, distances and/or clear span to cover, materials and available labor, the cost of the bridges are variable. Proper planning is required to meet the needs and comply with the budget.
c. The bridge as part of the system
i. If the bridge has a failure, the road system fails.
\n\n
If we analyze the entire road and at specific place, one of the bridges does not work, the vehicular flow will be affected, increasing traffic flow, delays, time lost and the need of alternative route.
ii. If the bridge is not operating, alternate routes will be affected.
\n\n
When a bridge does not work, people who used the affected road will have the need to use an alternative route, which probably is not designed for a sudden increase of vehicular flow, causing wasted time, greater distances and additional fuel required.
\n
For a successful transportation system, a balance should exist between vehicle volume, supported loads and proper budget. \nFigure 2\n shows a section of Mexico City’s transportation system, showing balance between the number of lanes, signs, bridges and several road accesses.
\n
Figure 2.
View of Mexico City road system [4].
\n
\n
3.1 Types of bridges: ancient and modern
\n
We can think that all existing bridges with the variety of materials, geometries, loads and designs have always existed. However, the evolution of bridges has occurred within the changing needs of the society since the 19th century, with the improvement of materials, optimization techniques, architectural and structural designs [3].
\n
\n
3.1.1 Ancient bridges
\n
In the beginning, bridges were built with a simple geometry and had very limited uses, because they only covered very short span, such as small rivers. These bridges used basic materials such as wood, ropes and stone.
\n
\n
3.1.1.1 Stone arch bridges
\n
The first bridges that were built based on mathematics methods were the stone arch. The exact construction date is not known, but there are structures built by civilizations such as the Greeks or the Romans, where they used this type of bridges as aqueducts, roads for people walking and carriages.
\n
The stone arch bridges, as shown in \nFigure 3\n, take advantage of the compressive capacity of the rock due its geometry, supporting its own weight and live loads. These structures are usually robust and each of the arches supports the upper deck. Some examples of this bridge’s type are the Segovia Aqueduct, located in Spain and the Pont Du Gard Aqueduct, located in France, both built between the 1st and 2nd centuries.
\n
Figure 3.
Stone arch bridge crossing a small river.
\n
\n
\n
3.1.1.2 Wooden and steel truss bridges
\n
By the beginning of the 19th century, the structures used wood as common material and truss bridges began to emerge (\nFigure 4\n). These wooden trusses took advantage of the axial stress capacity of the bar elements, creating bridges with longer spans, low weight and enough stiffness to withstand higher loads. Due the large number of geometries that can be created with trusses, there are possible arrangements which the bar elements can have taking advantage of the tension and compression stress capacities. Some examples can be mentioned:
Trusses with straight bars
Geometries as Pratt, Warren and Baltimore types.
Geometries using cables for tension elements.
Combination between trusses and arch
Geometries as Wernwag and Burr types.
\n\n
Figure 4.
Geometry types of trusses.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.1.2 Modern bridges
\n
In the mid-19th century, with the development industry sector, vehicles and trains entering into circulation using the current transportation system. Therefore, a greater number of roads, railroad and bridges were built to serve the increase of transportation demands.
\n
\n
3.1.2.1 Steel truss bridges
\n
Since the increase of traffic flow and weight of vehicles started, the wooden bridges were already insufficient to support these vehicle loads and the structures began to use steel materials. With the structural steel available on construction market, these bridges had a significant improvement, including the increase of spans length covered and supporting higher loads. Steel trusses bridges replaced wooden trusses and began to build bigger structures. \nFigure 5\n shows an example of this bridge’s type.
\n
Figure 5.
Forth bridge, Edinburgh, Scotland [5].
\n
\n
\n
3.1.2.2 Suspension bridges
\n
The introduction of suspended bridges was an important innovation, due the very large spans length that they can cover. These structures have very large geometries with visual impact on the users, using them as a symbol for the city. Examples of such structures are the Brooklyn Bridge, located in New York and the Golden Gate Bridge, located in California. The overview of the Golden Gate Bridge is shown in \nFigure 6\n.
\n
Figure 6.
Golden Gate suspended bridge, San Francisco, U.S.A. [6].
\n
The geometry of the suspended bridges consists of two central support towers, the main cables supported between the towers, the secondary cables supported on the main cables, the main deck and supporting girders. As a structure, all cables work as tension elements and support the main deck where the traffic flows.
\n
Due the tension cables, suspended bridges can take advantage of the ability to obtain very large spans without intermediate supports. They are widely used to cross very large rivers where conventional bridges are unable. However, one of the disadvantages of this type of structures is the aerodynamic stability, product of the slenderness relationship between main slab, span clearage and the action of thrust forces produced by the wind loads.
\n
\n
\n
3.1.2.3 Reinforced, pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete bridges
\n
With the introduction of Portland cement on the market and the development of concrete construction techniques, design theories for reinforced concrete were developed for structures on the early 20th century.
\n
For long span bridges, reinforced concrete bridges based on arch below main deck are used. It basically consists of an arch in the lower section and piers to support the main deck. All the elements of the bridge are working under compression, with the exception of the main deck that works at flexure. These types of bridge take advantage of the material capacity on compression and avoid tension elements.
\n
Most of the existing bridges cover small and medium spans, which are very useful for roads and highways connecting cities. Girder-based structures with simple or continuous supports are widely used for these cases.
\n
Girder-based bridges can be inefficient due the bending behavior of the girder if we compare it with trusses. However, the girders are relatively easy to build and the relationship between cost and benefit makes these types of structures economically competitive. \nFigure 7\n shows El Zacatal Bridge, located on Mexico and based on pre-stressed concrete girders.
\n
Figure 7.
Bridge of pre-stressed concrete Girders el Zacatal, México [7].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Structures and functions
\n
Depending on the span to be covered, the traffic flow, the availability of materials and labor, the designer will define the geometry of the bridge. Most of the bridges have short spans and use girders of reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete or structural steel. Bridges with intermediate spans use trusses and arches. For very large spans, suspended bridges are the best option.
\n
All types of bridges must have the following qualities:
Cover the vehicular flow demand, with enough lanes and/or spaces.
Support dead, live and accidental loads.
The structure is economically viable.
\n\n
\n
3.2.1 Structural analysis and design
\n
To comply with the previous qualities, the general statement to ensure safety on the structural design of any bridge should follow the next equation:
\n
\n\nResistance\n≥\nEffects of the loads\n\nE1
\n
The structural design process includes two general ways to comply with Eq. (1) and develop safety structures [1]:
Allowable Strength Design (ASD)
This procedure uses the linear behavior of the materials with a defined yield strength which is located below the ultimate strength.
Safety is obtained specifying the effects of the loads should produce stresses as a fraction of yielding stress.
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
This procedure reduces the resistance multiplying a resistance factor φ, usually less than 1; and the load is multiplied by a load factor γ, usually greater than 1.
Since each load has different levels of recurrence, these factors will vary depending on the load type.
\n\n
The general way to obtain the stresses depends directly on the applied force, the internal force and the geometry of the structural element [8]. The behavior of each load applied can be listed as follows:
\n
\n
3.2.1.1 Axial stress
\n
Applied to elements with tension or compression forces.
\n
\n\nσ\n=\n\nP\nA\n\n\nE2
\n
Where:
\n
σ: Axial stress. Units: lb./in2 (N/mm2)
\n
P: Internal axial force. Units: lb. (N)
\n
A: Cross-sectional area. Units: in2 (mm2)
\n
\n
\n
3.2.1.2 Direct shear stress
\n
A to elements with direct shear forces.
\n
\n\nτ\n=\n\nV\nA\n\n\nE3
\n
Where:
\n
τ: Direct shear stress.Units: lb./in2 (N/mm2)
\n
V: Internal shear force. Units: lb. (N)
\n
A: Cross-sectional area. Units: in2 (mm2)
\n
\n
\n
3.2.1.3 Torsion stress
\n
Applied to elements with torsional moments.
\n
\n\nτ\n=\n\nTr\nJ\n\n\nE4
\n
Where:
\n
τ: Torsional stress. Units: lb./in2 (N/mm2)
\n
T: Torsional moment. Units: lb-in (N-mm)
\n
A: Cross-sectional area. Units: in2 (mm2)
\n
\n
\n
3.2.1.4 Bending stress
\n
Applied to elements with bending moments.
\n
\n\n\nσ\nb\n\n=\n\nMc\nI\n\n\nE5
\n
Where:
\n
σb: Bending stress. Units: lb./in2 (N/mm2)
\n
c: Distance between neutral axis and external fiber. Units: in (mm)
\n
I: Moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area. Units: in4 (mm4)
\n
\n
\n
3.2.1.5 Shear stress due bending
\n
Applied to elements with bending moments.
\n
\n\n\nτ\nb\n\n=\n\nVQ\nIb\n\n\nE6
\n
Where:
\n
τb: Shear stress due bending. Units: lb./in2 (N/mm2)
\n
Q: Moment of area. Units: in3 (mm3)
\n
I: Moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area. Units: in4 (mm4)
\n
b: Width of the cross-sectional area. Units: in (mm)
\n
For structures with combination of forces applied at the same times, all stresses are present and interact in the same time. Therefore, the stress combination can be represented with maximum and minimum principal stresses, as shown below:
σx, σy: Normal stress on x or y direction due axial or bending forces.
\n
τxy: Shear stress due direct shear forces, torsion or bending forces.
\n
Units for all stresses: lb./in2 (N/mm2)
\n
According to Eq. (7), we should note that on maximum and minimum principal stress, the shear stress is always zero. Now, the maximum shear can be found following the next equation:
3.2.2 Bridge categories according the location of the main deck
\n
The bridges can be classified according to its size, geometry, main function and structure type. As a general way, the bridges can be divided into three categories:
\n
Category 1: The structure is located below the main deck.
Straight trusses.
Trusses with arch geometry.
Arches with stone or masonry material.
Rigid frames.
\n\n
The geometry of this type of structures allows the user to have a clean view of the road. In addition, most of the structural elements of the geometry have to work under compression stress.
\n
Category 2: The structure is located above the main deck.
Trusses.
Suspension bridges.
Cable-stayed bridges.
\n\n
For these types of structures, the geometry is fully visible and for large bridges, such as suspended or cable-stayed, the user can appreciate the architecture. Most of the structural elements have to work under axial loads, mainly tension.
\n
Category 3: The structure coincides with the main deck.
Girder-based bridges.
Lightened and solid slabs.
Girders with varieties of cross sections.
\n
\n\n
These types of structures work mainly under bending and shear stresses. Bridges of this type are the most used for short span.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.3 Special bridges: Mexicali, Tacoma, Coatzacoalcos, Calatrava Jerusalem
\n
Due to the great imagination of design and construction process, there are a large number of bridges in operation with a wide variety of geometries. Therefore, below are a few examples to show.
\n
\n
3.3.1 Mexicali bridges: solution of the road distributor
\n
The Mexicali road distributor consists of a series of bridges connecting the main roads with the purpose of traffic flow continuity. Basically consists of two reinforced concrete bridges as underpass section and two structural steel bridges as overpass section. This structure is shown in \nFigure 8\n.
\n
Figure 8.
Mexicali bridges, road distributor [9].
\n
The underpass bridge section, both for vehicular and a railway line, consists of a reinforced concrete slab supported at the ends by retaining walls and circular columns of reinforced concrete supporting the center of the span. The main structure of this bridge section works as continuous girder. The spans are relatively short and the structural slab depth is enough to fulfill the flexure stresses requirements.
\n
The structure also has two structural steel decks as an overpass bridges, consisting of continuous girder and supported by steel columns. The length of the spans is small since they do not exceed 165 feet (50 m). A particular feature of this particular structure is the energy dissipation device located below the girder supports. Mexicali has high seismic activity and the structure needs to withstand the seismic loads with good lateral displacement performance.
\n
\n
\n
3.3.2 Tacoma narrows bridge: a lesson learned
\n
The suspension bridge located at Tacoma Narrows consists of two main structural steel towers supporting a main cable and the main deck is stiffened by two steel girders. A total length of 5905 feet (1800 m) and a span of 2930 feet (893 m) were covered. It was inaugurated in 1940 and became one of the largest bridges in the world.
\n
The main feature of this bridge was the dramatically collapse of the main deck after a few months of inauguration, due to the oscillating movement with the action of the wind flow. These forces were considered for structural design; however, with a much slower wind velocity, the vibration movement increased with enough speed to make the structure collapse. Looking into \nFigure 9\n, the oscillating movements of the bridge can be observed.
\n
Figure 9.
Tacoma narrows suspension bridge, under aerodynamic vibrations [10].
\n
Under research, the main reason for the collapse of the bridge was the concept of resonance, which means, a range of coincidence between the natural frequency of the structure and the frequency of wind thrust loads. The concept of vibration and resonance is not visible easily and many factors influenced on the event:
Very high slenderness ratio of the bridge.
Use of girders instead of truss as deck stiffener.
Obstruction of air flow due the girder itself, causing whirlwind.
\n\n
After this event, studies on aerodynamics and aero-elasticity topics in the structures increased significantly, developing procedures to simulate these events on structures, including bridges of very large spans.
\n
\n
\n
3.3.3 Coatzacoalcos bridge: Mexico infrastructure
\n
The cable-stayed bridge located in Veracruz, Mexico consists of two main reinforced concrete towers that support the main deck with cable tensors and the slab stiffened by two reinforced concrete girders. The structure has a total length of 3838 feet (1170 m) and a span length of 944 feet (288 m). \nFigure 10\n shows an overview of the structure.
\n
Figure 10.
Coatzacoalcos II cable-stayed bridge overview [11].
\n
The bridge consists of 15 supports, 14 sections and the main structure. The towers and secondary columns are made of reinforced concrete; the main girder is shaped like a drawer with reinforced concrete and the cable tensors supporting the main deck are made of structural steel. It was inaugurated in 1984 and considered one of the largest structures in Mexico.
\n
\n
\n
3.3.4 Jerusalem bridge: architecture and modernity
\n
This cable-stayed bridge is located in the city of Jerusalem and has a total span of 1181 feet (360 m). The bridge aims to help the city light trail system and the structure consists of a main tower connecting the structural steel slab using 70 steel cables and reinforced concrete supports.
\n
The main feature of this bridge belongs to the architecture and geometry. It was designed by Santiago Calatrava, a world-renowned architect and engineer, and the user can recognize the structure as an unconventional bridge. As shown in \nFigure 11\n, we can see the special geometry of the main tower and each of the cable tensors, showing a harp shape. In addition, the main deck has a curved form.
\n
Figure 11.
Jerusalem cable-stayed bridge [12].
\n
The structure was inaugurated in 2008 marking a symbol in the city of Jerusalem. Due to the great height of the main tower and its harp-shaped geometry, the bridge can be appreciated from any place of the city.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Bridges construction and materials
\n
Due the large number of variables on the conceptual design of a structure, there is no special formula for determining the best option of a bridge. Many variables come into play, from the experience of the engineers and architects, to the specific needs of the place, such as topography, soil characteristics and materials availability.
\n
There are several models to describe the general process of design, built, operation and maintenance of a bridge in a general way. One of the most compact flowcharts was proposed by Addis [13], shown in \nFigure 12\n.
\n
Figure 12.
Model of the bridge design process [13].
\n
The process for any bridge design consists of input data, regulations, design process and results, explained as follows:
\n
\n
4.1 Inputs
\n
All the information required to start the design process of any bridges is placed in this category and can be classified as public and personal. Public information refers to all existing bibliography like books, magazines, publications and software available in the industry. These references should include all topics related to bridges such as material properties, construction process, architectural design and structural design. Personal information refers to the experience acquired by engineers, architects and companies dedicated to the construction industry.
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Regulations
\n
All the rules, restrictions and limitations imposed on the process of creating and design fall into this category. Details such as the budget, the client’s guidelines, construction regulation and allowed materials are some of the established rules.
\n
\n
\n
4.3 Output
\n
All the information processed to be able to build any bridge is placed in this category and can be divided into the description and justification of the results. The description refers to all drawings, including architecture, structural, facilities and roads. The justification refers to all technical information that supports the drawings, from structural engineering to budgets.
\n
\n
\n
4.4 Design procedure
\n
In the central part of the flowchart is located the bridge design process, where the input data, regulations and results are interacting together. The design of a bridge implies the imagination of engineers and architects to solve the problem statement, use of the previous knowledge to select the best geometry option and justify the solution with the required calculations.
\n
The flowchart process applies to any type of bridge and can be simple or complicated as required. If we want a successful development of any bridge, there must be a balance between the variables described in \nFigure 12\n.
\n
Another point regarding the design process of bridge is the selection of the appropriate material and geometry. According to \nTable 1\n, a recommended bridge’s type is shown using geometry, material and span range selection variables [3].
The recommended span range is related directly with budget challenges of each project. As an example, consider the construction of 100 m span length structure which can be developed using a concrete slab and concrete girder, according the recommendations of \nTable 1\n.
\n
Performing a structural and design of the proposed bridge, we can find the minimum size for the concrete slab and the concrete girders; considering concrete slab, the thickness to support 100 m of span will require a great depth in slab and therefore, a large amount of concrete material will be required; therefore, if we use girders, the amount of material will be less in comparison.
\n
Depending the span range and geometry of the project, the best economical option of bridge selection will be the efficient use of each material mechanical properties, stress-strain relationship and the characteristics of the site.
\n
\n
\n
4.5 Steel bridges
\n
Bridges with steel material can enter into any of each three categories described on Section 3.2.2. Depending on the type of steel to be used, yielding allowable stress of the structural steel can vary between 36 ksi (249 MPa) and 70 ksi (483 MPa). According to the American Institute of Steel Construction [14], common steel alloys are A36, A992 and A572 Grade 50.
\n
Within the steel bridges, the most common geometries are:
Straight truss, variable geometry truss or arc-shaped trusses.
Cable-stayed bridges.
Suspended bridges.
Bridges supported by girders.
\n\n
A steel truss bridge is shown in \nFigure 13\n, with straight truss at the center of the span and variable height near the column supports. The incremental height on the truss near the columns occurs due an increment axial stress in each truss member. The foundation, anchorage and check slab are made of reinforcement concrete; piers can be made of steel or reinforced concrete, depending the site characteristics.
\n
Figure 13.
Steel truss bridges for long span lengths.
\n
Steel cable-stayed bridge and suspension bridge with general geometry are shown in \nFigures 14\n and \n15\n. Both structures have a main tower supporting the main cables; the difference between these two bridges is the arrangement of the cables. Cable-stayed bridges use a series of cables to support the deck connected directly with the main tower; when the suspension bridges use a main cable supported between the towers and a series of secondary cables supporting the main deck.
\n
Figure 14.
Steel cable-stayed bridges for long span lengths.
\n
Figure 15.
Suspension bridges for long span lengths.
\n
For both cable-stayed and suspension bridges, the main deck has a high slender ratio due the long span covered and need additional structural elements to increase the stiffness. Trusses are commonly used to stiff the main deck and allow the wind to flow through these structural elements.
\n
Tension stress is developed by the cables, which are the optimal geometry giving a capacity to increase the span length. Looking into \nTable 1\n, for span lengths higher than 3500 ft. (1100 m), the suspension bridge is the only economical option to choose.
\n
Bridges supported by steel girders are shown in \nFigure 16\n. The main deck is the combination of the concrete slab, a wide variety of structural steel beam, piers and anchorage geometries. The steel girders can be simply or continuous beams using hot rolled sections or developed by steel plates.
\n
Figure 16.
Steel bridges for short and medium span lengths.
\n
Steel girders are working with bending stresses, which usually requires more material if it is compared with truss elements. However, according to \nTable 1\n, these types of bridges can be economical competitive for short and medium span lengths due its easy construction procedures and less time-consuming during installation of the girders. Also, these girders have a great stiffness compared with truss bridges, reducing vibration responses produced by traffic and wind flow.
\n
\n
\n
4.6 Concrete bridges
\n
Concrete bridges can be categorized as below or directly on the main structure, as described on Section 3.2.2. According to the American Concrete Institute (A.C.I.), the compression strength of concrete can vary from f’c of 3 ksi (20 MPa) to 7 ksi (48 MPa), depending on cement, water, natural gravel and sand ratios used [15].
\n
There are many advantages of concrete material compared with structural steel, including its capacity to support compression stresses and the availability on construction industry. Tension stresses are carried out by the reinforcement, making a composite structural material.
\n
Within the reinforced, pre-stressed and post-stressed concrete bridges, we can find the following geometries:
Arc-shaped concrete below the main deck.
Cable-stayed bridges, where the entire structure used concrete except for tensors.
Bridges supported by girders.
\n\n
Arc-shaped concrete bridge is shown in \nFigure 17\n, which consists of an arc shaped element below all the structure, supporting the piers and the main deck. The concrete arch-shaped element is working mainly by compression stress due its curvature, taking advantage of the material capacity. Piers are working as flexure-compression stress and the main deck is working as shear and bending stress. According to \nTable 1\n, the recommended span length for structural and economical purposes is 300–1380 ft. (90–420 m).
\n
Figure 17.
Concrete bridges for medium span lengths.
\n
The principal feature of pre-stressed concrete girders against simply reinforced concrete girders is the increase of the span length without the need of increases the beam height, taking advantage of the effective inertia and providing greater stiffness to the bridge. This geometry type is widely used to build bridges across the cities, highways or interstate roads.
\n
According to \nTable 2\n, there are a wide variety of recommended girders, considering precast pre-stressed or cast-in-place post-stressed concrete with different cross-sectional geometries, taking account the clear span to cover and the material mechanical properties [16].
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Bridge type
\n
Span range
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Precast pre-stressed I-beam
\n
0–150 ft. (0–45 m)
\n
\n
\n
Cast-in-place post-stressed box girder
\n
100–300 ft. (30–90 m)
\n
\n
\n
Precast balanced cantilever, constant depth
\n
100–300 ft. (30–90 m)
\n
\n
\n
Precast balanced cantilever, variable depth
\n
200–600 ft. (60–180 m)
\n
\n
\n
Cast-in-place cantilever segmental
\n
200–1000 ft. (60–300 m)
\n
\n
\n
Cable-stayed with balanced cantilever segmental
\n
800–1500 ft. (240–450 m)
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Span lengths for various concrete bridge types [16].
\n
Each construction procedure have its own benefits; for example, precast pre-stressed girders have the advantage of less time installation consuming and minimum frameworks to use compared with cast-in-place post-stressed girders or cast-in-place slabs, but only can be performed a simple cross-sectional area; by the other hand, cast-in place girders can have any desired cross-sectional geometry, which is adaptable and commonly required on any project.
\n
A concrete girder bridge is shown in \nFigure 18\n, considering few types of construction procedures and geometries, using the same piers and anchorage.
\n
Figure 18.
Concrete bridges for short span lengths.
\n
Cast-in-place reinforced concrete slab or T-beams can be used for small span lengths, as recommended in \nTable 1\n, and precast pre-stressed I-beams are used for spans lower than 150 ft. (45 m) according \nTable 2\n. All these types of girders works for bending stress, which limits the span range; however, due its easy construction procedures, are widely used for most common bridges.
\n
\n
\n
4.7 Other materials
\n
Most bridges use structural steel and concrete as main materials. However, there are other materials that can help to complement the structure, depending on some features:
Wooden bridges, used for small crosswalks or where span lengths are short and loads are low.
Stainless steel, where it replaces carbon steel parts of the bridge, increasing resistance to humidity and environmental factors.
Carbon fibers, used as rehabilitation process and perform capacity improvement of existing structural elements.
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Maintenance avoids bridge deterioration
\n
The general process for the development of any bridge are described in the flow chart showed in \nFigure 12\n and includes planning, design, operation and maintenance procedures. To ensure the useful life of the bridge, a maintenance plan must be established, depending on the physical and environmental factors.
\n
According to AASHTO, there are a high variety of loads that the bridge must support and should be considered in the structural design process [17]. These loads are considered as physical factors and can described as follows:
Dead loads
\n\n
Refers to the own weight of the structure, including installations, finishes, bearing surface and all loads that will not have variability over time.
b. Live loads
\n\n
This type of loads refers to a generalized use of the bridge, this means the traffic flow and people walking, including braking, impact, collision and their dynamic loads. This category includes environmental factors such as rain and snow.
c. Accidental loads
\n\n
This type refers to an extraordinary event that the structure needs to support, commonly produced by wind and earthquake loads. In some cases, a collision by a ship or a flood event may be considered.
\n
In addition to physical loads, there are other factors that can affect the useful life of the bride, named environmental factors and described as follows:
Humidity
\n\n
This environmental factor affects the chemical composition of iron and steel materials, which in direct contact creates corrosion process and develops a material degradation.
b. Abrasive factors
\n\n
These factors can affect the material composition due the chemicals reactions by air, water and soil exposures. Each material could have a specific chemical reaction and depends for the levels of exposure.
\n
Dead, live and accidental loads affect the mechanical properties of the structure itself, which results are stresses and deformations. If a load exceeds the capacity of the material, some type of damage will occur, from permanent deformation to crack growth, and the structural element will require a repair.
\n
The environmental factors are associated with the material degradation process, which can results in reduction of the effective inertia. All cases imply the reduction of material resistance and element sizes, developing a stress and strain increase, and therefore, a possible failure.
\n
Proper maintenance avoids possible damages on the structural elements due any physical or environmental factors, and therefore, an increase of the structure expected life.
\n
\n
\n
6. Degradation process: corrosion, wear and fatigue
\n
Since the physical and environmental factors are present in each structure, all materials may be subjected to alterations in their chemical composition, modifying the mechanical and physical properties, shortening the useful life of the structure and requesting any kind of repairmen. These factors with the alteration are listed in this section.
\n
\n
6.1 Degradation due environmental factors: corrosion
\n
Structural steel and concrete reinforcing steel in presence of humidity will have the problem of corrosion, a chemical process involving an electrochemical reaction which occurs due the direct exposure to water, creating rusting and developing the material degradation process.
\n
For reinforcing steel in concrete structures, the corrosion problem can be present when the rebar is exposed, oxidizing the area and develops structural problems.
\n
\n\nFigure 19\n shows a damaged pier due corrosion of the reinforcement steel, losing the coating and reducing the cross-sectional area, which means a reduction of the mechanical capacity of the element.
\n
Figure 19.
Concrete piers of reinforced steel with corrosion problems [18].
\n
On the other hand, if the structural steel is fully exposed to the environment without any humidity protection, the level of oxidation will be present on the entire element and will develop a generalized rusting reaction. \nFigure 20\n shows a structural steel bridge with all elements damaged by corrosion.
\n
Figure 20.
Bridge of structural steel with corrosion problems [19].
\n
\n
\n
6.2 Degradation due physical factors: wear and fatigue
\n
Wear degradation during the life of a bridge occurs due its continuous use, where the friction is present by physical forces, including the pass of the vehicles over the main deck. These vehicles generate frictional forces when perform braking and accelerating, causing wear on the structure. For bridges where the piers are in contact with water flow, the friction causes degradation.
\n
Usually traffic flow perform low wear degradation over the deck, however, if the road have any defect, will create bumps and wear will be increased rapidly, creating damages. Bridges using simply supported girders will require construction joints between supports; these joints are examples of places were bumps are easily created due poor construction procedures. \nFigure 21\n shows a typical bump problem, which can be avoided using any joint procedure and materials offered in the industry.
\n
Figure 21.
Bridge concrete construction joint damaged [20].
\n
Another physical factor that affects the structure is fatigue, caused by the loading and unloading forces due the traffic flow, affecting the stressed elements of the bridge. Fatigue causes degradation on material mechanical properties with each load cycle; this means each vehicle passing over the deck. If each cyclic load produces a stress equal or higher to yielding stress of the material, therefore a large amount of cycles will cause a decrease on the material allowable, allowing brittle failure of the element. \nFigure 22\n shows a crack developed due fatigue stress loads; notice there are no yielded zones on the beam, only a sudden crack.
\n
Figure 22.
Steel beam with fatigue crack failure [21].
\n
\n
\n
6.3 Prevention and protection
\n
Since material degradation process is inevitable for both physical and environmental factors, a few actions must be considered on the design process to control corrosion, wear and fatigue. Prevention and protection procedures are required, including maintenance process to avoid possible damage.
\n
Corrosion prevention is the best economic way to preserve the structural elements of any bridge and the result is a positive benefit in the useful life of the materials [22]. Acidic corrosive emissions and hydrocarbons, in combination with high humidity accelerate the process of corrosion and degradation. The designer should analyze the type of electrochemical attack that would occur during the life of the structure.
\n
For structural steel, epoxy paints are used to insulate direct contact of water or moisture. For the reinforcement of concrete, should take care of the coating to avoid exposure to moisture. As shown in \nFigure 23\n, the possibility of install a cathodic protection system should be considered.
\n
Figure 23.
Steel beam with fatigue crack failure [23].
\n
Wear degradation process is unavoidable for any surface subjected to friction; therefore, the damage depends of the applied load and affected zone. If a flexible roadway is used, wear degradation is higher and requires additional maintenance compared with reinforced concrete roadway. By the other hand, reinforced concrete piers may have contact with the water flow of the river; frictional forces would be present and wear factor became an issue, requiring additional coating to protect the reinforcing bars.
\n
For fatigue degradation process, the designer must consider the weight of all vehicle types, cyclic loads, loading scenarios and fatigue material properties as a way to prevent brittle failure. All elements should have enough stiffness to avoid high stresses under typical cyclic load cases, therefore the fatigue allowable stress should be greater than the applied loads. Fatigue procedures as Modified Goodman Diagram or Miner’s Rule are used [24].
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Testing and monitoring
\n
To ensure the success of all methods implemented to avoid bridge degradation, a testing and monitoring plan must be established as part of the maintenance procedure. The cost of maintenance plan should be incorporated on the bridge’s budget [25].
\n
As a first step, visual review of the bridge structural elements should be performed in a scheduled given time. The girders, piers, connections, cables, deck and materials used must show no damage, such as cracks, corrosion, visible deformations or any variable that indicates a problem. Monitoring techniques are used as a way to measures the loading cycles, cracks or corrosion and prevent any damage on the bridge.
\n
For corrosion mitigation and prevention, the maintenance process must have a plan taking into account the next features:
Expected useful life of the bridge.
Environmental exposure.
Classification of the bridge.
Details of corrosion mitigation and prevention methods.
Maintenance programs.
\n\n
If there is no budget on review and monitoring procedures, maintenance will not be a preventive action and becomes corrective, which means higher repair costs and partial or total closure of the bridge.
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusion and recommendations
\n
The definition of infrastructure includes wide variety of structures, each one with a specific purpose and its function serves the development of the society. All elements of the infrastructure are connected and any issue of an individual part will affect the entire system, slowing down the economic growth.
\n
Transportation infrastructure has the purpose to connect two places using aerial, land and maritime methods, developing a wide variety of structures to comply with its objective. Bridges are part of land infrastructure and are used as link between two places with difficult access using single roads or highways. These types of structures have higher construction costs per mile if they are compared with single roads; therefore, there must be a complete plan to develop the project, which should include the number of lines required to meet traffic flow, vehicle load, site, geometric and budget requirements.
\n
Large bridges exist since hundreds of year ago, where its use was restricted to aqueducts, carriages and road connectors for travelers, using as construction material stone and wood. The introduction of train and vehicles on the industry with the development of structural steel and Portland cement, modern bridges began, increasing load capacity and span length to cover.
\n
There is no specific formula to choose the best option of bridges, due large amount of factors that depends on the structure, as geometry of the bridge, the experience of the construction companies, materials, loads to be carried out, labor available, budget and local site restrictions. A whole process that involves planning, design, construction and maintenance of the structure must be established.
\n
The best economical option for a bridge is the combination of the efficient interaction of geometry and material, taking advantage of tension elements as the main structure. As we can see in \nTable 2\n, cable-stayed and suspension bridge are the best economical option for span lengths higher than 1800 ft. (550 m), due tension capacity of the steel cables. The span recommendations of \nTables 1\n and \n2\n are a combination of efficient stress capacity due proposed geometry, in alignment of low deformations and material savings, making lower costs and improving budgets.
\n
While planning, design and construction stages of the bridge are carefully studied to ensure its functionality; maintenance is given less importance thinking that the structure will have its useful life without any problems, when reality implies a degradation process, due its use and environmental factors. Maintenance plan is needed to avoid over costs during the life of the bridge.
\n
Wear and fatigue degradation can be carefully studied and analyzed during the design procedure process, which will be present on all structures. However, corrosion degradation depends of the local site environment, mainly humidity and water contact, considered automatically as maintenance plan. Some cases, this maintenance plan is not developed during the design process, and therefore, is not implemented by the time required.
\n
Maintenance plan is always required for a long term useful life of any structure, because degradation process is present all the time. There are issues to be solved if damage due environmental factor is present and maintenance plan was not developed during design process, including budget, repairmen high cost of damaged elements and closure of the bridge. As a conclusion, these issued can be avoided if proper maintenance plan is developed during the design process.
\n
For a successful bridge development, a complete plan should be considered in the entire design process, including the bridge’s proposal, design process, construction methods and maintenance program. All variables together will result as a long-term useful life for any structure.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"infrastructure, bridges, maintenance, deterioration, construction",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70758.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70758.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70758",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70758",totalDownloads:1724,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"December 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 2nd 2019",datePrePublished:"January 16th 2020",datePublished:"May 6th 2020",dateFinished:"January 7th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Every nation needs the infrastructure to perform all kind of activities related to the improvement and service of the society. Transportation system became part of the infrastructure due its connection between two destinations, using maritime, land, or aerial methods, creating a link for social and economic activity. Bridges are widely used to cross rivers, valleys, and roads, providing a passage with other parts of the land since ancient times to modernity. Each structure has different requirements to cover, such span clearage, traffic flow, geometry and characteristics of the place to build; therefore, a great variety of bridges can be developed. Common materials used on construction are structural steel, reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete, or post-tensioned concrete; depending on the structural behavior of each type of bridge, there will be a maximum clear span to cover, which depends directly on the project’s budget. There are a variety of loads and environmental conditions that the new and existing structure needs to support effectively, including dead load, traffic, rain, wind, flood, and seismic events, using effective structural design process and techniques; on the other hand, there are long-term deterioration process, such as corrosion, wear, and fatigue, which should be considered on the maintenance process, avoiding additional costs, several damages, and catastrophic failures. Prevention and control of degradation process is achieved by effective maintenance methods applying protection technology such as paints, coating and cathodic protection. The purpose of this chapter is to show a brief review of ancient and modern bridges, including the process of design, material selection, construction, and maintenance.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70758",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70758",signatures:"Arturo Gonzalez, Michael Schorr, Benjamin Valdez and Alejandro Mungaray",book:{id:"8355",type:"book",title:"Infrastructure Management and Construction",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Infrastructure Management and Construction",slug:"infrastructure-management-and-construction",publishedDate:"May 6th 2020",bookSignature:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar, Faham Tahmasebinia and Sara Shirowzhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8355.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-549-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-548-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-316-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",middleName:null,surname:"Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"16436",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Schorr",fullName:"Michael Schorr",slug:"michael-schorr",email:"mschorr2000@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/16436/images/system/16436.jpg",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"65522",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez",fullName:"Benjamin Valdez",slug:"benjamin-valdez",email:"benval@uabc.edu.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/65522/images/system/65522.jpg",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"311533",title:"MSc.",name:"Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",fullName:"Arturo Gonzalez",slug:"arturo-gonzalez",email:"arturo.gonzalez17@uabc.edu.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"311534",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Mungaray",fullName:"Alejandro Mungaray",slug:"alejandro-mungaray",email:"alejandro.mungaray@uabc.edu.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Infrastructure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Bridges, a general overview",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Types of bridges: ancient and modern",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Ancient bridges",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_4",title:"3.1.1.1 Stone arch bridges",level:"4"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"3.1.1.2 Wooden and steel truss bridges",level:"4"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.2 Modern bridges",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"3.1.2.1 Steel truss bridges",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"3.1.2.2 Suspension bridges",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"3.1.2.3 Reinforced, pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete bridges",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2 Structures and functions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.1 Structural analysis and design",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"3.2.1.1 Axial stress",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"3.2.1.2 Direct shear stress",level:"4"},{id:"sec_13_4",title:"3.2.1.3 Torsion stress",level:"4"},{id:"sec_14_4",title:"3.2.1.4 Bending stress",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"3.2.1.5 Shear stress due bending",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"3.2.2 Bridge categories according the location of the main deck",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"3.3 Special bridges: Mexicali, Tacoma, Coatzacoalcos, Calatrava Jerusalem",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"3.3.1 Mexicali bridges: solution of the road distributor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"3.3.2 Tacoma narrows bridge: a lesson learned",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.3.3 Coatzacoalcos bridge: Mexico infrastructure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"3.3.4 Jerusalem bridge: architecture and modernity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25",title:"4. Bridges construction and materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.1 Inputs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"4.2 Regulations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"4.3 Output",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"4.4 Design procedure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"4.5 Steel bridges",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"4.6 Concrete bridges",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"4.7 Other materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33",title:"5. Maintenance avoids bridge deterioration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_34",title:"6. Degradation process: corrosion, wear and fatigue",level:"1"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"6.1 Degradation due environmental factors: corrosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35_2",title:"6.2 Degradation due physical factors: wear and fatigue",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36_2",title:"6.3 Prevention and protection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_38",title:"7. Testing and monitoring",level:"1"},{id:"sec_39",title:"8. Conclusion and recommendations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nAmerican Society of Civil Engineers (A.S.C.E.). Infrastructure Report Card; 2017\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nPicture of Vidalta Cable Stayed Bridge, Mexico City. Available from: https://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/02-304269/puente-vidalta-mexpresa\n\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nBarker RM, Puckett JA. Design of Highway Brides. 3rd ed. Wiley; 2013\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nPicture of Mexico City Road System. Available from: https://periodicocorreo.com.mx/abren-manana-el-distribuidor-vial-en-la-glorieta-santa-fe/\n\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nPicture of Forth Bridge, located on Edinburgh, Scotland. Available from: https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/forth-rail-bridge-firth-scotland/\n\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nPicture of Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco. Available from: https://www.diariodelviajero.com/america/puente-golden-gate-datos-y-curiosidades\n\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nPicture of El Zacatal Bridge, Mexico. Available from: http://www.sintemar.com/es/rehabilitacion-de-pilotes-en-puente-el-zacatal\n\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nGoodno BJ, Gere JM. Mechanics of Materials. 9th ed. Cengage Learning; 2018\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nPicture of Mexicali Bridges. Available from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/buelna/4386351666\n\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nPicture of Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge of 1940. Available from: https://www.txstate.edu/news/news_releases/news_archive/2015/November-2015/TacomaNarrows110315.html\n\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nPicture of Coatzacoalcos II Cable-Stayed Bridge. Available from: http://construyendometas.blogspot.com/2009/05/puente-coatzacoalcos-ii.html\n\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nPicture of Jerusalem Cable-Stayed Bridge, designed by Calatrava. Available from: https://www.dezeen.com/2015/12/03/a-z-advent-calendar-chords-bridge-jerusalem-santiago-calatrava/\n\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nAddis W. Structural Engineering: The Nature of Theory and Design. Ellis Horwood; 1990\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nAmerican Institute of Steel Construction, AISC 360-16, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings; 2016\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nAmerican Concrete Institute, ACI 318-19, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary; 2019\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nMichael S. Troitsky, Planning and Design of Bridges. John Wiley & Sons; 1994\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nAmerican Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specification; 2017\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nPicture of concrete piers with reinforced steel corrosion problems. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Concrete-structure-deteriorated-by-the-corrosion-of-steel-reinforcement_fig 1_265553963\n\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nPicture of a bridge of structural steel with corrosion problems. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Corrosion-of-steel-a-Extreme-corrosion-in-a-bridge-b-Railway-rolling-stock-being_fig 6_323826793\n\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nPicture of a bridge concrete construction joint damage. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Damage-at-a-joint-on-the-bridge-deck_fig 3_281864780\n\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nPicture of a girder with fatigue fracture. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Fatigue-fracture-failure-of-composite-beam-2-images-by-S-S-Badie-and-M-K-Tadros_fig 1_262973062\n\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nHernandez-Duque G, Schorr M, Carpio JJ, Martinez L. Preservation of the infrastructure in the Gulf of Mexico. Corrosion Reviews. 1995\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nPicture of cathodic protection of reinforced concrete beam. Available from: https://www.vector-corrosion.com/blog/cathodic-protection-concrete-corrosion-prevention\n\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nBudynas RG, Nisbett JK. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design. 10th ed. McGraw Hill; 2014\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nKatthy Riggs Larsen, New Legislation Focuses on Extending the Life of Highway Bridges, Federal Highway Preservation (FHWA); 2008\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Arturo Gonzalez",address:null,affiliation:'
Universidad Autonoma de Baja California, Mexicali, Mexico
Universidad Autonoma de Baja California, Mexicali, Mexico
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He also got experience as a visiting scientist in the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil, for a period of 1 year (March 2015–2016) and then resumedhis work in RGUKT. His research interests include catalysis, green chemistry, and organic synthesis. Currently he is guiding two students for doctoral degree. 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In addition to describing the details of the synthesis strategies, including the key challenges that had to be faced, we offer a historical perspective of the development in the field.",signatures:"B. Purna Chandra Rao, Osvaldo N. Oliveira Jr. and Ravi Varala",authors:[{id:"176984",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravi",surname:"Varala",fullName:"Ravi Varala",slug:"ravi-varala",email:"ravivarala@ifsc.usp.br"},{id:"177234",title:"Dr.",name:"Purna",surname:"Bhavnari",fullName:"Purna Bhavnari",slug:"purna-bhavnari",email:"purna@gitam.in"}],book:{id:"5108",title:"Scope of Selective Heterocycles from Organic and Pharmaceutical Perspective",slug:"scope-of-selective-heterocycles-from-organic-and-pharmaceutical-perspective",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"40607",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquín",surname:"Campos",slug:"joaquin-campos",fullName:"Joaquín Campos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"JOAQUÃN CAMPOS received B. Sc. and Ph. D. degrees from the University of Granada. He is now full Professor in Organic and Medicinal Chemistry. He has been working with Professor Ganellin, co-inventor of the drug cimetidine (Tagamet), at University College London. His research interests include the synthesis, reactivity and conformational analysis of seven-membered cycloacetals, antimetabolite prodrugs, the effects of anticancer agents on signal transduction pathways and K+-channel blockers. He is currently teaching Medicinal Chemistry at the Faculty of Pharmacy of the University of Granada (Spain).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"177037",title:"Dr.",name:"Someshwar",surname:"Pola",slug:"someshwar-pola",fullName:"Someshwar Pola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177037/images/system/177037.jpg",biography:"Dr. Someshwar Pola has been working as an assistant professor at the Department of Chemistry, University College of Science, Osmania University since 2018. Previously, he worked as an assistant professor at the Department of Chemistry, Nizam College, Osmania University (2013-2017). He received his B.Sc. from Kakatiya University, M.Sc. from P.G. Center, Mirzapur, Osmania University, and his Ph.D. in chemistry from Kakatiya University, Warangal, Telangana State, India. Dr. Pola worked as a visiting faculty member at the Institute of Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan in 2017. He also worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow (PDF) at the Institute of Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan (2008-2012). During this period, he focused on the synthesis and characterization of organic functional materials towards single-crystal field-effect transistors. During the period of his doctoral research work (2002-2006), he developed various methodologies in inorganic and analytical chemistry. He also has industrial experience in medicinal research and development (AR&D) from GVK Biosciences Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad, India. Dr. Pola has published over 48 research papers in reputed international and national journals and has one book chapter to his credit. He has also presented research papers at 35 national and 25 international conferences and delivered guest/invited lectures in various colleges/conferences. He is a Life Member of the Society of Materials Chemistry (SMC), Materials Research Society of India (MRSI), Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA), India, and a member of the American Chemical Society (ACS). He is a reviewer for Elsevier, ACS, and RSC journals. He has 8 years of teaching and 20 years of research experience. His research focuses on supramolecular chemistry, solar cell device fabrication studies, organic field-effect transistors, photocatalysis of organic pollutants in the presence of titanates, perovskites, and related semiconductors and metal-organic frameworks. Under his supervision, 6 postgraduate students have completed their dissertation work, 5 Ph.D. students have been awarded, and 8 scholars are currently working for their Ph.D. degree. His research activities are supported by various funding agencies like NSC-Taiwan, UGC, DST, and CSIR, New Delhi, India.",institutionString:"Osmania University",institution:{name:"Osmania University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"177041",title:"Dr.",name:"Premlata",surname:"Kumari",slug:"premlata-kumari",fullName:"Premlata Kumari",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bS9vnQAC/ProfilePicture%202022-04-12%2015%3A11%3A44.463",biography:"Dr. Premlata Kumari is an Associate Professor at the Department of Chemistry, SVNIT Surat, India. She has 15 plus years of teaching and research experience. She received her M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Allahabad in the year 2002 and 2007 respectively. She was a junior research fellow at the University of Allahabad, before joining the Department of Applied Chemistry, S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, India. She served as Head of the Applied Chemistry Department in the years 2016-2017. She has published over 50 peer-reviewed research articles and 12 book chapters. She has supervised 18 postgraduate students and 5 Ph.D. students. At present, 6 Ph.D. students and two Master's students are working under her supervision. The majority of her works deal with the Organic synthesis of reaction intermediates and bioactive compounds against various diseases like tuberculosis, malaria, cancer, etc., extraction of natural products from various medicinally important plants, and development of HPLC methods for chemical markers of medicinal plants.\r\nCitations: 1433\r\nh-index: 21",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology Surat",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"177216",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghunath Baban",surname:"Toche",slug:"raghunath-baban-toche",fullName:"Raghunath Baban Toche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"177239",title:"Prof.",name:"Rodica Mihaela",surname:"Dinica",slug:"rodica-mihaela-dinica",fullName:"Rodica Mihaela Dinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental Protection",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"177240",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioana Otilia",surname:"Ghinea",slug:"ioana-otilia-ghinea",fullName:"Ioana Otilia Ghinea",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"178486",title:"Dr.",name:"Verónica",surname:"Gómez-Pérez",slug:"veronica-gomez-perez",fullName:"Verónica Gómez-Pérez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"178488",title:"Dr.",name:"Santiago",surname:"Castanys",slug:"santiago-castanys",fullName:"Santiago Castanys",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"178489",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Gamarro",slug:"francisco-gamarro",fullName:"Francisco Gamarro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"183416",title:"Dr.",name:"Amit",surname:"Patel",slug:"amit-patel",fullName:"Amit Patel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"why-publish-with-intechopen",title:"Why publish with IntechOpen?",intro:"
IntechOpen offers several publishing options to researchers and research groups looking for a professional partner with a wide, international reach. Our publishing options cover the breadth of scientific publications and ensure an appropriate outlet for your research.
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Over 5,700 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized process enables publication in 8–12 months
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Personal support each step of the way
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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They are considered as the biotechnologically valuable bacteria that are exploited for its secondary metabolite production. Approximately, 10,000 bioactive metabolites are produced by Actinobacteria, which is 45% of all bioactive microbial metabolites discovered. Especially Streptomyces species produce industrially important microorganisms as they are a rich source of several useful bioactive natural products with potential applications. Though it has various applications, some Actinobacteria have its own negative effect against plants, animals, and humans. On this context, this chapter summarizes the general characteristics of Actinobacteria, its habitat, systematic classification, various biotechnological applications, and negative impact on plants and animals.",book:{id:"5056",slug:"actinobacteria-basics-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Actinobacteria",fullTitle:"Actinobacteria - Basics and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Ranjani Anandan, Dhanasekaran Dharumadurai and Gopinath\nPonnusamy Manogaran",authors:[{id:"48914",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharumadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanasekaran",slug:"dharumadurai-dhanasekaran",fullName:"Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran"}]},{id:"35104",title:"Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Analysis of PCR-Amplified Fragments (PCR-RFLP) and Gel Electrophoresis - Valuable Tool for Genotyping and Genetic Fingerprinting",slug:"restriction-fragment-length-polymorphism-analysis-of-pcr-amplified-fragments-pcr-rflp-and-related-te",totalDownloads:34054,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:null,book:{id:"1770",slug:"gel-electrophoresis-principles-and-basics",title:"Gel Electrophoresis",fullTitle:"Gel Electrophoresis - Principles and Basics"},signatures:"Henrik Berg Rasmussen",authors:[{id:"114068",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrik",middleName:null,surname:"Rasmussen",slug:"henrik-rasmussen",fullName:"Henrik Rasmussen"}]},{id:"50471",title:"Molecular Mechanisms of Skin Aging and Rejuvenation",slug:"molecular-mechanisms-of-skin-aging-and-rejuvenation",totalDownloads:5110,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The aging process in the skin is complex and influenced by more intrinsic and extrinsic factors than any other body organ. The effects of these two types of factors overlap for the most part. The combined effects of these two aging processes also affect dermal matrix alterations. The main clinical signs of skin aging include wrinkling and irregular pigmentation, which are influenced by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic (e.g., UV radiation, heat, smoking, and pollutants) factors. Histologically, collagen decreases, and the dermis is replaced by abnormal elastic fibers as a cause of wrinkle formation through the loss of skin elasticity. There have been numerous studies of skin aging performed to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms and to develop various antiaging therapeutics and preventive strategies. We summarized the molecular mechanisms and treatments of skin aging. Mainly UV radiation induces ROS formation and DNA damage, leading to increased production of MMPs and decreased production of collagen in keratinocytes and fibroblasts, which reflect the central aspects of skin aging. Besides UV radiation exposure, extrinsic factors including tobacco smoking, exposure to environmental pollutants, infrared radiation, and heat contribute to premature skin aging. Like UV radiation, these factors cause ROS formation and increase expression of MMPs, thus accelerating skin aging by inducing extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation. Accumulated collagen fibrils inhibit the new collagen synthesis and account for the further degradation of the ECM through this positive feedback loop. Accumulating evidence for molecular mechanisms of skin aging should provide clinicians with an expanding spectrum of therapeutic targets in the treatment of skin aging.",book:{id:"5258",slug:"molecular-mechanisms-of-the-aging-process-and-rejuvenation",title:"Molecular Mechanisms of the Aging Process and Rejuvenation",fullTitle:"Molecular Mechanisms of the Aging Process and Rejuvenation"},signatures:"Miri Kim and Hyun Jeong Park",authors:[{id:"47695",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyun Jeong",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"hyun-jeong-park",fullName:"Hyun Jeong Park"},{id:"185767",title:"Prof.",name:"Miri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"miri-kim",fullName:"Miri Kim"}]},{id:"62731",title:"An Introductory Chapter: Secondary Metabolites",slug:"an-introductory-chapter-secondary-metabolites",totalDownloads:9738,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:null,book:{id:"6670",slug:"secondary-metabolites-sources-and-applications",title:"Secondary Metabolites",fullTitle:"Secondary Metabolites - Sources and Applications"},signatures:"Durairaj Thirumurugan, Alagappan Cholarajan, Suresh S.S. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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