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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
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\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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In these discharges the energy of plasma electrons, after being received from the electromagnetic field, is transferred to the other degrees of freedom differently, ideally with only a small part going to the translational motion of heavy gas particles. This unique property enables the important application of non-equilibrium plasmas for greenhouse gas conversion. While the degree of discharge non-equilibrium often defines the energetic efficiency of conversion, other factors are also of a great importance, such as type of discharge, presence of plasma catalysis, etc. This book is focused on the recent achievements in optimization and understanding of non-equilibrium plasma for gas conversion via plasma modeling and experimental work.",isbn:"978-1-78984-841-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-840-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-832-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76273",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"plasma-chemistry-and-gas-conversion",numberOfPages:86,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"50a5a586248204bd27065931eafc49b7",bookSignature:"Nikolay Britun and Tiago Silva",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7502.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6230,numberOfWosCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:55,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 20th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 7th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 6th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 24th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"176901",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",middleName:null,surname:"Britun",slug:"nikolay-britun",fullName:"Nikolay Britun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176901/images/system/176901.jpeg",biography:"Nikolay Britun graduated from Kiev National University, Ukraine, in 2002 and received a PhD degree from Sungkyunkwan Univeristy, South Korea, in 2008. He is currently working in the laboratory “Chimie des Interactions Plasma-Surface” at the University of Mons, Belgium. His research interests are related to plasma spectroscopy, plasma chemistry, and in particular to diagnostics of the processes related to CO2 decomposition in non-equilibrium discharges.",institutionString:"University of Mons",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"199224",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiago",middleName:"Ponte",surname:"Silva",slug:"tiago-silva",fullName:"Tiago Silva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199224/images/7026_n.jpg",biography:"Tiago Silva earned his master’s degree in Engineering Physics at IST in 2012 and his PhD degree at the University of Mons, Belgium, in 2015. He currently holds a postdoctoral position at IPFN/IST. 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The interaction between plasma and catalyst was summarized based on two aspects: catalyst affects plasma, and plasma affects catalyst. We discussed the coke formation behavior of Ni/Al2O3 catalyst in the plasma-enabled and thermal dry methane reforming, followed by the oxidation behavior. 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",isbn:"978-1-83768-060-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-059-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-061-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"17db7dc9ca5813b2e1c7cd9d8ded210d",bookSignature:"Dr. Branislav Sobota",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11864.jpg",keywords:"Game Theory History, Games Types, Multiplayer Games, Symmetric Games, Turn-Based Games, Winning Strategy, Game Mechanisms Design, Time Game Optimization, Computer Games, Single-Player Strategies, Business Games, Education and Games",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 12th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 17th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 4th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"20 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Sobota is a researcher in virtual reality and related technologies, head of the LIRKIS DCI FEEI TU Košice (laboratory for researching and developing new flexible and intelligent interfaces based on computer graphics and virtual reality technologies), and holder of 2 patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"109378",title:"Dr.",name:"Branislav",middleName:null,surname:"Sobota",slug:"branislav-sobota",fullName:"Branislav Sobota",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109378/images/system/109378.jpeg",biography:"Branislav Sobota was born on 1967. In 1990, he graduated (MSc.) with honours at the Department of Computers and Informatics of the FEEI at Technical University in Košice. He defended his PhD. in 1999 and habilitation thesis in the field of virtual reality and computer graphics in 2008. He is working as an associate professor at the Department of Computers and Informatics Technical University of Kosice, Slovakia. His scientific research is focusing on computer graphics, parallel computing and especially virtual reality and related technologies.\n\nA researcher in virtual reality and related technologies, head of the LIRKIS DCI FEEI TU Košice (laboratory for research and development of new flexible and intelligent interfaces based on computer graphics and virtual reality technologies) and holder of 2 patents (Interactive school desk and Virtual control panel).",institutionString:"Technical University of Košice",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Technical University of Košice",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466998",firstName:"Dragan",lastName:"Miljak",middleName:"Anton",title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466998/images/21564_n.jpg",email:"dragan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67824",title:"Differential Diagnosis of Osteogenic Tumors in the Context of Osteosarcoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85190",slug:"differential-diagnosis-of-osteogenic-tumors-in-the-context-of-osteosarcoma",body:'\nPrimary neoplasm of the bones is relatively uncommon. Among these tumors, the osteosarcoma is the commonest primary malignant tumor, comprising of approximately 35% of all bone malignant tumors, followed by others like chondrosarcoma (25%), Ewing sarcoma (EWS) (16%), and chordomas (8%). This malignant tumor can arise from any bone, mainly usually in the metaphyseal (growth plates) long bones of the extremities, but the jaw, pelvis, and ribs may be the sites of origin [1].
\nThe nomenclature of bone tumors are described in “the World Health Organization (WHO)” classification system [2]. We are adopting a table from this classification to review the pathological diagnostic criteria of these lesions. A number of variants of osteosarcoma exist, including conventional types (osteoblastic, chondroblastic, fibroblastic, telangiectatic, multifocal, parosteal, and periosteal) (Table 1) [3].
\nBenign | \nIntermediate | \nMalignant | \n
Osteoma | \nOsteoblastoma | \nLow-grade central osteosarcoma (OS) | \n
Osteoid osteoma | \n\n | Conventional OS Chondroblastic OS Fibroblastic OS Osteoblastic OS | \n
\n | \n | Telangiectatic OS | \n
\n | \n | Small cell OS | \n
\n | \n | Parosteal OS | \n
\n | \n | Periosteal OS | \n
\n | \n | High-grade surface OS | \n
\n | \n | Secondary OS | \n
WHO-based classification of osteogenic tumors of the bone.
The histological pictures of bone tumors alone are not enough to make a differentiation between osteosarcoma and benign tumors or other malignancies of the bone; therefore, radiological and clinical help is needed to make the final diagnosis of osteogenic sarcoma. Therefore, the chapter will not only address osteosarcoma but will also discuss all osteogenic tumors stepwise [1].
\nThis chapter will mainly focus on general clinical, imaging, and histopathological characteristics, which will aid in diagnosis but may add a little to advances in tumor biology or treatment of the multitude of bone tumors described in this chapter.
\nThe exact cause of osteosarcoma is unknown. However, a number of risk factors, like genetic predisposition, some existing (Paget disease, fibrous dysplasia, enchondromatosis, and hereditary multiple exostoses and retinoblastoma) bone diseases, environmental risk factors, and radiations, have been identified.
\nKeeping in mind the importance of this malignancy, it is therefore important to understand the other osteogenic tumors before reaching the importance of osteosarcoma; we will describe the differential diagnosis of osteogenic tumors in the context of osteosarcoma.
\nIt is a benign neoplasm exclusively seen in flat bone of skull and face. Microscopically it consists of the mature lamellar bone. Multiple osteomas are associated with Gardner’s syndrome (colonic polyposis). Sometimes it involves other than the skull and face, as surface lesions of parosteal type (Figure 1 and Tables 1 and 2) [4].
\nRadiological aspect of osteoma, (A) shows sharply radiodense lesions (black ring), (B) photomicrograph (H&E 40x) similar to normal cortex, revealing mature bone (arrow), with less stroma and no atypia.
Features | \nOsteoma | \nOsteoid osteoma | \nOssifying fibroma | \nParosteal osteosarcoma | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Site and location | \nCortex of metaphysis (skull, facial bone) | \nMetaphysis | \nMetaphysis of the same bones | \nMetaphysis of long bone | \n
Age in years | \n40–60 more in males | \n10–20 more in males | \n1–70 (wide range), and more in females | \n30–60 year (older age) | \n
Clinical symptoms | \nNo pain | \nWith pain | \nNo pain | \nPain | \n
Radiology | \nWell-circumscribed radiodense and without destructive features | \nA single <1.5 cm nidus that may be radiolucent or ossified and surrounded by a reactive bone | \nWell-demarcated radiolucent in the early stages and then progressive calcification | \nContinuity with the medullary component of the parent bone is not present. Appears to be attached to the surface of the parent none | \n
Histology | \nNodular or dome-shaped, dense cortical bone Consists of dense lamellar bone with or without Haversian canals and usually without a medullary component Medullary component consists of hematopoietic or fibroadipose tissue Regular large ossicles of mature bone | \nLamellar bone with prominent osteoblastic rimming Osteoma may have focal areas of reactive bone with similar features but not cellular as compard to OO, see also (Table 3) | \nThe stroma is fibrous and more cellular Small ossicles and irregular bony trabeculae, much less mature bone Psammoma bodies | \nTumor osteoid is arranged in parallel arrays and separated by a bland fibroblastic stroma. With minimal atypia. Cartilage may be seen. Genetically, amplification of 12q13-15 seen with CDK4 and MDM2 genes. See also (Table 9) No other benign lesions seen (See Table 9) | \n
Differential diagnosis of osteoma with osteoid osteoma, ossifying fibroma, and parosteal osteosarcoma.
It is a benign tumor of medullary metaphysis origin with a <2 cm lucent nidus, encompassed by the solid periosteal reaction. The characteristic features are its association with nocturnal pain (due to release of prostaglandin via Cox-1 and Cox-2 pathway) which can be relieved by aspirin, a salicylate analgesic. Histologically it comprised of three zones, nidus, fibrovascular stroma, and mineralized sclerotic bone. The nidus is composed of interconnected newly formed blood vessels and new bone-forming cells (osteoblasts and osteoid) [5, 6, 7] (Table 3, Figure 2). These tumors should be differentiated from osteomyelitis, stress fractures, osteoblastoma, osteosarcoma, and other lesions [8, 9].
\nFeatures | \nOsteoid osteoma | \nOsteomyelitis | \nStress fracture | \nOsteoblastoma | \nOssifying fibroma | \nOsteosarcoma | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Site and location | \nCortex of metaphysis | \nNot site specific | \nNot site specific | \nMedulla of metaphysis | \nSame bones | \nMetaphysis of long bone | \n
Age in years | \n5–30 More in males | \nAny age | \nOld age | \nMean age 20 (10–73) More in females | \nWide range (1–70) | \nOlder age | \n
Clinical symptoms | \nSevere pain | \nPain, fever | \nPain | \nNot severe pain | \nNo pain | \nPain | \n
Radiology | \nA single <1.5 cm nidus that may be radiolucent or ossified and surrounded by a reactive bone | \nBone scan demonstrates central area of reduced uptake representing an avascular area of purulent material | \nPositive findings include sclerosis, periosteal reaction/elevation, cortical thickening, and a fracture line | \nWell-circumscribed nondestructive but sometimes with secondary ABC changes Some have central nidus >2 cm The lesions are predominantly lytic, with a rim of reactive sclerosis | \nWell-demarcated radiolucent in the early stages and then progressive calcification | \nContinuity with the medullary component of the parent bone is not present. Appears to be attached to the surface of the parent noneMRI and CT are more helpful | \n
Histology | \nIrregular trabeculae of lamellar bone with prominent osteoblastic rimming Loose fibrovascular stroma See also (Table 2) | \nNo central nidus Presence of neutrophils, lymphocytes, macrophages, etc. (acute or chronic inflammatory cell infiltrate) | \nZonal pattern with central, more mature, denser bone and peripheral woven bone Cartilage with endochondral ossification may be present | \nIrregular anastomosing trabeculae of osteoid and woven bone Variable mineralization and thickness of woven osteoid trabeculae. No central maturation like nudus Intralesional hemorrhages like ABC and numerous osteoclast-like giant cells No peripheral rim of fibrovascular tissue like in nidus Epithelioid aggressive variant with large atypical epithelioid like osteoblasts may confuse with OS, but take guidance from radiology. See (Tables 2 and 4) | \nThe stroma is fibrous and more cellular Small ossicles and irregular boneTrabeculae, much less mature bonePsammoma bodies | \nTumor osteoid is arranged in parallel arrays and separated by a hypocellular fibroblastic stroma The spindle cells between bony trabeculae instead of fat and hematopoietic tissue as seen in OSLacks the fibrovascular stroma and osteoblastic rimming of osteoid osteomaMay show cartilage component. See (Tables 4– | \n
Differential diagnosis of osteoid osteoma with osteomyelitis, stress fracture, osteoblastoma, ossifying fibroma, and osteosarcoma.
Radiology of the osteoid osteoma (A) shows sharply radiodense lesions with nidus (black ring), similar to normal cortex, (B) photomicrograph (40X) of osteoid osteomas reveals irregular trabeculae of lamellar bone with prominent osteoblastic rimming and loose fibrovascular stroma (arrows).
It arises from the medullary metaphysis, but most cases arise from spongiosa of the bone. It is a rare benign tumor of the bone. These tumors are now considered in intermediated groups as they may be locally aggressive and tend to affect the axial skeleton more often than osteoid osteoma. They are less painful and have poor response with aspirin [10, 11]. These have many osteoclasts like giant cells and less rimming with osteoblasts, osteoid, and rich vascularity as compared to osteoid osteoma (Table 4, Figure 3) [6, 12, 13]. This is also called giant osteoid osteoma more than 2 cm in size; it does not have the surrounding reactive bone as compared to osteoid osteoma and is not associated with nocturnal aches [13].
\nFeatures | \nOsteoblastoma | \nOsteoid osteoma | \nOsteosarcoma | \nGiant cell tumors | \nAneurysmal bone cyst (ABC) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Site and location | \nMedulla of metaphysis | \nCortex of metaphysis | \nMetaphysis | \nMetaphysis of epiphysis | \nDiaphysis | \n
Age in years | \nMean age 20 (10–70) More in females | \n5–30 More in males | \n10–25 | \n>20 Up to 40 | \nYounger 10–20 | \n
Clinical symptoms | \nNot severe pain | \nSevere pain | \nPain | \nNo pain | \nNo pain | \n
Radiology | \nWell-circumscribed nondestructive but sometimes with ABC changes Some have central nidus >2 cm. The lesions are predominantly lytic, with a rim of reactive sclerosis | \nA single <1.5 cm nidus that may be radiolucent or ossified and surrounded by a reactive bone | \nRadiographically, osteosarcoma is poorly circumscribed with cortical destruction and evidence of periosteal reactive bone Permeative pattern of growth at the periphery | \nSoap bubble appearance | \nLytic but demarcated Both processes may have similar presentations and radiographic findings and tend to involve the vertebra | \n
Histology | \nIrregular anastomosing trabeculae of osteoid and woven bone Variable mineralization and thickness of woven osteoid trabeculae. No central maturation like nidus Intralesional hemorrhages like ABC and numerous osteoclast-like giant cells No peripheral rim of fibrovascular tissue like in nidus | \nIrregular trabeculae of lamellar bone with prominent osteoblastic rimming Loose fibrovascular stroma | \nTumor osteoid is arranged in parallel arrays and separated by a hypocellular fibroblastic stroma. Atypia is common The spindle cells between bony trabeculae instead of fat and hematopoietic tissue as seen in OS Lacks the fibrovascular stroma and osteoblastic rimming of osteoid osteoma May show cartilage component | \nSheets of giant cells and more in number and contain more nuclei Giant cell tumors contain mononuclear stromal cells | \nSmall foci of reactive osteoid may be present in aneurysmal bone cysts, which should not be confused with osteoblastoma | \n
Differential diagnosis of osteoblastoma with osteoid osteoma, osteosarcoma, giant cell tumors, and ABC.
(A) Radiology (left ankle bone) shows osteoblastoma, with well-circumscribed nondestructive but sometimes with ABC changes (ring). The lesions are predominantly lytic, with a rim of reactive sclerosis. (B) Photomicrograph (H&E 40X) showing irregular anastomosing trabeculae of osteoid and woven bone, variable mineralization, and thickness of woven osteoid trabeculae (thick arrows). Numerous osteoclast-like giant cells (thin arrow). No peripheral rim of fibrovascular tissue like in nidus.
It is a rare variant of osteoblastoma, which commonly arises from the vertebrae, long bones, and bones of jaws; it is characterized by the presence of epithelioid osteoblasts in the stroma with aggressive behavior. The tumor has propensity for local invasion and recurrence, but still no metastasis has been seen in any case in the literature [14, 15].
\nIt is the most common primary bone tumors (20%) of mesenchymal origin second to multiple myeloma; the main histologic feature of this tumor is direct production of malignant osteoid from malignant cells without normal osteogenic process through fibrous and cartilage way; the cartilage or fibrous tissue may present elsewhere or in other osteogenic portions. Malignant osteoid is the characteristic finding of all types of OSs, and it is a eosinophilic, homogenous, glassy appearing lacelike material [16, 17].
\nOsteosarcoma is very rare in young children (0.5 cases per million per year in children <5 years). However, the incidence increases steadily with age [13].
\nIt can affect all ages, but 75% appears in young age, it can affect all bones most commonly in metaphysis of long bones, and knee joint is commonly involved (60%). There is no gender difference, but males are affected more as compared to females [13].
\nThere are many morphological variants of OS with anastomosing, reticular osteoid and oval, spindled to epithelioid stromal cells. The cells may form rosettes to small sheets in different patterns. There are several subtypes of OS, which can be, differentiated on the basis of the site, degree of histological differentiation, and association with underlying disease [12, 13, 16, 17].
\nThis type of OS shows the male predominance and bimodal age, pediatric and adult sarcoma. It has some association with hereditary effect, e.g., with mutation of RB gene, Li-Fraumeni syndrome, Ollier disease, fibrous dysplasia, and Paget disease (secondary OS). Radiation also plays a role in its pathogenesis. The long bones are commonly involved showing classical “Codman triangle” to moth-eaten picture due to permeation and destruction of medullary as well as cortical bone on radiology [18, 19].
\nIt is composed of hyperchromatic cells forming sarcomatous component around the classical osteoid (Figure 4). This comprised of chondroblastic OS (25%), fibroblastic OS (25%), and osteoblastic OS (50%). Other subtypes are small cell-type OS, giant cell-rich OS, telengiactatic-type OS, surface-type OS, periosteal OS, and parosteal OS. Histologically it has two grades, low- and high-grade OS. Immunohistochemistry has some role in its differentiation from cartilage and other bone tumors, i.e., ALK, VIM, variable SMA, and desmin. The S100 is always negative except there is chondroid differentiation. EMA and keratin are negative in tumors [16, 20, 21, 22, 23].
\nRadiological examination (A) showing intramedullary OS of left lower tibia with osteolytic and sclerotic lesion in lower end above ankle joint (rings). There is a medullary and cortical destruction of bone. The photomicrograph of (B & C) (40X with H&E) based characteristic of conventional osteosarcoma, is the identification of osteoid (arrows), which is a dense, pink, amorphous extracellular material containing large amounts of collagen type I. (C) The tumor cells (atypical osteoblast) and cytoplasm are eosinophilic, are larger than normal osteoblasts (arrows), and vary in size with nuclear atypia.
Sometime fracture callus may be confused with OS, because there is formation of spindle cells and cartilage with new bones, but all these elements are arranged with orderly maturation as compared to haphazard and abrupt arrangement in OS (Table 5). Postmenopausal women may have insufficiency fractures in the pelvis resembling metastatic carcinoma [24, 25].
\nFeatures | \nConventional osteosarcoma (NOS) | \nFracture callus | \nEwing’s sarcoma | \nGiant cell tumors (GCT) | \nChondroblastoma | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Site and location | \nLong bone | \nNot specificCan be of any site and any bone | \nMedulla of diaphysis and metaphysis | \nMetaphysis and epiphysisRarely in vertebrae body | \nEpiphysis | \n
Age in years | \n10–25 | \nAny age | \nChildren 4–20 | \n>20 up to 40 | \nYounger age 10–30 | \n
Clinical symptoms | \nPain | \nMay be pain | \n\n | No pain | \nPain | \n
Radiology | \nRadiographically, osteosarcoma is poorly circumscribed with cortical destruction and evidence of periosteal reactive bone Permeative pattern of growth at the periphery | \nThere may be increased translucency of the fracture during this stage, due to bone resorption | \nMetaphyseal or diaphyseal tumor with a predominantly lytic appearance. No bone matrix is radiographically identified Onion skin appearance in ES on radiology | \nSoap bubble appearance | \nSharp and lytic lesions Fine calcification | \n
Histology | \nTumor osteoid is arranged in parallel arrays and separated by a hypocellular osteoblastic stroma. Atypia and mitosis are commonThe small cells between bony osteoid. CD99, LCA, CK, and S-100 are negative | \nThere is spindle cell proliferation with cartilage and bone, but orderly maturation is present in fracture callus and stress fractures | \nSmall round blue cells with regular size, primitive-appearing cellst(11;22)(q24;q12) chromosome rearrangementand CD99+ve | \nSheets of giant cells and mononuclear stromal cells | \nBenign-appearing chondrocytes, without osteoid differentiationNuclear groovesChicken wire vascular stroma | \n
Differential diagnosis of conventional osteosarcoma (NOS), fracture callus, Ewing?s sarcoma, GCT, and chondroblastoma.
The osteoid and maturation level are the main difference between two lesions. The osteoid of the callus woven bone is mature and shows a parallel pattern with prominent osteoblastic rimming. Malignant osteoid is a eosinophilic, amorphous, fibrillary deposit between individual tumor cells or group of tumor cells. There are two types of tumor osteoid, early-tumor osteoid, lacelike pattern around tumor cells, and late-tumor osteoid, a mineralized one having an appearance of a woven bone, but an important feature is that tumor osteoid is not rimmed by osteoblasts [16].
\nOsteomyelitis is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in children and adults due to acute and chronic bacterial infection. More common sites are the metaphysis and epiphysis of the lower limbs and vertebrae [26, 27, 28].
\nPrimary (hematogenous) osteomyelitis is associated with fever and local painful mass and may have fistula formation. A history of recent trauma with open fracture is significant for secondary osteomyelitis. The radiology and MRI are more helpful in the diagnosis of these lesions [26]. The C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) are markedly elevated. Biopsy shows necrotic bone, fibrotic marrow, and chronic inflammation with or without an acute inflammatory component. Reactive bone is usually produced as part of an associated periosteal reaction, readily differentiated using histological features [24] (Table 6).
\nIt is a benign osteoid-producing tumor with roughly the same age and sex distribution as osteosarcoma. In conventional radiography, there is a well-defined round expansile mass with central radiolucent zone (>1.5 cm) and a peripheral rim of sclerosis (sclerosis may not be as extensive as in osteoid osteoma). On biopsy, there is an irregular interlacing network of osteoid with prominent osteoblastic rimming and features of woven bone; the differential diagnosis from OS is sometimes difficult when the OS is well differentiated and OB is showing bizarre osteoblasts due to degenerative activities [24] (Table 4).
\nABC has the same age range and location as osteosarcoma. It presents with pain and occasional pathological fracture. Secondary aneurysmal bone cysts can be seen in older patients, superimposed on other primary neoplasms. Conventional radiographs show radiolucent expansile bone lesion. MRI shows fluid levels on T2-weighted images. Biopsy can differentiate from telangiectatic osteosarcoma (TOS), which displays obvious histological features of malignancy (marked cellular pleomorphism, high and abnormal mitotic activity) (Figure 5) [24, 29] (Table 7).
\n(A) Radiological examination of telangiectatic osteosarcoma revealing a lytic/expansile, (ring) permeative lesion in the proximal fibula metaphysis with a wide zone of transition and cortical destruction, (B&C) histological examination of the photomicrographs (B; 5X and C; 400X, H&E) blood-filled spaces (thin arrows), separated by septa containing highly malignant cells (small arrows).
It is a nonneoplastic intramedullary condition, associated with two forms, monostotic (seen in the ribs, femur, and tibia in young adults) and polyostotic (endocrine dysfunctions). The presentation of polyostotic fibrous dysplasia commonly includes bone deformity and pathological fracture. It has wide age range at presentation and no gender preference. The radiographs show a fusiform expanded swelling with thinning of cortex not associated soft with tissue mass. There are generally no aggressive radiographical features. Pathological fracture may be seen [24].
\nMicroscopically, there are curved and irregularly shaped trabeculae-like fishhook configuration. These are interspersed in fibrous stroma of variable cellularity. These poorly moralized bony trabeculae have no rimming of osteoblasts, and cartilaginous islands are present in 10% of cases [30].
\nIt should be differentiated from other bony lesions, cemento-ossifying fibroma (rimming of osteoblast), chondrosarcoma (binucleation), Paget’s disease (mosaic pattern bone histologically), non-ossifying fibroma (metaphyseal fibrous defect in tibia with the absence of osteoid), simple bony cyst, and osteofibrous dysplasia/ossifying fibroma (exclusively seen in the tibia almost, with anterior bowing of the bone, in the cortex; rimming is seen around lamellar bony trabeculae) [30].
\nSome immunomarkers are helpful in the diagnosis of FD. Fibroblastic cells in FD and ossifying fibroma show strong Runx2 expression in the nucleus, while osteocalcin is seen in calcified regions in FD, and G protein genes (GNAS) are positive in extragnathic FD. FD shows GNAS (G protein gene) mutation not seen 15 in other lesions. FD is negative for osteocalcin [31, 32] (Table 6).
\nIt is the second commonest primary malignant bone tumor of the childhood after osteosarcoma. It typically arises from the medullary cavity and invades the Haversian system. Radiologically, It presents as moth-eaten and destructive permeated lucent lesions in the shaft of the long bones. It appears typical onionskin appendence due to periostitis. It may also involve flat bones and appears sclerotic in up to 30% of cases [33].
\nSame age range and predilection for males. Type II symptoms (e.g., fever, night sweats) are usually seen. Conventional radiographs show a metaphyseal or diaphyseal tumor with a predominantly lytic appearance. No bone matrix is radiographically identified. Onionskin appearance in ES on radiology. MRI shows a large soft tissue mass.
\nBiopsy shows small round blue cell tumor with no osteoid production. Cytogenetic and/or molecular studies show the typical translocations/molecular aberrations of Ewing sarcoma family of tumors and help rule out small cell osteosarcoma (a rare subtype of osteosarcoma with very little osteoid production). CD 99 is positive in EWS [6, 33] (Table 5).
\nThe GCT is usually benign and arises from long bone epiphysis and metaphysis. It is rare in vertebrae, but when they occur in a vertebra, the body and not the arch is usually involved [35]. The pathogenesis of GCT is accredited due to overexpression of a tumor necrosis factor receptor (RANK/RANKL) which results in a hyper-proliferation of osteoclasts [16]. Histologically, the GCTs are characterized by the presence of osteoclast-like, giant cells and round-to-oval polygonal mononuclear cells. Frequent mitotic figures in the mononuclear cells may be seen, especially in pregnant women or those on the oral contraceptive pill (due to increased hormone levels) [16, 35]. Important features are given below (Table 5).
\nThis lesion is most common in skeletally mature women with closed epiphysis which usually presents with bone pain and sometimes pathological fractures. It involves epiphysis and extends to joint articular cartilage. Conventional radiographs show tumor with an osteolytic appearance located in the epiphysis of long bones, with the distal femur and proximal tibia being the most commonly affected. No doubt it is benign but is locally aggressive. This translates radiographically into the absence of an osteosclerotic rim at its periphery as well as the presence of a soft tissue mass. No bone/osteoid formation is identified. Radiology is soap bubble appearance. Biopsy shows typical appearance of evenly distributed giant cells in a mononuclear stroma. The nuclei of the giant cells resemble the nuclei of the histiocytes. There is atypia or mitosis, potentially malignant with 50% recurrence rate and 10% metastasis [32].
\nThese are rare manifestation than secondary lymphoma involving the bone. It is rare, accounting for <5% of bone tumors and <1% of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is more common in old age males as compared to OS. The patient presents with type II general symptoms like night sweatings, fever, and weight loss. The conventional radiographs may be normal (tumor cells tend to grow between patient’s bony trabeculae with little bone destruction). There may be multiple or single bone involvement. MRI shows focal change in the marrow signal. Bone marrow biopsy is usually the confirmatory test. Flow cytometric studies should be considered in patients suspected of having lymphoma. Leukocyte common antigen (LCA) is positive in lymphomas while negative in OS [24, 36]. Usually it should be differentiated from infections, small cell OS, Ewing’s sarcoma, eosinophilic granuloma, and metastatic lesions [36, 37].
\nIt is a multisystem but rare disease. It is associated with a wide and heterogeneous clinical spectrum and extent of multisystem involvement. The age range is 5–15 years, more common in the children and early teens. The males are more affected than females (M/F ratio is 3:2) [38, 39]. It has a predilection for the bones of the skull, the calvarium, but any other bone like the humerus, femur, and ribs can be involved. There is local pain and swelling. Radiographically there are multiple lytic lesions with significant periosteal reaction. Biopsy shows a proliferation of neoplastic Langerhans cells in an inflammatory background [24] (Table 6).
\n\nFeatures | \nOsteosarcoma | \nOsteomyelitis | \nLangerhans granuloma | \nFibrous dysplasia | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Site and location | \nLong bone | \nEpiphysis (neonates) Metaphysis (children) | \nMetaphysis or diaphysis | \nMedulla of diaphysis | \n
Age in years | \n10–25 | \nAny age, more in children | \nMore common in children 5–15 years | \n1–30 years > males | \n
Clinical symptoms | \nPain | \nPain, fever, discharges | \nLocal pain | \nNo pain | \n
Radiology | \nRadiographically, osteosarcoma is poorly circumscribed with cortical destruction and evidence of periosteal reactive bone Permeative pattern of growth at the periphery | \nThe earliest radiological changes are seen in adjacent soft tissues +/− muscle outlines with swelling and loss or blurring of normal fat planes. An effusion may be seen in an adjacent joint. MRI is more helpful | \nMultiple lytic lesions with significant periosteal reaction | \nThe conventional radiographs show ground glass appearance with no associated soft tissue mass. There are generally no aggressive radiographical features | \n
Histology | \nTumor osteoid is arranged in parallel arrays and separated by a hypocellular fibroblastic stroma. Atypia is common The spindle cells between bony trabeculae instead of fat and hematopoietic tissue as seen in OS Lacks the fibrovascular stroma and osteoblastic rimming of osteoid osteoma May show cartilage component | \nIn acute cases, neutrophils and necrotic bony trabeculae, in TB, granulomas, and in chronic nonspecific cases, lymphocytes and macrophages are more common | \nThere is monoclonal proliferation of Langerhans cells (distinctive cells of monocyte–macrophage lineage) and should be considered a malignancy although its biological behavior is very variable. EM shows Birbeck granules. Express CD1a, S100, HLA-DR | \nThere is large fibrous matrix with scattered curvilinear irregularly shaped trabeculae of immature, inadequately mineralized bone. There is no rimming by osteoblasts GNAS +ve, osteoclastin +ve Run-X-2 +ve, see also (Table 9) | \n
Differential diagnosis of osteosarcoma, with osteomyelitis, Langerhans granuloma, and fibrous dysplasia.
Generally it occurs in older age group than osteosarcoma. There is usual history of a primary malignancy known to metastasis to bone, such as breast, lung, thyroid, kidney, and prostate. Conventional radiographs and radionuclide scans usually show osteolytic lesions (rarely osteoblastic) involving multiple bones. CT imaging may reveal other organs affected by metastatic disease. Biopsy usually confirms the diagnosis [35].
\nIt is an uncommon variant of OS in the second decade with a mean age of 20 years. It comprises of 2.5–12% of all osteosarcomas. Almost all osteosarcomas have telangiectatic component. In order to diagnose telangiectatic osteosarcoma, there should be more than 90% component with telangiectatic features. It is more common in males like conventional OS (with a ratio of 2:1 for male to female) [24] better than conventional OS [13].
\nMultiple cyst-like spaces resemble an aneurysmal bone cyst, except that the septa of the cysts contain stromal cells (mononuclear and multinucleated) with cytologically malignant changes. Mitotic figures are present, including atypical forms. Sometimes the malignant stromal cells are floating in the center of the large hemorrhagic cysts; identification of the stromal cells may be difficult, requiring multiple sections. The TOS may arise in other bony diseases like fibrous dysplasia, Paget’s disease, or postradiation therapy. Malignant osteoid can be difficult to identify, usually focal and found in a delicate lacelike pattern [24, 40] (Figure 5 and Table 7).
\nFeatures | \nTelangiectatic osteosarcoma (TOS) | \nConventional OS | \nAngiosarcoma | \nABC | \nGiant cell tumors | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Site and location | \nMetaphysis | \nMetaphysis | \nNot specific | \nMetaphysisFlat bones, vertebrae, long bones | \nMetaphysis of epiphysis | \n
Age in years | \nMean age 20 years | \n10–25 | \nOld age | \nYounger 10–20, slightly more in females | \n>20 up to 40 | \n
Clinical symptoms | \nDull pain | \nDull pain | \nNo pain | \nNo pain | \nNo pain | \n
Radiology | \nLytic bony lesions, geographic bony destruction with wide zone of transition tends to be more common than permeative bony destruction | \nSclerotic lesions and cortical destruction | \nSoft tissue mass | \nLytic but demarcated Both processes may have similar presentations and radiographic findings and tend to involve the vertebraCT and MRI show fluid level | \nSoap bubble appearance | \n
Histology | \nIt is consist of vascular sinusoids surrounded by thin septae, osteoid matrix and cells with significant pleomorphism and high mitotic rate | \nMalignant osteoblasts and malignant osteoids IHC:SATB2 and AKP are positive, TP53 alteration and MDM2 amplification | \nBlood vessels are lined by malignant endothelial cells | \nSmall foci of reactive osteoid may be present in aneurysmal bone cysts, which should not be confused with osteoblastomaIHC shows rearrangement of USP6, gene present of Ch 17,t(16;17)(q22;p13). Fusion of USP6 with CDH11 | \nSheets of giant cellsand mononuclear stromal cells. Sometimes, may appear with blood-filled spaces | \n
Differential diagnosis of telangiectatic osteosarcoma (TOS) and, conventional osteosarcoma, angiosarcoma, ABC, and GCT.
Note: ABC; Aneurysmal bone cyst, GCT; Giant cell tumors, OS; Osteosarcoma, IHC; Immunohistochemistry, Ch; chromosome.
The aneurysmal bone cysts are usually seen in young age with slight female preponderance in flat and vertebral areas but may involve long bones. Radiology shows a lucent expansile lesion in the metaphysis of long bones with thin reactive covering of periosteal bone. CT and MRI show some fluid levels in the ABC. Microscopically, thin blood filled spaces. These spaces are not lined by endothelium but only fibroblastic cells are there. The stroma of the ABC may be cellular but typically lacks cytological atypia and atypical mitoses and may contain reactive bone with atypical osteoblasts. Cytologic malignant features and atypical mitoses are absent (Figure 6, Table 7).
\n(A) Radiological examination reveals (ring) homogenous cystic areas (aneurysmal bone cyst) without cortical destructions. (B) Photomicrograph (H&E 10X) revealing cystic lesions (arrow), with giant cells (red arrow) separated by fibrous septa (black arrows), alternating with solid areas and septa lined by fibroblasts, myofibroblasts, and histiocytes but not endothelium (C).
Radiographically, these tumors are not purely lytic. Intramedullary osteosarcoma may contain focal telangiectatic areas, which should not be overinterpreted (Table 8).
\n\nFeatures | \nOsteosarcoma | \nMFH | \nLymphoma | \nOsteoblastoma | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Site and location | \nMetaphysis of long bone | \nMetaphysis of the long bones | \nMetaphysis | \nMetaphysis | \n
Age in years | \n10–25 | \n10 to 60, commonly seen in the second decade | \n50–60 | \nYounger age and more in females 10–30 | \n
Clinical symptoms | \nPain | \nDull pain but may be associated when arising from other primary bone lesions, like Paget’s disease, radiation, giant cell tumor, and bone infarction | \nLocalized pain and swelling | \nPain | \n
Radiology | \nRadiographically, osteosarcoma is poorly circumscribed with cortical destruction and evidence of periosteal reactive bone Permeative pattern of growth at the periphery | \nPurely osteolytic permeative lesions without a periosteal reaction and without mineralization | \nThe most common is a lytic pattern with permeative bone destruction and a wide zone of transition | \nWell-defined lytic lesions | \n
Histology | \nTumor osteoid is arranged in parallel arrays and separated by a hypocellular fibroblastic stroma. Atypia is common The spindle cells between bony trabeculae instead of fat and hematopoietic tissue as seen in OS Lacks the fibrovascular stroma and osteoblastic rimming of osteoid osteoma May show cartilage component | \nNo extensive osteoid formation. Some osteoid osteogenic sarcomas may have a predominant histologic pattern of malignant fibrous histiocytoma; the presence of osteoid formation requires the diagnosis of osteosarcoma They are heterogeneous fibroblastic tumors formed by poorly differentiated fibroblasts, myofibroblasts, histiocyte-like cells with high degree of pleomorphism and characteristic storiform pattern and also demonstrating bizarre multinucleated giant cells Run-X-2 negative | \nDLBCL is the most common subtype. The bony pelvis and femur are the most common locations | \nThey manufacture abundant osteoid, but they are not composed of atypical and pleomorphic osteoblasts | \n
Differential diagnosis of osteosarcoma with malignant fibrous histiocytoma, lymphoma, and osteoblastoma.
DLBCL; Diffuse large B cell lymphoma, MFH; Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma.
The low-grade OS is a rare subtype of osteosarcoma, usually occurring in young adults in their tibia and femur. Microscopically, there may be components of heavy osteoid and fibrocollagenous stroma, and the cells appear benign but with invasion of cortex and surrounding soft tissue. The spindle cells are with mild atypia, marked collagen production, scant atypia, and abundant osteoid production (Figure 9). The patients present with pain and swelling in older people. It arises from metaphysis of long bone of lower extremity, while other sites are uncommon. Radiologically, there are irregularly sclerotic lesions with poorly defined sclerotic margins, and mineralized matrix is common (Figure 7A–C).
\n(A) Radiological examination showing medullary and cortical bone destruction wide zone of transition (ring and arrow), permeative or moth-eaten appearance. (B) Photomicrograph of (10X H&E) of conventional
Chondroblastoma is a rare primary bone tumor of young people that typically arises at the ends of the long bones. Radiologic investigations show a small, circumscribed, lytic lesion. The tumor is characterized histologically by the proliferation of chondroblasts along with areas of mature cartilage, giant cells, and, occasionally, secondary aneurysmal bone cyst formation. Chondroblastoma, however, may also present with atypical features, such as prominent hemosiderin deposition, numerous giant cells, or the presence of a large aneurysmal bone cyst component.
\nA rare variant of osteosarcoma with CB features may be seen and can be difficult to distinguish from CB, as both tumors can present in young patients as a lytic lesion in an epiphyseal location. Histologically, this OS may reveal small round-oval cells with eosinophilic cytoplasm and scattered giant cells and therefore may cause confusion with CB, especially on a small biopsy specimen. Clues to the appropriate malignant diagnosis include a more aggressive, infiltrative lesion on radiological studies, and the presence of nuclear atypia, atypical mitoses, and/or malignant osteoid production on histologic examination (Table 5).
\nIt is usually seen in young ages (10?30 years) and more common in males. It is commonly found in metaphysis, diaphysis of ribs, jaw, skull, tibia, and femur. It is locally aggressive tumor and may be monostotic or polyostotic and associated with endocrine disorders. Radiologically, it is circumscribed radiolucent lesions, within the medullary cavity.
\nThere are irregularly shaped bony trabeculae without rimming of osteoblasts.
\nThe osteoids are of mature woven bones, and irregular in FD, while mature osteoids are present in WDIOS. There is no cortical destruction on X-rays seen in FD, while there are irregularly sclerotic lesions with poorly defined sclerotic margins. The mineralized matrix is common in WDIOS while lacking in FD (Tables 6 and 9).
\nUsually seen in young persons, it is a benign lesion. Microscopically, no osteoid and bony trabeculae but only storiform spindle stroma, giant cells, and hemosiderin-laden microphages are seen. Radiologically, these are eccentric sharply defined lytic lesions in metaphyseal cortex in young people.
\nThis infrequent variant occurs in a juxtacortical position in the metaphyses of long bones and grows very slowly. It grows, as a lobulated mass around the bone shafts as a low-grade malignant bone tumor with well-formed bony trabeculae, osteoid, variable cartilage, and highly fibrous spindle cell stroma in disorganized manner. In some cases there may be hypocellularity, but there is always mild atypia in the stroma. These tumors have a slight female predominance, with a male-to-female ratio of 1:1.5, and occur predominantly in the third decade. About three fourths of cases involve the distal posterior femur, with the proximal tibia as the second most common site. Clinically it presents as a painless mass of long duration; pain may occur late in the course of this tumor but is not evident initially. Microscopically, there is disorderly arrangement of well-formed bony trabeculae and osteoid and exceptionally osteoclast-like giant cells. There are spindle-shaped stroma with mild atypia and variable amount of cartilage (
X-ray of parosteal osteosarcoma (ring) showing surface-attached mass (A). Photomicrograph (H&E 20X) revealing continuously branching bony trabeculae (thick arrow) with spindle cell proliferation of malignant cells (thin arrow) (B and C).
It is a benign disorder where the medullary spaces contain adipose tissue or marrow hematopoietic tissue with cartilaginous cap. The bony trabeculae are normally arranged as compared to the PAOS.
\nThe myositis ossificans (MO) is distinguished from PAOS by its orderly pattern of maturation. Radiologically, things appear inverse in the MO as compared to PAOS. There is the dense ossification in the center in MO and opaque bone at the periphery, making it eggshell in appearance. Histologically there is zonal arrangement. Maturation toward lamellar bone and marrow adipose tissue begins peripherally and extends centrally in this proliferative process, which is the reverse in parosteal osteosarcoma [41].
\nThe osteochondroma shows continuity of corticomedullary areas of the tumor and the underlying medullary canal, but these features are lacking in PAOS. Medullary spaces contain adipose tissue or marrow hematopoietic tissue, cartilaginous cap.
\nAbundant cartilage is present. Higher-grade osseous component and evidence of periosteal reaction.
\nThis malignant bone tumor is commonly seen in routine biopsies, entirely different from PAOS (juxtacortical OS) despite its similarity with terminology. It arises on surface of long bones (upper tibia and femur). The PEOS affects a slightly older age group (10–20 years) as compared to conventional osteosarcoma. Malignant osteoid must be present, but the predominant pattern of tumor is represented by lobulated chondromatous tissue with cytologic features of grade 2 or 3 chondrosarcoma. Tumor is located on the surface of the bone and may extend into soft tissue. The lesions are limited to the cortex and rarely invade the medullary cavity. The tumor appears perpendicular to the shaft. Sometimes high-grade anaplastic sarcomatous spindle cell component may separate lobules of the malignant chondroid component [24] (Figure 9 and Table 10) [20, 42].
\nX-ray of periosteal osteosarcoma (ring) showing broad-based lesion thickening of cortical areas of the femur (A). Photomicrograph (H&E 40X) revealing bony trabeculae with spindle cell proliferation (arrow) of malignant cells and cartilage (red arrow) differentiation (B and C).
Features | \nPAOS | \nCOS | \nPEOS | \nOsteochondroma | \nMyositis ossificans | \nParosteal lipoma | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Site and location | \nMetaphysis | \nMetaphysis | \nMetaphysis | \nMetaphyseal | \nNOS | \nNOS | \n
Age in years | \n10–25 | \n10–25 | \n10–25 | \n10–30 | \nAny age | \nAny age | \n
Clinical symptoms | \nDull pain | \nDull pain | \nDull pain | \nNo pain | \nPain | \nNo pain | \n
Radiology | \nRadiodense, bosselated, or mushroom-shaped mass arising on the surface of a bone; in long-term lesions, tumor may encircle the bone | \nDiffuse cortical destruction like Codman’s triangle, osteoblastic features | \nBroad-based surface soft-tissue mass causing extrinsic erosion of thickened underlying diaphyseal cortex and perpendicular periosteal reaction extending into the soft-tissue | \nMetaphyseal lesions grow in direction opposite to adjacent joint. Cortex and medulla are continuous with underlying bone | \n\n | Lytic lesions without bony destructions | \n
Histology | \nTumor osteoid is arranged in parallel arrays and separated by a hypocellular fibroblastic stroma that exhibits minimal cytologic atypia and minimal mitotic activity without atypical forms | \nThis is a higher-grade osteosarcoma involving the medullary cavity. Periosteal osteosarcoma does not involve the medullary cavity | \nOsteosarcoma with prominent cartilaginous component. The cartilage in lobules with peripheral spindling and central bone formation. Little no. of mitosis Malignant osteoid/bone is present but may be focal | \nBony trabeculae appear normal | \nOrderly maturation, not attached to underlying bone; more active histologically | \nLipocytes, no osteoid | \n
Differential diagnosis of parosteal osteosarcoma, conventional osteosarcoma, periosteal osteosarcoma, osteochondroma, myositis ossificans, and parosteal lipoma.
Note: Parosteal Osteosarcoma, PAOS; Conventional Osteosarcoma, COS; Periosteal osteosarcoma, PEOS.
Features | \nWD intramedullary OS | \nPAOS | \nCOS | \nPEOS | \nFibrous dysplasia | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Site and location | \nMetaphysis | \nMetaphysis | \nMetaphysis | \nMetaphysis | \nMedulla of diaphysis. | \n
Age in years | \n10–20 | \n10–25 | \n10–25 | \n10–25 | \n1–30 years > males | \n
Clinical symptoms | \nPain and swelling, patients older | \nDull pain | \nDull pain | \nDull pain | \nNo pain | \n
Radiology | \nIrregularly sclerotic lesions with poorly defined sclerotic margins, mineralized matrix common | \nRadiodense, bosselated, or mushroom-shaped mass arising on the surface of a bone; in long-term lesions, tumor may encircle the bone | \nDiffuse cortical destruction like Codman’s triangle, osteoblastic features | \nBroad-based surface soft-tissue mass causing extrinsic erosion of thickened underlying diaphyseal cortex and perpendicular periosteal reaction extending into the soft-tissue | \nThe conventional radiographs show ground glass appearance with no associated soft tissue mass. There are generally no aggressive radiographical features | \n
Histology | \nHeavy osteoid component, fibrocollagenous stroma with minimal atypia | \nTumor osteoid is arranged in parallel arrays and separated by a hypocellular fibroblastic stroma that exhibits minimal cytologic atypia and minimal mitotic activity without atypical forms | \nThis is a higher-grade osteosarcoma involving the medullary cavity. Periosteal osteosarcoma does not involve the medullary cavity | \nOsteosarcoma with prominent cartilaginous component. The cartilage in lobules with peripheral spindling and central bone formation. Malignant osteoid/bone is present but may be focal | \nThere is large fibrous matrix with scattered curvilinear irregularly shaped trabeculae of immature, inadequately mineralized bone. There is no rimming by osteoblasts differentiating feature from cement-ossifying fibroma. Cartilaginous islands are present in 10%, differentiating feature from chondroblastoma | \n
Differential diagnosis of WD intramedullary osteosarcoma, parosteal osteosarcoma, conventional OS, periosteal osteosarcoma, and fibrous dysplasia.
Note: Well-differentiated intramedullary osteosarcoma (WDIOS), parosteal osteosarcoma (PAOS), fibrous dysplasia (FD), conventional osteosarcoma (COS).
It is usually smaller and better defined and composed of benign chondroid tissue and does not contain malignant tumor osteoid [24].
\nRadiographically, it contains “popcorn” calcifications, and histologically, it is a low-grade chondrosarcoma containing no tumor osteoid [20, 24].
\nRadiographically, this tumor is more radiodense, and histologically this is a low-grade malignant fibro-osseous tumor without chondroid differentiation [20, 24].
\nThis is a higher-grade osteosarcoma involving the medullary cavity. Periosteal osteosarcoma does not involve the medullary cavity [24].
\nThis is a high-grade osteosarcoma with similar histological features to those of conventional intramedullary osteosarcoma. The tumor grows on the surface and lacks significant medullary involvement. Radiographically it mimics periosteal osteosarcoma, except it has cumulus cloud-like patterns of mineralization. It is a large, lobulated surface mass with variable consistency ranging from soft to firm and may contain hemorrhagic areas. It should not significantly involve the medullary region [13, 24].
\nIt usually has residual low-grade malignant fibroblastic stromal component. Parosteal osteosarcoma lacks high-grade anaplastic appearance [12, 24].
\nSignificant medullary component (minimal medullary component in a high-grade surface osteosarcoma) [24].
\nOsteosarcoma (OS) is a high-grade malignancy of the bone with high-mortality rate. The exact cause of the condition is unknown, and presently, it is not possible to prevent an osteosarcoma occurrence. It is mainly divided into two types, primary and secondary, based on etiology, while based on where they occur, osteosarcoma is classified as medullary osteosarcoma (occurring in the bone cavity) and surface osteosarcoma (occurring on the bone surface). OS has a bimodal age distribution, having the first peak during adolescence and the second peak in older adulthood, while a little bit more common in males. Some genetic mutations, like mutation of RB and P53 genes, are associated with osteosarcoma. Radiation affected persons, patients of Paget’s disease of the bone, fibrous dysplasia, osteoblastoma, Ollier disease, and chemotherapy, are other conditions and disorders that are thought to be associated with Osteosarcomas. The tumor grows slowly in the initial phase of the tumors and may be asymptomatic. Then tumors grow at a moderate rate, and then they suddenly start to rapidly progress. Pathological fractures are commonly seen in long bones.
\nThree parameters are used for its diagnosis, physical examination with medical history, radiological support (X-rays, CT, MRI), and biopsy for microscopic examination. To approach the remedy of patient, grading and staging with good differential diagnosis are very important to save the life of the patient.
\nNone.
\nNil.
\nThe global environmental is changing rapidly. The established world’s first energy demand and biggest carbon emitter countries are being replaced by emerging countries. The use of renewable energy is expanding due to technological development and environmental problems. The global energy market is moving toward the reduction of fossil fuels and the expansion of environment friendly energy, a shift in the energy mix.
For stable supply of renewable energy with high volatility such as sunlight or wind power, securing stability of power system is the most important. To do this, an intelligent power network should be built up, and grid-based energy storage technology should be secured.
The vanadium redox flow battery is one of the most promising secondary batteries as a large-capacity energy storage device for storing renewable energy [1, 2, 4]. Recently, a safety issue has been arisen by frequent fire accident of a large-capacity energy storage system (ESS) using a lithium ion battery. The vanadium electrolyte is a nonflammable aqueous solution and has a high heat capacity to limit the temperature rise. Therefore, VRFB has no risk of ignition and explosion.
The power of VRFB depends on the performance of the stack, and the energy storage capacity depends on the electrolyte concentration and the electrolyte reservoir size, which greatly increases the degree of freedom in system design [7, 24]. A schematic diagram of the vanadium redox flow battery is shown in Figure 1.
Schematic of vanadium redox flow batteries: (a) charging and (b) discharging. Reproduced with permission from [
Flow batteries suffer from the capacity imbalance due to the mixing of the both side active materials caused by the electrolyte diffusion across the membrane, resulting in an irreversible loss of capacity as well as an efficiency loss [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. Since the vanadium redox flow battery uses vanadium as the active material of both electrolytes, the use of appropriate rebalancing techniques can mitigate capacity loss though vanadium crossovers can lead to loss of efficiency.
The vanadium ion may have various oxidation numbers from bivalent to pentavalent. Using this property, vanadium is used as the electrolyte redox couple material of the flow battery. VO2 +, VO2 +, V3 +, and V2 + are represented by V(V), V(IV), V(III), and V(II) for explanation. Solution of V(III) is added to the negative electrolyte tank, and solution of V(IV) is added to the positive electrolyte tank as shown in Figure 1. When the electricity is applied to the electrodes, the V(III) ion of the negative electrolyte is reduced to V(II), and the V(IV) ion of the positive electrolyte is oxidized to V(V). This means that when the VRFB is charged, the difference in the oxidation number between the positive electrolyte and negative electrolyte increases from +1 to +3, and it can be understood conceptually that the electric energy is stored in the increased bivalent oxidation number. When the VRFB is discharged, V(II) in negative electrolyte is oxidized to V(III), and V(V) in positive electrolyte is reduced to V(IV). The chemical reactions for charge-discharge are expressed as follows:
The permeation of the vanadium ions through the membrane occurs since any membrane cannot block the crossover of the redox species completely. The vanadium ions diffused to the counter electrolyte cause a cross-contamination reaction as below:
The self-discharging reactions caused by the vanadium ions permeated into the counter electrolytes can be described as below:
Negative electrode:
Positive electrode:
When the VRFB is overcharged, hydrogen and oxygen gas can be generated at the negative and positive electrodes, respectively. Additionally, the carbon dioxide gas can be generated by corrosion of graphite plate with the produced oxygen gas.
Negative electrode:
Positive electrode:
The equilibrium cell potentials,
where
The exchange current density is the magnitude of the current when the electrode reactions reach the equilibrium and can be described as
where
Following the Butler-Volmer equation [5, 24], the currents at negative electrode and positive electrode are described as
where
where
The standard open-circuit voltage of VRFB, E0 = 1.26 V, can be derived from Gibbs free energy relation as below:
However, the actual operating voltage of VRFB differs from this thermodynamic value. Charging voltage should be larger than 1.26 V since the amount of overpotential is required in addition to the thermodynamic voltage. Figure 2 shows the relationship of the voltage and current during charging and discharging at the two electrodes of VRFB, assuming that the overall kinetics are determined by the charge transfer in the electrochemical reaction.
where
Charge-discharge voltage of vanadium redox flow battery: Current vs. voltage and overpotential and open-circuit voltage at positive electrode and negative electrode.
At discharge, the operating voltage becomes smaller than theoretical value. As the current density increases, the overpotential and
where
Vanadium redox flow battery performance: (a) cell voltage and open-circuit voltage profiles at current density of 60 mA/cm2, (b) efficiencies depending on current densities, (c) polarization plot of the unit cell, and (d) energy density and power density.
The performance of VRFB can be measured with three efficiencies: current efficiency, voltage efficiency, and energy efficiency, which are defined in Eqs. (27), (28), and (29), respectively. The current efficiency (CE, Coulombic efficiency) is defined as the ratio of the amount of usable charge to the stored charge amount, that is, the discharge capacity divided by the charge capacity. CE is a measure of the storage capacity loss during charge-discharge process. The capacity loss is mainly caused by the crossover of the electrolyte ions through the membrane. The mixed active materials result in a capacity imbalance between the anode and cathode electrolytes and an irreversible capacity loss.
Voltage efficiency (VE) is the average discharge voltage to the average charge voltage. Figure 3a shows the charging and discharging curves of VRFB in constant current mode, in which the current is maintained as constant value during charge-discharge cycle. While the current is constant during charge-discharge, the voltage is not constant but gradually changing in the whole cycle. Voltage efficiency represents a measure of electrical resistance loss and the polarization properties of battery. The polarization plot in Figure 3c coincides with the voltage efficiency trend in Figure 3b. Energy efficiency is the ratio of available energy to stored energy, which can be calculated as the product of voltage efficiency and current efficiency.
It is important to monitor the charging status of VRFB since especially overcharging the battery results in gas evolution side reactions, cell resistance increase, and capacity loss. Normally, VRFB is operated in charge range of 20–80%. The status of charge (SOC) is defined as the following using the concentrations of vanadium ions [8, 9]:
The electrode provides the active sites for the redox reaction of redox couples dissolved in the electrolyte notwithstanding the electrode itself does not participate in the reaction. The electrode material influences the performance of VRFB diversely. The electrode should be electrochemically stable in the operating potential window of VRFB. The electrochemical activity of electrode affects the charge-discharge voltages and consequently the voltage efficiency during battery cycle operation. The electrode must have high electrical conductivity to increase the charge transfer speed. The charge transfer speed is related the ohmic losses, cell voltage, and energy efficiency. The vanadium can be dissolved in strong acidic aqueous solution; therefore the electrode should be chemically stable in strong acidic condition. The chemical stability of the electrode in acid electrolyte is related to the corrosion resistance when oxygen is generated at the positive electrode during overcharged and determines the lifetime of VRFB. The porosity of the electrode affects the pumping energy loss, which affects pressure drop across the stack and overall battery system efficiency [15, 16].
Various carbon materials including carbon felt, graphite felt, and carbon paper have been extensively studied as electrodes for VRFB. Especially, carbon felts are considered to be suitable for use as electrodes of VRFB because of their wide specific surface area, high electrical conductivity, high chemical stability, and wide operating potential window.
Sun and Skyllas-Kazacos reported that the C-OH functional group acts as an active site for oxidation of VO2+ and reduction of V3+ on the surface of the electrode [17, 18]. Oxidation and reduction mechanisms of the VO2+/VO2+ and V2+/V3+ redox couples at the electrode surface can be explained in three steps as shown in Figure 4. At first step of charge process, the vanadium ions are diffused from the bulk electrolytes to the vicinity of the electrodes and absorbed on the surface of the electrodes. The absorbed vanadium ions are connected to the electrode through the exchange with functional group hydrogen ions. In the second step, the electron and oxygen transfer reactions occur in the VO2+/VO2+ redox couple, and only the electron transfer reaction occurs in the V2+/V3+ redox couple. At the positive electrode, an oxygen atom of C-O functional group moves to the VO2+, and an electron of the VO2+ is transferred to the electrode following the C-O-V bond, and the oxidation number of vanadium ion increases from +4 to +5. At the negative electrode, an electron is transferred from the electrode to the V3+ along the C-O-V bond, and the oxidation number of vanadium ion is reduced from +3 to +2. In the third step, the ion exchange process between the V ion attached to the electrode surface and the H+ ion in the electrolyte occurs, and the produced reactants (VO2+ and V2+) diffuse back into the originated electrolytes, respectively.
Schematic illustration of the redox reaction mechanism for (a) VO2+/VO2+ redox couples in the catholyte and (b) V2+/V3+ redox couple in the anolyte on the surface of the carbon felt electrode in VRFB. Reproduced with permission from [
To improve the electrochemical performance of VRFB, it is necessary to promote the reaction kinetics of vanadium ion redox couples. For this purpose, the electrode should have high electrical conductivity and the sufficient amount of oxygen and nitrogen functional groups at the surface.
Cyclic voltammetry (CV) is used to monitor the reaction rates of redox couples and to evaluate the electrode performance of flow batteries. The CV curves in Figure 5 show the electrode characteristics of the VRFB cell. The negative potential region of CV indicates the redox reaction of V2+/V3+ ions, and the positive potential region implies the redox reaction of VO2+/VO2+ ions in electrolyte.
(a) Cyclic voltammograms on a graphite felt electrode of a standard sulfate VRFB electrolyte (1.5 M V4+ and 5.0 M SO42−) and a mixed electrolyte solution (2.5 M V4+, 2.5 M SO42−, and 6 M Cl−) at a scan rate of 0.5 mV/s. Reproduced with permission with [
Figure 5a compares the electrode characteristics of the standard sulfuric acid electrolyte and the mixed acid electrolyte containing 6 M Cl−. The peak current of the vanadium redox reaction is higher in the mixed electrolyte than in the standard sulfuric acid solution. This indicates that the reaction kinetics is improved due to the excellent fluidity of the electrolyte by adding sulfate chloride. The reaction voltage of the redox couples in the mixed solution increases slightly comparing to the sulfate solution, but there is no significant difference in the electrochemical reversibility between the sulfuric acid and the mixed electrolyte.
Figure 5b shows the reaction characteristics of carbon paper and catalytic behavior of biomass-derived activated carbon (AC) in the vanadium electrolyte. The V3+/VO2+ redox couple peaks appear clearly in AC-coated carbon paper CV curve, and these multivalent peaks reveal the superior catalytic activity of AC coating.
Park et al. [21] investigated the change of VRFB performance according to the compression ratio of the carbon felt electrode and suggested the optimal compression ratio of the electrode. Oh et al. [22] conducted a numerical study of the VRFB model to investigate the effect of electrode compression on the charging and discharging behavior of VRFB. Yoon et al. [23] studied the flow distribution depending on local porosity of the electrode both numerically and experimentally.
As the percentage of electrode compression increases, the specific resistance and porosity of the electrode decrease as shown in Figure 6a. Compressed electrodes with reduced resistivity promote electron transfer, which increases the discharge time and maximum power of the VRFB cell and significantly increases VRFB performance efficiencies and discharge capacities, especially under high current density (Figure 6b). However, decreased porosity reduces the electrolyte flow passages through the electrode and increases pumping losses. The energy efficiency of the battery increases with increasing electrode compression ratio of up to 20%. When the carbon felt electrode is compressed more than 20%, the energy efficiency can be reduced due to the combined effect of deteriorated electrolyte transport and enhanced electron transfer. Overall, it can be concluded that the compression of the carbon felt electrode has a positive effect on cell performance, and the compression ratio optimization can generate significant improvement of VRFB performance without additional cost.
(a) Specific resistance and porosity vs. percentage of compression for FA-30A carbon felt electrodes and (b) polarization curves of VRFB cells with electrodes of various levels of compression. Reproduced with permission from [
The flow characteristics have a significant effect on the performance of redox flow battery. The flow distribution is related to the supply of reactant and participation of active species in redox reaction. The uniform flow distribution represents the uniform current density distribution. If the electrolyte flows nonuniformly, the reactants are not fully employed to the electrochemical reaction, which will lead to the degradation of the VRFB performance and durability.
Electrolyte flow rate is the speed of supplying reactants to the active site of electrode. If the flow rate is not enough, the capacity of the electrolytes is not fully utilized. If the flow rate is too high, the pumping loss increases, and the overall system efficiency is reduced accordingly. Therefore, optimizing flow rate is necessary in VRFB operation, and the importance increases significantly as storing capacity increases. The theoretical flow rate can be calculated as below [8]:
where
The stoichiometric number,
Current density of 75 mA/cm2 at various flow rates; (a) charge–discharge curve, (b) SOC, and (c) efficiencies as a function of stoichiometric number (
Flow patterns of RFB can be categorized into two types: “flow-through” type without flow field and “flow-by” type which has a flow field design on the bipolar plate. Leung et al. [25] explained that the structure in which the flow direction is parallel to the current direction is “flow-through” type and the structure in which the flow direction is perpendicular to the current direction is “flow-by” type. However, this definition does not match the concept we are dealing with here. In the scheme described here, the directions of electrolyte flow and electric current are perpendicular to each other in both “flow-through” and “flow-by” configurations. Figure 8 shows the flow battery stack configuration and conceptual schematics of both flow designs. The classical “flow-through” type is the configuration in which the electrolyte flows through the porous carbon felt electrode. A “flow-by” type is the structure in which the electrolyte flows by the surface of an electrode following the flow field at the bipolar plate like a fuel cell. A “flow-by” type can choose relatively thinner carbon felt or carbon paper as an electrode material. Zawodzinski’s group first reported better electrochemical performance and improved limiting current density and peak power density of VRFB with a “zero-gap” serpentine flow field design comparing to “flow-through” configuration [29]. This results from reduced ohmic loss and enhanced localized mass transfer due to thinner thickness and larger surface area-to-volume ratio of carbon paper used as electrode than those of carbon felt. Elgammal et al. [30] achieved normalized limiting current density of 2961 mA/cm2 mol and peak power density of 2588 mW/cm2 of VRFB with serpentine flow field. However, “flow-through” configuration distributes the electrolyte flow more uniformly and results in less pressure drops and pumping losses than “flow-by” configuration.
(a) Schematic of flow battery stack configuration. Reproduced with permission from [
The electrolyte flow behavior is indicated schematically in Figure 9. The electrolyte is flowing mainly following channel over the electrode and partly penetrating into the porous electrode forced by pressure gradient. The flow velocity through the porous carbon media is lower than mean velocity of fully developed channel flow. The amount of the electrolyte penetrated into the porous electrode is associated with the stoichiometric availability of electrolyte reactants and the battery performance.
(a) Diagram of electrolyte flow through a single flow channel and over the porous electrode in RFBs, (b) two-dimensional flow distributions in the flow channel-porous electrode layered system, and (c) the case of current density limited by the diffusion boundary layer formed between one flat plate and one electrode, which does not allow electrolyte reactant penetration. (d) the case of current density limited by the stoichiometric availability of the electrolyte reactants penetrate through the porous electrode from the flow channel. Reproduced with permission from [
Limiting current density is a key factor evaluating flow battery performance. High current density allows fast electrochemical reactions and reduces charging time. Newman et al. developed the limiting current density model as below [6]:
where
The limiting current density dominated by the stoichiometric availability of reactant in the porous electrode as shown in Figure 9d is called “maximum current density” and can be expressed in Eq. (33) [26, 27]:
where
The entrance flow rate of “flow-by” type is higher than “flow-through” type. If entrance flow rate is increased, the penetrating electrolyte flow into the porous electrode is increased because the diffusion boundary layer is decreased, and the maximum current density is increased according to Eq. (33).
Zawodzinski et al. have shown how the discharge polarization curves of VRFB behave with the flow field and flow rate variations [28]. The flow-through type shows a limiting current density of 165 mA/cm 2 at an electrolyte circulation rate of 30 ml/min (Figure 10a). Figure 10b shows that the limiting current density of the flow-by type increases from 40 to 321 mA/cm 2 as the flow rate increases from 0.5 to 25 ml/min. The values of the theoretical and observed limit current density according to the flow rate are summarized in Table 1. The theoretical limiting current density was calculated by converting the transfer rate of the electrolyte to the bipolar plate into the number of available electrons, assuming that all vanadium was converted in a single pass.
(a) Discharging polarization curve of the flow-through type VRFB (0.5 M V/2.0 M H2SO4 electrolyte with 30 ml/min) and (b) iR free discharge polarization curves illustrating the effect of the electrolyte flow rate on flow-by type VRFB (1.0 M V/5.0 M H2SO4 electrolyte). Reproduced with permission from [
Flow rate (ml/min) | Theoretical limiting current density (mA/cm2) | Observed limiting current density (mA/cm2) | Percent of max current |
---|---|---|---|
0.5 | 161 | 40 | 25.2 |
2 | 643 | 105 | 16.3 |
4 | 1287 | 159 | 12.4 |
8 | 2573 | 209 | 8.12 |
12 | 3860 | 250 | 6.48 |
16 | 5147 | 261 | 5.07 |
20 | 6433 | 306 | 4.76 |
25 | 8042 | 321 | 3.99 |
Comparison of theoretical limiting current density and observed current density in flow-by configuration of VRFB at various electrolyte flow rates. Reproduced with permission from [28]. Copyright 2011 by springer.
Various batteries compete to become renewable energy storage devices in the power grid. One of the most important factors in practical implementation is the battery installation cost (capital cost). Noack et al. [32] conducted a techno-economic modeling analysis based on a 10 kW/120 kWh VRFB system. The costs and ratios of each component are summarized in Table 2 and Figure 11, respectively. The largest portion of the VRFB cost is the stack, which accounts for 40% of the total cost. Electrolyte accounts for 32% of the total cost, which is the largest portion as a single component. In order to increase the energy content of the flow battery, the additional active material and the tank are required, so that the cost proportion of the electrolyte may increase depending on the storage capacity increase and the fluctuation of vanadium market price. In this analysis, the energy storage cost for VRFB system is presented at € 1078/kWh, which is expected to decrease with increasing production quantities.
VRFB system parameter | Cost | VRFB stack component | Cost |
---|---|---|---|
Electrolyte | € 41,000 | Bipolar plate | € 11,211 |
Tank | € 9082 | Felt electrode | € 11,047 |
System assembling | € 9000 | Frame | € 3066 |
Power electronics | € 5000 | Membrane | € 6656 |
Fluid components | € 3420 | Gasket | € 16,974 |
Control engineering | € 9160 | Assembling | € 2782 |
VRFB stack | € 52,646 | End plate | € 435 |
VRFB stack specific cost | € 5265 /kW | Isolation plate | € 217 |
Total system cost | € 129,310 | Current collector | € 141 |
Total system specific cost | € 1078 / kWh | Connection | € 119 |
Cost analysis of 10 kW/120 kWh VRFB system. Reproduced with permission from [32]. Copyright 2016 by Noack J. et al.
10 kW/120 kWh VRFB system cost analysis. Reproduced with permission from [
Vanadium redox flow battery is one of the most promising devices for a large energy storage system to substitute the fossil fuel and nuclear energy with renewable energy. The VRFB is a complicated device that combines all the technologies of electrochemistry, mechanical engineering, polymer science, and materials science similar to the fuel cell. To optimize the flow battery design, it is necessary to understand the flow distribution, local current distribution, limits, and maximum current density. Understanding the shunt current and pressure distribution allows to design the flow battery stack with high power, large capacity, and high system efficiencies. Both experimental and modeling approaches are required to develop advanced vanadium redox flow battery stacks with high electrochemical performance.
Since Skyllas-Kazacos group at the University of New South Wales invented the VRFB in 1986, many researchers have conducted VRFB research. It is true that the VRFB are closer to commercialization than any other flow batteries. However still many of the reaction mechanisms and material characteristics must be further studied, and it is sure that the vanadium redox flow batteries are still very attractive research topics.
This research was supported by the basic research project of Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) Europe, “Electrochemical energy transformation and energy storage”.
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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"23",type:"subseries",title:"Computational Neuroscience",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. 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