Application of textile raw materials in transport vehicles.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2289",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Public Health - Methodology, Environmental and Systems Issues",title:"Public Health",subtitle:"Methodology, Environmental and Systems Issues",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Public health can be thought of as a series of complex systems. 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The industry of transport vehicles is one of the largest users of technical textiles. Mobiltech covers all fields of transportation on land, air, space or water. The usage of Mobiltech textile is wide (Figure 1), where some of these materials visible (upholstery, carpets, seat belts, headliners, etc.), while other are concealed (tyre cords, airbags, hoses, belts, air and fuel filters, noise and vibration dampening, body panel reinforcement in composites, etc.).
Distribution of technical textiles used in transport vehicles.
Today’s life style leads to the fact that people spend much more time in the vehicles that are sometimes used as places to work, eat, sleep, etc. Therefore, the safety and comfort of a conveyance are of paramount importance, which contributes to the design, functionality and cost-effectiveness of the vehicle interior.
Textiles in transport vehicles have multiple functions and can be summarized as follows:
they provide a pleasant sensation during the long sitting in the same position. Textile is used for filling spaces and cladding of seat constructions (made of a metal, plastic and wood) with composite materials (woven fabric + polyurethane foam + knitting fabric) and thus contributes to its ergonomic design
they provide passenger safety (seat belts and airbags)
they ensure the protection of transport vehicles (shields and reinforcements for tyres, reinforcement in the walls of the transport vehicles, air and fluids filters, external airbags)
they provide noise and vibration reduction in vehicles (multilayer materials for coating the interior).
The use of raw materials in transport vehicles is various in order to achieve the best possible application properties and maximum weight reduction (Table 1).
Application area | Fibres |
---|---|
Upholstery | Polyester, wool, cotton, nylon, acrylic |
Carpets and coverings | Nylon, polyester, polypropylene |
Airbags | Nylon 6, 6, nylon 4, 6 |
Seat belts | HT polyester |
Composites | Glass, carbon, aramid, HT polyester, HT polypropylene |
Tyres | Polyester, nylon, HT rayon, steel and aramid |
Application of textile raw materials in transport vehicles.
Textiles in the transport vehicles, beside the basic physical-mechanical (strength, abrasion resistance, pilling) and thermo-physiological properties (comfort), must meet a number of other specific properties (resistance to sunlight and UV radiation, reduced flammability, odour free, antistatic, soil resistance) and at the same time be stable under the external temperature and humidity conditions (temperature of − 20 to + 100°C and humidity of 0–100%) through the entire vehicle life time. Textiles must also meet the high requirements for attractiveness following global trends in design.
Nevertheless, the largest consumers of textiles are still personal cars. Around 25 kg of textiles (Figure 2) is incorporated in the car, of which visible components cover approx. 45 m2. In order to achieve lighter and more effective vehicle, metal parts are increasingly replaced by textile composites. It also increases the interest in the production and use of fabrics and composites made from natural fibres (cotton, flax, jute, sisal, kapok, wool, etc.) as a replacement for synthetic fibres, but these changes are still in infancy [1, 2].
Textiles used in car.
Almost all seats in the conveyance of passengers, that is, cars, aeroplanes and boats intended for luxury tourism are ergonomically designed with the possibility to control the height and position of the body. The shift of the seats in the vertical and horizontal direction and rotation of the backrest at desired angle enables adjustment of the best body position while driving. The gaps of the metal seat construction are filled with a variety of fibres, non-woven textiles and polyurethane foam in order to improve comfort during prolonged sitting and protect car seat cover from damage caused by direct contact with the metal frame of the seat (Figure 3).
Composite material for car seat upholstery.
The softness and breathability of the car seat upholstery material contribute to the feeling of comfort when driving, especially during a long stay in vehicle when the human body is in the passive sitting position. Long-term pressure of the same part of the body to the car seat reduces blood circulation and causes pain in muscles and joints. Functional properties and aesthetic appearance of the interior play a significant role in the vehicle selection.
The first materials used for car seats were single-layered, made from leather or rough and solid fabrics. Leather is characterized by durability, strength, abrasion resistance and appealing looks. Disadvantages of the leather seats are deformations that occur in short time of usage on sitting places and backrest as a result of long-term multidirectional stress. In the beginning of leather application, the surface of the material was not processed in order to increase resistance and protection. Therefore, additional disadvantages (of the leather material) are difficult maintenance, inadequate breathability and poor resistance to UV radiation and the impact of various weather conditions (especially in transport vehicles with unprotected seats). By its mechanical properties, woven fabric does not have the firmness of the leather, but its elastic properties ensure material stability. However, the woven fabrics have some advantages over the leather, such as a selection of various structures and designs, reasonable price, better thermal properties and softness to the touch. Today’s development of textile for car seat upholstery is oriented to its structure and surface treatment. With the advent of more and more advanced textile materials and the possibility of various surface finishes, car seat upholstery is able to meet the growing stringent requirements of the market. The largest increase in the quality and functionality of car seat upholstery was followed by development of textile composite materials.
There are number of technical, design and purchase demands and end-use requirements placed on this type of materials. Exceptional strength, but also sufficient elasticity, breathability, flammability and resistance to abrasion, UV radiation, extreme temperatures, humidity and microorganisms are some of the most important properties, which are achieved by using appropriate materials and structural parameters of materials and finishing process. Attractive appearance, soft touch, ergonomic design, comfort and easy maintenance will result in the feeling of pleasant stay in vehicle. Those performance properties and design are among the most important criteria for customer satisfaction. There are also some special properties, like reduction of electrostatic charge in seat upholstery (that can be achieved). A person exiting a car and leaving the seat can generate a body voltage of up to 30.000 V, which may affect passengers comfort, endanger sensitive electronic components or even cause an explosion during refuelling. Body voltage control can be achieved by interweaving antistatic yarn into woven fabric structure [3].
Targeted properties of the final composite and ultimately car seat upholstery can be easily achieved by a combination of various types of materials with predetermined properties. Car seat upholstery is exposed to multiple, long-term and cyclical stresses on the seat and backrest. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the flow of fatigue and product life by material testing with stress simulation. One of the main demands on car seat upholstery is that it should last longer than the transport vehicle. An important role in the car seat upholstery quality assessment has a sewn seam deformation. Since the sewn seam is inelastic and is usually located on the folding areas, it makes the weak point of the car seat upholstery. Prior to perform a sewing process, it is necessary to select an optimum combination of needle geometry, sewing thread, stitch class, and sewing machine type [1].
To study textile composite materials for seat upholstery, six samples with different layer thickness and lamination speed were selected. Total number of sample involves 18 composite materials made by flame lamination method with three different laminating speeds (30, 34 and 39 m/min) as a combination of woven fabric on the face of the material, polyurethane foam in the middle, and knitted fabric on the reverse. The woven fabric was produced from 100% polyester (PES) multi filament, weave: dobby, density warp/weft: 290/205 (filament/10 cm), count warp/weft: 620 f 144 dtex/167 f 48 × 3 dtex, mass 316.1 g/m2, using weaving machine Dornier type: S 220 cm, weft insertion with rapier (electronical dobby).
The foam layer was made from polyurethane with 2 mm thickness and weight of 76.5 g/m2 for the sample F2 and 4 mm polyurethane thickness with weight 144 g/m2 for the sample F4 using flame lamination Schmid, model: 1281/2200.
The lower layer used as lining fabric knitted from 100% polyester multifilament, knitted fabric 1 + 1, density wales/course: 130/110 (per 10 cm), yarn fineness: 75–84 f 36 dtex, mass 51.4 g/m2, using Terrot machine type: S296–1; E28 30’’.
The results obtained by these tests are shown in the different sections of this chapter.
The first composite materials that have appeared on the market were used for making car seat upholstery, and even nowadays, they account for the largest share of the total amount of technical fabric production. In the last few decades, intensive development of materials has resulted in the emergence of new composites that meet the most stringent demands of car manufacturers. A wide range of new materials with outstanding properties and added value has been developed due to large funds investment in the car industry in order to increase market competitiveness. Developed new composites have higher level of quality and functionality. A use and qualitative value of the composite are usually determined by its physical-mechanical properties, which are directly correlated with the properties of individual components (woven fabric + polyurethane foam + knitted fabric) (Figure 4). Characteristics of the composites are given by the properties of the components from which the composite is made. This means that composite characteristics can be modified with combining certain properties of each component.
Tensile properties of tested materials in warp and weft direction of: each separate components in the composite (WF, PU, KF), semi-composites (PU + KF) and composites (WF + PU + KF); where WF is the woven fabric; KF is the knitted fabric; PU is the polyurethane foam (2 or 4 mm); speed of thermal joining (30, 34 or 39 m/min).
Woven fabric that provides the composite reinforcement is usually placed on the face of the composite material, while the polyurethane foam, in the middle, and knitting fabric, on the reverse, contribute to the composite comfort. Each component in the composite has its own function. Woven fabric with its targeted properties should provide adequate strength, aesthetics appearance, and affordable price. The second layer of the composite polyurethane foam is sandwiched between knitted and woven fabric to provide comfort when sitting. Therefore, it has to have certain elasticity, good thermal adhesion to the woven and knitted fabric in the joining process. In the same time, materials used for the production of car seat upholstery require good breathability, porosity and high elasticity. Knitted fabric used on the back of the material should protect polyurethane foam but also to improve durability, stability and elasticity of the composite material. With the implementation of new technologies, the life time of the composite has become longer. Contemporary composites have relatively higher strength, high resistance to abrasion and delamination, excellent resistance to UV radiation, good thermos-stability and seam quality, to achieve the best functionality and aesthetic appearance [4–6].
Beside the abovementioned composite, the materials for car seats develop in the direction of production of 3D spacer textile structures. Spacer fabric is a three-dimensional network, which has two outer layer structures connected with spacer yarn, which acts as a linear spring offering more energy absorption during compression and excellent recovery at the time of deceleration. Such fabrics can be used as substitutes for polyurethane foam, which beside its specific characteristics, thanks to which is the key element of the multilayer fabric in terms of comfort and mechanical behaviour, has great number of problems. Polyurethane foam, which generates toxic gases during its manufacturing process and during laminating processes, has a problem with flammability as well as recycling issues. All these problems lead to a need for its replacement. This new product has to be environmentally friendly and has to answer to the automotive specifications in terms of weight, formability and cost [7].
In the beginning of the automobile production, products for the car seat upholstery were made by single-textile materials from natural fibres (fabric) or leather. The materials had a high value of surface mass, especially in the wet state, so their durability caused problems during the usage. Former car seat upholstery had a short product life due to the following disadvantages: long water retention, slow drying, low dimensional stability in wet state and others. With the advent of synthetic fibres, natural fibres are almost abandoned from the application in the production of car seat upholstery. On exceptional basis, natural fibres such as jute, sisal and kapok, with high strength values, could be used as the alternative to polyurethane foam. Nowadays, the woven and knitted fabrics are made from multifilament, synthetic yarns in various structures, fineness and twist count.
Composites from woven and knitted fabrics made of polyester multifilament fibres are most commonly used (Figure 5) due to the relatively low cost and good properties. The most important features of polyester fibres are good durability and dimensional stability, high strength, easy maintenance, fast drying, low moisture adsorption, resistance to the most chemicals, resistance to high temperatures and compatibility with cotton. There are many kinds of polyester fibres on the market, of which the following is used for woven fabrics intended for car seat upholstery: FR Trevira CS: flame-resistant polyester fibres, high strength Trevira and particularly a modified polyester fibre with antimicrobial activity (Bactekiller). Rapid technological development, interdisciplinary research and cooperation between science and industry have enabled the development of new materials in composites for car seat upholstery.
Tensile properties (strength and elongation) by fibre types.
Since the woven fabric is usually located on the face of the composite, good durability properties and comfort of car seat upholstery depend mostly on it. The trend of using wool-based materials for furnishing luxury vehicles is increasing. Woollen fabrics enhanced by surface treatment achieve better properties of breathability, comfort, insulation and thermal properties, compared to synthetic fabrics. Still, the woollen fabric has some disadvantages such as higher price, shorter durability, peeling tendency (in mixtures) and poor resistance to UV radiation and abrasion.
Polyurethane foam has a low strength and low wear resistance but provides the car seat upholstery a very comfortable softness while sitting. One of the important properties of the polyurethane foam is its rigidity that prevents bending, wrinkling, creasing and stretching of the sitting and backrest areas during extended use. There are different thicknesses of polyurethane foams (1–11 mm) that are used in car seat upholstery composites (most often 2–5 mm). On the car seat, there are areas that are exposed to higher values of pressure. Therefore, those parts are reinforced with thicker polyurethane foam layer.
The components in the composite are thermally joined at the certain temperature and speed of the material, which has a direct impact on the final quality of the composite. Good quality of thermal joining of the components (first: PU + knitting, and then: PU and knit fabric + woven fabric) is achieved by good and solid adhesion between the components, while keeping elasticity properties.
The quality of adhesion between components can be estimated by testing the required force for composite components separation. In purpose of finding the optimal solution that will give the most solid thermal contact between the components, the separation force of composites joined with different bonding speeds (30, 34 and 39 m/min) and thicknesses of polyurethane (2 and 4 mm) was tested. The separation force between the knitted fabric and polyurethane + woven fabric composite and woven fabric and polyurethane + knitted fabric composite was conducted. Testing was performed on samples in longitudinal (warpwise) and transversal (weftwise) directions on the tensile tester Pellizzato/Tinius, C. Olsen type. H5KS, according to standard DIN EN ISO 13934–1.
Insufficient temperature in production process or an excessively high speed of the material in the process of thermal joining will result in insufficient adhesion between composite layers (Figures 6–9). In addition, higher temperatures or lower velocity of the material will provide better adhesion of the components, but there is a risk that the mixture of melted adhesive agent and polyurethane foam penetrates into the structure of woven and knitted fabrics and stiffens the material. By this, the quality of material will be degraded in terms of bending characteristics and sewability.
The separating force of the composite components, where WF is the woven fabric; KF is the knitted fabric; PU is the polyurethane foam (2 or 4 mm); speed of thermal joining (30, 34 or 39 m/min).
The movement of force and elongation at separation of the PU2 from the WF, in the warp direction, speed of thermal joining 39 m/min.
Separation of the woven fabric from the PU: (a) speed of thermal joining 30 m/min; (b) speed of thermal joining 34 m/min; and (c) speed of thermal joining 39 m/min.
Separation of the knitted fabric from the PU: (a) speed of thermal joining 30 m/min; (b) speed of thermal joining 34 m/min; and (c) speed of thermal joining 39 m/min.
Abrasion resistance of composites, intended for car seat upholstery, is of great importance since it affects durability and quality. The test is carried out on the face of the composite, or the woven component. The tested composite (fabric) has an extremely high abrasion resistance. This claim can be supported by a relatively small loss of weight of the samples (1.2–2.5%) after 100,000 cycles of abrasion (Figure 10). It is important to mention the relatively big difference between the composite with a polyurethane (PU) foam thickness of 2 and 4 mm. Samples with thicker PU foam are softened, and the pressure between the fabric and the material, subjected to abrasion, is slightly lower, but the surface force acting during the testing also has lower values.
Mass loss of samples after 100, 000 cycles of abrasion testing, where WF is the woven fabric; KF is the knitted fabric; and PU is the polyurethane foam (2 or 4 mm).
Car seat upholstery testing of strength at a stress in the material subjected to a spherical load is of great significance. In this example, test results of various composites bursted with different diameters of the balls (60, 40, 20, 10 mm) were performed with the diameter of the ring (100 mm). The circular shaped sample with 120 mm in diameter is fixed between two rings (clamp). The sphere is placed above the sample and fixed to the movable clamp of the tensile tester. Sphere moves towards the sample at a uniform speed rate of 100 mm/min till the testing material is bursted when it stops. The results of the testing are bursting force (N) and sphere displacement (mm). The testing results on Figure 11 show the force and the depth of sphere penetration in the moment of bursting for four different composite samples and with the four different sphere diameters. The greater penetration force is in correlation with the diameter of the sphere. Also, the higher values of bursting forces are followed by lower values of sphere penetration depth at the bursting. Considering that bursting sphere depth penetration is in correlation with bursting elongation, it can be seen that thickness of polyurethane layer has small influence in composite elastic properties in a way that thicker the polyurethane foam is, the composite is slightly stiffer. Regarding the sphere diameter, greater sphere dimensions means the greater sample area affected in testing which results in wider stress distribution (σ = F/A, where A is area which is increasing along with sphere diameter) and delayed bursting in the terms of sphere penetration depth.
Bursting force and bursting depth of sphere penetration for composite samples (WF + PU + KF) and semi-composites (PU + KF), where WF is the woven fabric; KF is the knitted fabric; PU is the polyurethane foam (2 or 4 mm); and Ø is the diameter of the ball (10, 20, 40 and 60 mm).
A material fatigue could be determined by exposing the material to biaxial strain caused by the action of certain forces in two mutually perpendicular directions that stretch the material through defined number of cycles. It is therefore of utmost importance to define the change of rheological and usage properties of material, and its resistance to biaxial cyclic stresses. This test is particularly important on materials for car seat upholstery, in order to define their durability to multiple stresses.
The device for measuring the resistance of fabrics to the biaxial cyclic stress is an innovative device (Figure 12). With this device, the material could be subjected to the cyclic stress in one or two directions. Regulation of pretension is the one of the most important actions in testing preparation, and it could be achieved with this device. Testing samples are prepared according to the method of testing (biaxial or uniaxial). The surface of the testing sample is always 200 × 200 mm with the addition of fixing preclamps and clamps (100 mm). Sample pretension is adjusted by putting weights on two or four sides of material (depends of testing type) and fastening the preclamps to it. After a uniform prestressing, the sample is fastened by clamps that will hold it through entire testing.
The device for measuring uniaxial and biaxial cyclic stress.
The board with the side roller moves vertically in the up and down direction. At the upward move, the sample is tensed, while at the downward move, the material is relieved of stress. Cyclic strain of the sample is done by subjecting it to the certain force. The force and the speed of the board can be regulated. The device stops automatically after a specified number of cycles. The obtained samples are tested by one of the standard test methods for breaking strength and elongation of textile fabrics. The results of tests gave promising knowledge in the field of the durability of textile materials.
Figure 13 shows an example of test results for car seat upholstery materials that are cyclically burdened with a known force and then tested according to ISO 13934–1:2013 (Textiles—Tensile properties of fabrics—Part 1: Determination of maximum force and elongation at maximum force using the strip method). Due to high extensibility of individual composites components (knitted fabric, PU foam), was not possible to inflict such fatigue with cyclic stresses, by which differences in the decrease of mechanical properties could be determined. The results reveal that the material that was subjected to the action of the biaxial cyclic strain has lower values of breaking properties. A large number of cycles increase fatigue and permanent deformation.
Breaking forces of the composite before and after exposure to the cyclic stress.
Sewing has still a prime role in joining textiles in the automotive industry. The manufacturing of vehicle upholstery must fulfil high demands on product functionality, quality and sustainability. Sewing pattern, needles, threads and stitch density has to be carefully chosen to deliver the best possible seam quality to ensure performance standards and durability throughout the vehicle’s life span [8].
Sewability is defined as the sewing thread’s performance evaluated after the sewing process where the functional behaviour of the seam is described by seam properties such as seam stability (seam breaking strength and seam slippage), seam elasticity, abrasion resistance, individual product-related criteria [9, 10]. Behaviour properties of seams used for the production of vehicle seats represent the most significant problem, since the seam is the place of the weakest link in the motor vehicle seat, Figure 14 [11].
Mechanical damage appeared during seam formation: sewing needle penetrates through composite and drags the polyurethane foam on the front side of the composite.
During seam formation, the triple composite fabric is being mechanical damaged. Immediately after sewing, there are visible signs of damage on the fabric and sewing needle surface (Figure 15).
Mechanical damage on needle surface: (a) sewing needle heating causes adhesion of polyurethane foam to the needle surface and (b) microscopic enlarged needle surface image with polyurethane foam.
Needle penetration force is defined as the quantitative measure to determine the damage of sewn fabrics that has negative consequences on seam performance. The quantitative value of force that occurs when the needle penetrates through fabric (Figure 16) is influenced by fabric construction, needle geometry, sewing thread construction and sewing machine settings [12–14].
Sewing needle penetrates through composite fabric: (a) sewing needle NM 100 RG and (b) sewing needle NM 100 RG SAN6.
If the sewn fabric has high values of needle penetration force, than there is a high risk of fabric damage because the fabric has high resistance to the penetration of sewing needle. Damage that appears after sewing process is linked to seam quality and to the quality of the final product. Figure 17 shows needle penetration force measured on composite fabric for producing vehicle seats [13].
Graphical representation of measured needle penetration force based on 50 stitches without the use of sewing thread.
The function of the seam is to provide uniform load transmission of two or more connected fabric layers to achieve their integrity (Figure 18). At the seam position, flat composite material becomes thicker, uncomfortable in the end use, it is subjected to higher wear and forces that further weak the joint place. An additional problem in sewing ergonomically shaped seats is insufficient elasticity at the seat folding place and in the area of multi-directional stresses [6, 7, 15].
Presentation of composite fabric: (a) prior seam formation and (b) after seam formation.
Deformation of composite fabric and sewing needle damage can be explored by a systematic analysis of the seam. Based on the result, the best possible sewing needle will be selected in the production process to achieve minimum damage to sewing needle and fabric [16–19].
The samples were sewn using 100% PES sewing thread as the upper and under thread at single needle lockstitch (ISO 4915) with stitch density of 4.5 stitches per cm. The properties of the sewing thread were as follows: thread finesses 97 tex, breaking force 58 N, elongation at break 18, 47% determined according to the ISO 2062 and using the Statimat M tensile tester produced by Textechno [20].
An industrial high-speed sewing machine was used to join two layers of material PFAFF 1053 in warp direction, with Groz-Beckert needles of NM 90 and NM 100, standard round point (R).
In its performance, a seam is exposed to longitudinal and transversal loadings, and thus, certain discrepancies are visible when considering breaking force and elongation at break of the seam made using needle size NM 90 and NM 100, Figure 19.
Breaking force and elongation at break of the seamed composite materials joined using: (a) Groz-Beckert needle of NM 90 and (b) Groz-Beckert needle of NM 100.
The seam strength was higher when using a thinner needle size for the selected material, and vice versa.
Seam quality contributes to functional and aesthetic performance of automotive upholstery in the end use. A sewn seam has a good quality if its features such as strength, elasticity, durability, security and appearance are properly balanced with the fabric properties in order to be joined together [21]. Fabrics used for the production of car seats upholstery are made as multi-layered composite materials where each fabric layer has different properties.
The breaking strength of the composite is higher than the total amount of components breaking strengths prior to the thermal joining, at both (longitudinal and transversal) directions, at all thermal joining speeds and with both polyurethane foam thickness. Breaking forces of composites depend on the joining process speed. There is no linear trend that connects joining speed values with breaking forces of the composite. In the given example, the maximum tensile forces are at a medium speed of 34 m/min, which can be considered optimal for the tested composite.
The resistance of the composite to abrasion is essential for assessing the sustainability of the tested materials since materials in the vehicles are in the constant contact with the human body. Composite car seat upholstery is highly resistant to abrasion, where even after 100, 000 cycles, there was no appearance of the hole, and a mass loss is minimal (1–3%).
The composite with thicker polyurethane foam has a lower bursting force. This suggests that higher stiffness and thickness of the material provide less resistance to spherical stress. The greater diameter of the punching sphere is proportional to higher punching force.
Increase of the cycle number in cyclic stress setting leads to a growing material fatigue, which is reflected in the reduction of breaking force of materials tested on dynamometer.
The separation force between polyurethane foam and woven fabric is usually greater than the separation forces of polyurethane foam and knitted fabric. Lower joining process speed results in larger separation forces. Thinner polyurethane foam in the longitudinal direction results in larger separation forces, whereas thicker polyurethane foam gives higher values of separation forces in transversal direction.
The sewability of car seat upholstery is important for seam quality but also to insure cost effective production process. Good interaction of fabric properties and sewing conditions will result in good sewing performance. In a real-life situation, sewn seam is made by high-speed sewing machine where the composite is exposed to high temperatures of sewing needle and high values of needle penetration force. A seam is also exposed to longitudinal and transversal loadings, and thus, an inappropriate choice of any one element can cause failure of functional performance in the end use.
Standard examination of human semen currently remains a main test for male fertility disorders. The concentration (total sperm count) and motility of spermatozoa and the content of morphologically normal (typical) spermatozoa are thought to reflect the fertilization potential of the semen [1]. Although their values in fertile men are generally higher than in sterile ones, there is a substantial overlap between the two populations, indicating that other important factors affect fertility, but are not assessed in conventional assay [2]. In this regard, methods to assess the functional properties of spermatozoa and thus to evaluate their reproductive (fertilizing) potential have intensely been developed in the past years.
Light microscopy, which is employed in a conventional sperm testing, reports the numbers of sperm heads and tails, their sizes and relative arrangement, the presence and sizes of the acrosome and nuclear vacuole, and sperm movement. An ultrastructural examination makes it possible to look inside the spermatozoon and to study what is inaccessible by light microscopy, including the extent of chromatin condensation and the structures of the perinuclear theca (PT), its postacrosomal segment, the centriole, the axoneme, and periaxonemal elements of the tail.
Every function of the spermatozoon is now possible to attribute to a particular morphological structure owing to the achievements of modern molecular biology, cytology, and genetics. The morphology of spermatozoa reflects how competent they are to fertilize (enter) the oocyte and to provide for embryo development.
The nucleus occupies a major part of the sperm head and contains condensed chromatin (Figure 1a), which is detected as an electron-dense homogeneous material, with small regions of lower electron density on ultrathin sections. Condensed chromatin is at least 10 times denser than ones in somatic cells [3].
(a) Spermatozoon with condensed chromatin (CH) and normal acrosome (A). (b) Postacrosomal segment of perinuclear theca (PS) with characteristic intermittent striation. (c, d) Spermatozoon with immature chromatin (IC). (e) Fragment of sperm acrosome. NE, nuclear envelope; PT, perinuclear theca; IM, inner acrosome membrane; EM, extra acrosome membrane; and PM, plasma membrane.
To achieve this unique extent of compaction, sperm DNA is packaged in a specific manner, which substantially differs from chromatin packaging in somatic cells. In somatic cells, DNA is packaged to produce the so-called nucleosomes. The DNA double helix is wrapped around a specific complex of canonical histones (a histone octamer) [4].
During sperm maturation, canonical histones are replaced by testis-specific histones and then by protamines, basic proteins with lower molecular weight and high concentration of arginine and cysteine (for a review, see [5, 6]).
As spermatozoa progress through the epididymis, disulfide bridges form between cysteine residues of protamines to further stabilize the DNA-protamine complex and morphologically determine condensation of the dense nucleoprotamine complex in the sperm nucleus [7]. Sperm chromatin is decondensed and acquires a nucleosomal structure after fertilization. The organization of sperm chromatin facilitates the transfer of compacted DNA into the oocyte and ensures its reverse transformation so that genetic information becomes readily available in the developing embryo [8].
Approximately 5–10% of genomic DNA remains free of protamines and preserves a nucleosomal structure in mature human spermatozoa (for a review, see [9]). The role of the residual nucleosomes remained unclear until recently and was explained in three studies, which were published simultaneously in 2010 [10, 11, 12]. Residual nucleosomes were found to mark the genes for early embryo development factors and to perform an important function in the epigenetic regulation of embryo development. A gene distribution between protamine-associated and histone-containing (nucleosomal) regions of chromatin follows a certain pattern. Residual nucleosomes occur in the promoters of early developmental genes (e.g.,
Condensation associated with histone-to-protamine replacement metabolically inactivates chromatin and, on the other hand, contributes to its mechanical and chemical stability, thus protecting the paternal genome from nucleases while spermatozoa travel through the male and female reproductive tracts and interact with the oocyte. Residual nucleosomes mark early developmental genes. Normal chromatin condensation is indicative of the sperm potential to produce a normally developing embryo.
Spermatozoa with incomplete chromatin condensation in the nucleus are almost always detectable in ejaculate samples from fertile donors. Granular and fibrillary structures of approximately 40 nm in diameter are seen in these cells. The chromatin structure observed in the spermatozoa is similar to that of elongated spermatids, and their chromatin is consequently known as immature chromatin (Figure 1c, d) [13].
What is a possible role of distorted chromatin compaction? The disturbance of chromatin condensation is a consequence of a reduced protamine content [14]. Hammoud et al. [15] have recently found that defects in histone-to-protamine exchange lead to a random distribution of nucleosomal (histone-associated and potentially active) chromatin in infertile patients, in contrast to a programmed nucleosomal chromatin distribution in fertile men. Distorted chromatin compaction in spermatozoa seems to lead to substantial post-fertilization defects. Abnormal (insufficient) chromatin condensation was shown to delay the first cell division cycle and to subsequently cause damage to the embryo [16]. Such defects can be responsible for ART failures [17] and early pregnancy losses [18].
Higher percentage of spermatozoa with immature chromatin was observed in semen of the patients with arrest of embryonic development compared with fertile men, and the difference was statistically significant. Semen samples with increased percentage of spermatozoa with immature chromatin in the men with embryo development arrest in reproductive history were 2.2 times more frequent than in the control group (44 vs. 20%) [19].
The question arises as to whether defects in chromatin condensation are associated with DNA fragmentation in spermatozoa. An early hypothesis suggested that defects in histone-to-protamine exchange and, therefore, in chromatin condensation inevitably lead to higher sperm DNA fragmentation [20].
A higher count of spermatozoa with immature, insufficiently condensed chromatin in semen provides an independent diagnostic sign and shows no association with a higher count of spermatozoa with DNA fragmentation [19, 21]. Clinically, fertility disorders are associated with both higher percentage of spermatozoa with immature chromatin and higher percentage of spermatozoa with DNA fragmentation in the ejaculate, but the disorders differ in nature between the two cases. Diagnosing the nature of damage to sperm nuclear material makes it possible to choose a treatment adequate to the observed defect [22].
Hollows, which were initially described as vacuoles varying in size and location, can be detected in chromatin of sperm nuclei [23]. Vacuoles are actually indentations in the nucleus, as is seen on ultrathin sections. Chemes and Alvarez Sedò [24] have proposed the term lacunae or lacunar defects for nuclear vacuoles. Lacunae vary in location and texture. Figure 2a, b shows a lacuna surrounded by a membrane with membrane whorls (MWs), which consist of double membranes with septal complexes [25]; the lacuna is interconnected with nuclear pockets at the base of the head (Figure 1a).
Vacuoles in the sperm nucleus. The lacuna surrounded by membrane with membrane whorls (MWs) (a, b). The lacuna is interconnected with nuclear pockets at the base of the head (a, arrow). Invaginations of the nucleus (I) not surrounded by membrane (d, e), and two large lacunae (L) without visible contact with the subacrosomal space (c). A, acrosome and PS, postacrosomal segment of perinuclear theca.
Invaginations of another type can also be detected in sperm nuclei. The invaginations may occur in both basal and apical parts of the nucleus, are not surrounded by a membrane, and contain granular material (Figure 2d, e). A connection (contact) between a lacuna and the subacrosomal space cannot always be seen in ultrathin sections, and the lacuna consequently appears to be a vacuole in nuclear chromatin. DNA is absent from lacunae (Figure 2c) [26].
Moving sperm organelle morphology examination (MSOME) using high-resolution microscopy at magnifications exceeding 5000× makes it possible to select in vivo the vacuole-free spermatozoa and to perform intracytoplasmic morphologically selected sperm injection (IMSI) [27].
There are data that IMSI of spermatozoa without vacuoles or with one small vacuole substantially increases the yield of blastocysts as compared with spermatozoa containing large vacuoles or spermatozoa with more than two small vacuoles [28].
On the other hand, no correlation of the presence of large vacuoles in spermatozoa has been observed for spermiogram parameters, DNA damage, and live birth rate [29]. IMSI does not improve the outcome of ART after two successive IVF-ICSI failures [30].
Haraguchi et al. [31] have used immunochemistry with electron microscopy and detected proteasomes in nuclear vacuoles and clear spots of condensed chromatin. Nuclear vacuoles and nuclear pockets at the base of the nucleus were assumed to function as proteolytic centers to resorb the molecules (somatic and sperm-specific histones and transit proteins) that are released during chromatin reprogramming. A positive correlation between the presence of vacuoles and the acrosomal reaction [32], vacuoles and capacitation [33] similarly indicates that vacuoles are related to physiological properties of spermatozoa and has no effect on their fertilizing potential.
The acrosome is a secretory vesicle derived from the Golgi apparatus. The acrosome forms a cap on the anterior pole of the nucleus and consists of an outer membrane, inner membrane, and matrix. The outer acrosomal membrane is adjacent to the plasma membrane covering the head of the spermatozoon. A layer sandwiched between the inner acrosomal membrane and the nuclear envelope is known as the perinuclear theca (PT), which has a medium electron density and is approximately 200 nm thick (Figure 1e).
The acrosome covers the anterior two-thirds of the sperm head. Relative to the acrosome, the head can be divided into three regions: acrosomal, equatorial, and postacrosomal. Only the PT with its characteristic intermittent striation occurs between the nucleus and the plasma membrane in the postacrosomal region of the spermatozoon (Figure 1b).
Material contained in the lumen of the acrosome has a medium electron density and is known as the acrosomal matrix [34]. Zona pellucida (ZP)-binding proteins are found in the acrosomal matrix. Proacrosin is the most important of all ZP-binding proteins of the acrosome. Proacrosin was long believed to be a main lytic protein essential for sperm penetration through the ZP. However, proacrosin knockout mice were found to be fertile [35], although their spermatozoa penetrate through the ZP slower than spermatozoa of wild-type mice. Acrosin probably plays a role in maturation and packaging of other acrosomal matrix proteins. The acrosomal matrix contains several other ZP-binding proteins.
The acrosome of a capacitated spermatozoon interacts with ZP glycoprotein 1 (ZP1) of the oocyte to trigger fusion of the plasma and outer acrosomal membranes, the membrane ends fuse, and vesicles form. Then proteases are released from the acrosome and digest the ZP. The process is known as the acrosomal reaction, which consists in exocytosis and allows the spermatozoon to pass through the ZP. Acrosome-reacted spermatozoa subsequently bind with ZP2, another glycoprotein, which is responsible for sperm adhesion to the oocyte [36]. The inner acrosomal membrane remains intact.
The plasma membrane and the outer acrosomal membrane of the equatorial segment are not involved in forming vesicles during the acrosomal reaction. The equatorial segment is a region where fusion of the spermatozoon and oocyte plasma membrane is triggered. The sperm plasma membrane of the equatorial segment fuses with microvilli of the oolemma, the membranes fuse, and sperm components are thus delivered into the ooplasm. The equatorial segment protein (ESP) is found in the equatorial segment of the acrosome in human spermatozoa [37]. ESP is detectable throughout the acrosome biogenesis. It is thought that ESP plays a role in adhesion of the spermatozoon to the oocyte and their fusion at the oolemma level. Fujihara et al. [38] identified sperm equatorial segment protein 1 (SPESP1), which is specific to the equatorial segment. Spermatozoa of transgenic mice devoid of
An important role is ascribed to Izumo. The Izumo family includes four proteins, Izumo1-4. Izumo1 is a membrane immunoglobulin protein with an extracellular immunoglobulin domain of 145 residues and an N-terminal domain. The sperm protein Izumo1 on the equatorial segment of the acrosome-reacted spermatozoon recognizes its receptor, JUNO, on the oocyte surface. Human Izumo1 forms a high-affinity complex with the Juno receptor of the oocyte and changes its conformation [39].
The PT is a cytoskeletal structure that harbors a specific oocyte-activating factor (for a review, see [40]). The PT and its postacrosomal segment remain associated with the sperm nucleus and enter the oocyte upon fertilization. In contrast to the acrosome, which rapidly responds to exogenous factors, the PT is resistant to extraction with denaturing agents and high-salt buffers.
The putative oocyte-activating factor MN13 was found in the PT [40]. MN13 is located in periodic striations, which form the postacrosomal sheath of the PT.
Phospholipase C zeta (PLCζ) is another protein found in the postacrosomal segment of the PT and is thought to act as an oocyte-activating factor [41].
Thus, PLCζ and probably other proteins of the postacrosomal sheath of the PT act as oocyte-activating factors. The postacrosomal sheath is the first to contact the oocyte, and its dissolution (disassembly) is sufficient for triggering early events of oocyte activation. The oocyte-activating factors are transmitted from the sperm PT into the oocyte cytoplasm after the incorporation and rapid dissolution of the PT. In the normal fertilization cycle, the PT dissolves in the oocyte cytoplasm simultaneously with decondensation of the sperm nucleus and initiates division of the maternal pronucleus by hydrolyzing a membrane-bound phospholipid substrate, triggering cytoplasmic Ca2+ oscillations [42]. In the case of ICSI, activation occurs only in the oocytes that contain a partly or completely dissolved PT. When the PT dissolves only partly, the residual PT postacrosomal sheath may persist at the apical side of the paternal pronucleus and may delay or arrest zygote development [43]. Dissolution of the subacrosomal part of the PT is essential for complete DNA decondensation in the paternal pronucleus and the start of DNA synthesis in both pronuclei.
Electron microscopic examination of the acrosome provides an experimentally grounded alternative to sperm penetration assays. The method reliably reports the integrity of the acrosome and the status of its enzymatic system and the postacrosomal segment, which is involved in sperm attachment to the oocyte. A higher percentage of spermatozoa with abnormal acrosomes in an ejaculate sample can be responsible for idiopathic infertility when the spermiogram parameters are within the normal ranges.
Lack of an acrosome is identified as primary when resulting from spermiogenesis defects. Globozoospermia of a presumably genetic nature provides a classical example of the primary lack of an acrosome.
Globozoospermia is an uncommon male fertility disorder. Round-headed cells may account for up to 6% of the total sperm count in the ejaculate in fertile men [44], while 100% of spermatozoa have round heads in total globozoospermia. The sperm count and motility are not affected in globozoospermia. An ultrastructural examination shows that acrosomes are completely absent from round heads or that a rudimentary acrosome occurs at the nuclear pole opposite to the tail (Figure 3a).
(a) Round acrosomeless sperm heads from globozoospermia. Some nuclei are with condensed chromatin (CH) and one nucleus with immature chromatin (IC). (b) Secondary lack of acrosome. The intact internal acrosomal membrane (IM) and postacrosomal segment (PS) are visible. The outer acrosomal membrane and the plasma membrane form bubbles (B). (c) Acrosome with irregular contours (RA); (d) “empty” acrosome (EA).
Defects of chromatin condensation in the nucleus are additionally seen in the majority of ejaculate samples. Heterogeneity is also possible; i.e., spermatozoa with normal condensed chromatin and those with decondensed chromatin may be detected in one ejaculate sample. Both within- and between-sample heterogeneity are observed. Higher contents of spermatozoa with immature chromatin [45] were observed in globozoospermia in the majority of studies.
Kullander and Rausing [46] were the first to assume a genetic nature for globozoospermia. Cases with a family history of the disorder supported the assumption. Mutations or deletions of three genes—
The identification of the missense mutation L967Q of the gene
The postacrosomal sheath of the PT is absent in patients with globozoospermia. PLCζ is found in extremely small, if any, amounts in spermatozoa of mice and human patients with a
Secondary lack of an acrosome results from a premature acrosomal reaction, i.e., the acrosome is lost in acrosome-reacted spermatozoa (Figure 3b). Disruption of the plasma membrane is observed in this case, and the inner acrosomal membrane adjacent to the nuclear envelope is seen on the sperm surface in the acrosomal region. The outer acrosomal membrane and the plasma membrane form bubbles during the acrosomal reaction. In the case of a physiological acrosomal reaction, the postacrosomal segment and its plasma membrane are preserved in the live spermatozoon.
The percentage of spermatozoa with a secondary loss of the acrosome (i.e., acrosome-reacted spermatozoa) in ejaculate samples are 18.22 ± 8.27% in fertile men and 26.37 ± 12.81% in infertile patients with normal spermiogram parameters (p < 0.05) [52]. A higher percentage of acrosome-reacted spermatozoa (with acrosome degradation) in the ejaculate may impair its fertilization potential. Leukocytospermia with an enhanced production of reactive oxygen species by leukocytes is one of the possible causes of an early acrosomal reaction. Our findings indicate that bacterial microcolonies present in the ejaculate may also cause a premature acrosomal reaction, and their presence is not always accompanied by an inflammatory response. We analyzed the results of electron microscopic examinations of 746 semen samples from patients with fertility disorders. Bacterial microcolonies were detected in 186 of the 746 samples (25%), and a higher (more than 20%) content of spermatozoa with a secondary loss of the acrosome was observed in 112 of the 186 samples (60%). In the absence of bacterial infection, a higher content of acrosome-reacted spermatozoa was found in 117 of the 560 samples (20%) [55].
A higher leukocyte count in the ejaculate was detected in 36 of the 186 samples with bacterial microcolonies (19%).
Electron microscopy is a gold-standard test for acrosomal reaction, although a number of other tests are now available to assess the penetrating potential of spermatozoa.
Irregular acrosome (Figure 3c) and lack of acrosomal contents (Figure 3d) (enzymatic insufficiency of the acrosome) are found in both pronounced teratozoospermia and normospermia. Proteolytic enzymes of the acrosome dissolve the zona pellucida to allow fusion of the spermatozoon and the oolemma. When the process is disturbed as a result of acrosome loss or dysfunction, spermatozoa lose their fertilizing potential. Irregularly T-shaped acrosomes can be detected in binuclear spermatozoa (Figure 4a).
(a) Binuclear spermatozoa with T-shaped acrosome (TA). (b) Sperm with small cytoplasmic droplet on the head (CD) lacking the PT and its postacrosomal segment and with enlarged subacrosomal space (SS). A, irregular acrosome. (c, d) Spermatozoa with excess residual cytoplasm on the head (RH) and on the neck (RN), irregular acrosomes (A), and enlarged subacrosomal space (SS).
Spermatozoa that have an enlarged perinuclear space and lack the postacrosomal sheath of the PT account for 2–5% of the total sperm count in semen from fertile men (Figure 4b–d). The abnormality is often combined with the presence of excess residual cytoplasm on the head (Figure 4c, d). The disorder is sometimes referred to as type II globozoospermia. Sperm heads appear to be spherical under a light microscope, but an ultrastructural study shows that spermatozoa have normal elongate nuclei, whereas their heads look round because of excess residual cytoplasm. This form of pathology also impairs fertility, but differs from globozoospermia [56] because lack of the PT and its postacrosomal segment suggests lack of the oocyte-activating factor.
In some cases, a small cytoplasmic droplet on the head is found in spermatozoa lacking the PT and its postacrosomal segment, so that the spermatozoa appear to be normal by light microscopy (Figure 4b). The pathology is detectable only by electron microscopy and may cause idiopathic infertility while the conventional spermiogram parameters are within the normal ranges. ICSI with the oocyte activation methods developed for patients with globozoospermia could solve the problem for these patients. A promising method was tested in a mouse model; i.e., recombinant PLCζ was injected to allow fertilization with spermatozoa of
The acrosome is the most labile component of the spermatozoon. According to our data, the percentage of spermatozoa with abnormal acrosome shapes is 50.12 ± 8.70% in fertile men. Alterations of the acrosome shape or lack of the acrosomal contents are greater in men with fertility disorders. Acrosomal hypoplasia is a common component of pronounced teratozoospermia, is well detectable by electron microscopy, and is essential to diagnose because acrosomal insufficiency is possible to correct using ICSI (for a review, see [58]).
The connecting piece connects the head with the tail (Figure 5a). A thin basal plate occurs at the base of the head, it has a concave shape, forming an implantation fossa. The region beneath the basal plate harbors nine striated columns, which continue caudally as outer dense fibers. Striated columns are the part of the connecting structures of the neck. The basal plate is at the base of the head nucleus. A centriole is enclosed in an electron-dense capitulum. The centriole is a universal element of animal eukaryotic cells and plays a role in the formation of the mitotic spindle.
(a) The connecting piece of normal spermatozoon. (b) Decapitated spermatozoon. B, basal plate; C, centriole; Ca, capitulum; SC, striated column, OF, outer dense fibers; and M, mitochondria. (c) Transverse section through the mid-piece of spermatozoon tail; (d) transverse section through the principal piece of spermatozoon; (e) longitudinal section through the middle and principal piece of the tail; (f) the site of contact between mitochondria (arrow). Ax, axoneme, dynein arms of peripheral microtubule doublets are visible. M, mitochondria; FS, fibrous sheath; and An, annulus.
A typical centrosome (cell center) of immature germline cells consists of two cylindrical centrioles, each consists of nine symmetrically oriented microtubule triplets, of 0.5 μm in length and 0.2 μm in diameter. Two centrioles are positioned in an orthogonal orientation, the axis of the daughter centriole being perpendicular to that of the mother centriole. A typical centriole has a 9 + 0 organization of microtubule triplets. In a mature spermatozoon, the distal centriole gives origin to the tail axoneme and is reduced. The proximal centriole preserves its morphology, enters the oocyte upon fertilization, and plays a role in organizing the cleavage spindle [59].
The centriole is surrounded by striated columns, which are part of the connecting structures of the neck. The basal plate is at the base of the head nucleus. The centriole is capable of functioning as an organizing center during cell division only when having a normal morphology, as was demonstrated in many somatic cell studies [60].
The role of the sperm centriole has come into focus of research relatively recently, with the development of ART methods. A paternal inheritance of the centriole was then demonstrated for humans and large mammals as opposed to rodents [61]. The centriole organizes microtubule assembly to produce the sperm aster, which forms around the paternal pronucleus 6 h after fertilization [62] and gives origin to the first mitotic spindle. The main function of the centriole is to organize a network of microtubules, which originate from the oocyte.
Centrosome abnormalities were described as a cause of unsuccessful fertilization and abnormal embryo development [61, 62]. Decaudated or decapitated sperm is a rare syndrome in humans and includes the absence of the implantation fossa and the basal plate. Morphological features of the human syndrome were described comprehensively, and ultrastructural defects of spermatozoa with an abnormal fragility of the head-tail junction were studied by electron microscopy (Figure 5b). The proximal centriole/centrosome, which induces the formation of the basal plate and the implantation fossa, was assumed to play an essential role in attaching the flagellum to the nucleus. Dysfunction of the proximal centriole/centrosome may alter the formation of tail attachment structures, leading to decapitated sperm. Spontaneous fertilization is impossible with such spermatozoa because the tail easily detaches from the head because of the neck fragility. ICSI is the only way of fertilization in this case, but rarely is successful. Chemes et al. [63] observed lack of cleavage after ICSI. Porcu et al. [64] reported successful ICSI in two infertile couples where the men were brothers and produced acephalic spermatozoa or spermatozoa with abnormal head-tail attachments, and one birth was published by Gambera et al. [65].
A genetic origin is now commonly accepted for the syndrome. Baccetti et al. [66] assumed that recessive autosomal mutations account for the majority of sperm genetic defects. However, the genes affected by the mutations are unknown. Light microscopic signs of the syndrome vary. Multiple motile tails with single, if any, tailless heads are observed in semen in the majority of cases. Kamal et al. [67] described 16 cases with a variant of the syndrome wherein the spermiogram parameters were normal, while minimal ICSI-related manipulations caused decapitation and immobilization of spermatozoa. The head and tail usually separate at the head-neck junction; the connecting piece is preserved; the basal plate and implantation fossa are absent from the caudal pole of the nucleus.
Several variants of decapitated sperm were described. Holstein et al. [68] reported a case where the basal plate and implantation fossa were normal in morphology, while separation occurred between the proximal and distal centrioles. Baccetti et al. [66] described a patient with sperm ruptures occurring between the nucleus and centriole region, between the anterior and caudal regions of the mid-piece, and between the mid-piece and principal piece. A number of variants are most likely possible for sperm decapitation.
Cases of familial incidence of teratozoospermia with acephalic sperm suggested a genetic nature for the disorder [69]. Homo- or heterozygous mutations of the spermatid-specific SUN5 gene were found in some patients with acephalic (decapitated) sperm syndrome [70]. The protein product of the gene occurs in the immediate vicinity of the head-tail junction, and proteins of its family are known as part of the contact system that connects the inner nuclear membrane with the cytoskeleton.
The intact tail of a human spermatozoon is approximately 50 μm in length and consists of four regions: a connecting piece, which is attached to the head; a mid-piece, which is 3–5 μm long; a principal piece, which accounts for approximately two-thirds of the tail length; and a short end piece. In contrast to cilia, which are covered by the plasma membrane, the sperm tail has not only the axoneme but also additional structures that surround the axoneme and are known as the periaxonemal structures. A mitochondrial helix and outer dense fibers surround the axoneme in the mid-piece and a fibrous sheath in the principal piece. The axoneme has no periaxonemal structures only in the short end piece.
The axoneme forms a core in cilia and flagella. The sperm axoneme consists of nine pairs of microtubules (doublets) that are arranged in a ring around two central singlet microtubules (9 + 2 arrangement). The doublets are numbered clockwise, starting from the site where two doublets overlay the central pair of microtubules; the right doublet is number one (Figure 5c, d). Each peripheral doublet consists of a complete microtubule (subunit A) and an adjacent incomplete microtubule (subunit B).
Two, outer and inner, arms consisting of the protein dynein (dynein arms) with ATPase activity extend from the A subunit of each doublet towards the B subunit of the next clockwise doublet. Each dynein arm is an intricate multiprotein complex and acts as a molecular motor [71]. The microtubule doublets are connected via thin bridges of the protein nexin (nexin bridges) and project radial spokes towards the two central microtubules. This sophisticated structure sustains sliding movements of the microtubules, thus providing for undulations of the tail. The axoneme is intricate molecular machinery wherein the inner and outer dynein arms generate forces to produce bending waves and the central apparatus and radial spokes play a regulatory role [72, 73].
The outer dense fibers are a morphological extension of the striated columns and capitulum, which are structural elements of the connecting piece of the sperm neck [74]. The outer dense fibers surround the axoneme in the mid-piece of the tail, one fiber overlaying one peripheral microtubule doublet. ODF1 is a major protein of the outer dense fibers (Figure 5c, e).
The number of mitochondria is reduced as a large portion of the cytoplasm is eliminated with residual bodies from spermatids in the course of spermiogenesis [75]. Up to 75 mitochondria are left in a mature spermatozoon with a minor cytoplasm amount and form a helix around the outer dense fibers and axoneme. The mitochondrial helix has 11–13 turns with two mitochondria per turn. The mitochondrial helix length and the approximate number of turns are constant within a species [76].
The structure of the mitochondrial helix is stable owing to the so-called mitochondrial capsule, i.e., the outer mitochondrial membrane is coated with keratin-like molecules, which form disulfide bridges between cysteine- and proline-rich selenoprotein regions [77]. Contact zones form at the sites of contacts between mitochondria, indicating that the spermatozoon has a mitochondrial reticulum, similar to the mitochondrial network of the heart muscle rather than individual mitochondria (Figure 5f) [78, 79].
Active functional mitochondria were demonstrated to affect the sperm fertilizing potential in many studies. Ultrastructural defects in mitochondria are associated with lower sperm motility. The available data on the role of mtDNA mutations are discrepant. Deletions from mtDNA were considered to be responsible for sperm dysfunction and infertility [80]. However, the difference was not confirmed for several mtRNAs by rtPCR.
Metabolism of sperm mitochondria is still a matter of discussion. It is commonly accepted that ATP produced by mitochondria provides a main source of energy for the dynein motor of the axoneme. In contrast, a compartmentalization hypothesis suggests that glycolysis is a main source of energy for tail movements [81]. Because discrepant experimental data were reported from different studies, the question is still open. It is possible that mitochondria are involved in basic redox processes, which determine the fertilizing potential and lifespan of the spermatozoon, rather than in energy metabolism as a main function.
The mid-piece and principal piece of the tail are separated by a ring structure known as the annulus (Figure 5e), which presumably performs a barrier function to prevent molecular diffusion between the two pieces [82].
The principal piece of the tail is distal of the mid-piece and is the longest tail segment. The mitochondrial sheath is not found in the principal piece, and a fibrous sheath as another cytoskeletal element of the tail surrounds the axoneme. Two longitudinal columns of the fibrous sheath replace two opposite outer dense fibers and are connected together by numerous circumferential ribs (Figure 5d, e).
A total of 18 polypeptides were identified in the fibrous sheath. The polypeptides form a scaffold for glycolytic enzymes and act as signaling molecules upon induction of sperm motility (for a review, see [83]). A-kinase anchoring proteins 3 and 4 (AKAP3 and AKAP4) are major components of the fibrous sheath and probably form its integral cytoskeletal structure. AKAP3 and AKAP4 are associated with each other and bind to cAMP-dependent protein kinase A through its regulatory subunit. The AKAP3 and AKAP4 genes were sequenced, and the binding sites identified.
The principal piece of the tail harbors glycolytic enzymes, including sperm-specific hexokinase 1, lactate dehydrogenase, and sperm-specific glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDHs) [84].
The complex system of tail elements with their concerted function provides the spermatozoon with the ability to move, that is, to reach and fertilize the oocyte. Any structural alteration of the system impairs sperm motility.
A functional variant of asthenozoospermia is the most common. Spermatozoa of patients display multiple heterogeneous ultrastructural changes in the axoneme and periaxonemal structures (Figure 6a–e), such as changes in the number and arrangement of the microtubule doublets, the shape of the outer dense fibers, or the architecture of the fibrous sheath. Quantitative changes in mitochondria and their altered localization were also associated with asthenozoospermia. The percentage of spermatozoa with ultrastructural tail defects is significantly higher in patients with asthenozoospermia. Ultrastructural defects of the tail axoneme were described in drug addicts [85]. Yet smoking and alcohol drinking were not found to affect the ultrastructural parameters of mature spermatozoa, lower sperm counts observed in alcoholics and smokers suggest testicular selection [86]. Functional asthenozoospermia can be secondary to a varicocele, infections of reproductive organs, and exogenous exposures [58]. Spermiogram parameters are possible to correct with medications in men diagnosed with functional asthenozoospermia. When the treatment is ineffective, ICSI is likely to help.
Longitudinal (a, b) and transverse (c–e) sections through abnormal sperm tails. (a) Lack of annulus (arrow) between the middle and principal piece of the tail; (b)swollen mitochondria (SM) and dislocation of mitochondria (arrow); (c) normal axonema structure and increased quantity of outer dense fibers (OF); (d) disorganization of axonemal microtubules (MT) and outer dense fibers (OF); (e) double tail with (9 + 1) microtubules. The absence of dynein arms in the right axoneme is revealed. FS, fibrous sheath.
Chemes et al. [87] proposed the term dysplasia of the fibrous sheath (DFS) for the disorder, which is also known as stump tail syndrome and short-tail spermatozoa. Spermatozoa have substantially reduced, if any, motility due to fibrous for DSF [88]. In spermatozoa, the location of longitudinal columns and transverse ribs of the fibrous layer has been disturbed. There are changes in the structure of the mitochondrial helix—a significant shortening and disruption of localization. Anomalies in the structure of the fibrous sheath often put together with the absence of a central pair of the axoneme microtubules (Figure 7a–c).
(a) Sperm with dysplasia of the fibrous sheath (DFS) of the tail. The lack of mitochondria is revealed (arrow). Transverse (b) and longitudinal (c) sections through the tail with DFS. The lack of the central pair of microtubules (asterisk). (d) Sperm with primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD). Transverse (e) and longitudinal (f) sections through the tail with PCD. The absence of dynein arms is revealed on the transverse section. OF, outer dense fibers; FS, fibrous sheath; and M, mitochondria.
A mouse model of DFS was obtained by targeted disruption of the
We found a decrease in the activity of the glycolytic sperm-specific enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (sGAPD) and atypical localization of the enzyme. Mutations within human
DSF has an autosomal recessive inheritance. The genetic risk is now impossible to estimate. A few cases of live births after ICSI with spermatozoa of DSF patients were reported in the medical literature [93].
PCD is an autosomal recessive disorder and is highly heterogeneous genetically. PCD affects the axonemal structures (microtubules and dynein arms) of cilia and flagella (Figure 7d–f). Bronchial and pulmonary diseases are the main pathology in PCD because infections and bronchiectasis develop when respiratory cilia have motility defects or are immotile.
Headaches are common in PCD patients because lack of ciliary motility in the brain ventricles impairs circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid. Situs inversus is additionally observed in half of the PCD patients, possibly resulting from lack of ciliary motility in embryonic Hensen’s node, which is responsible for the unidirectional fluid flow and thereby establishes left-right asymmetry [94]. The prevalence of PCD at birth is 1/10,000 to 1/20,000 [95].
Fertility is impaired in male patients because their spermatozoa are absolutely immotile or defects occur in efferent seminiferous ducts lined by ciliated epithelia. In a semen analysis, gross ejaculate parameters (volume, pH, viscosity, and color) and the concentration and count of morphologically normal spermatozoa are within the normal ranges.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is commonly used to detect PCD. TEM reports lack of outer and/or inner dynein arms, the two central microtubules, or radial spokes and changes in microtubule arrangement.
Molecular methods to diagnose PCD have intensely been developed in the past years. Unicellular algae of the genus Chlamydomonas, which have two flagella, provide a convenient model to study the molecular composition of the axoneme. Axoneme protein genes identified in Chlamydomonas are candidate genes for PCD. A total of 16 mutations of PCD candidate genes were identified from 1999 to 2011 by genetic methods (analysis of linkage groups identified by homozygosity mapping), proteome analysis, and sequencing (mostly Sanger sequencing). Since 2011, mutations of 18 other genes have been described via whole-exome and whole-genome sequencing (for the review see [73, 96]).
PCD is genetically heterogeneous. Mutations of two genes,
Many proteins are involved in building the axoneme. Several proteins are common for epithelial cilia and sperm tails. Patients homozygous for mutations of their genes develop the total set of PCD signs, including bronchial and pulmonary diseases, changes in asymmetry of visceral organs, and immotile sperm. Other axonemal proteins are tissue specific, and mutations of their genes cause mosaic ciliopathy, such as asthenozoospermia and anosmia, or asthenozoospermia and swelling of the nasopharyngeal mucosa, which we identified in our patients.
The development of ICSI allowed men with pronounced asthenozoospermia, including forms with genetic causes, to have children. The consequences of using ICSI in PCD and DSF are poorly understood because the disorders are rare and only few live births after ICSI have been reported (20 cases according to PubMed). PCD patients with andrological symptoms naturally had no offspring before the advent of ICSI. PCD is an autosomal recessive disorder and is expressed only in homozygotes and compound heterozygotes, when both alleles of one gene are affected. This circumstance reduces PCD risk in ICSI offspring, but makes it more likely for the mutations to accumulate in the population and to occur in homozygote at a higher rate in the long term.
Virus capsids morphologically identical to capsids of
(a) Longitudinal section of normal sperm; (b) section through the middle piece of the tail of sperm. VC, HSV capsids; M, mitochondria; A, acrosome; CH, chromatin; and C, centriole. The hexagonal structure of some capsids is visible. Phase-contrast microscopy (c) and IF (d) of infected sperm. HSV antigen (arrows) and DAPI stain for DNA (blue); (e) FISH with probes to DNA of HSV. Localization of HSV DNA in sperm heads (arrows).
Herpetic infection of spermatozoa was significantly more common in infertile men and men whose spouses had a history of spontaneous miscarriage or ART failure as compared with fertile men. Specific antiherpetic treatment of men diagnosed with HSV infection of spermatozoa results in a substantial, almost fivefold increase in the rates of blastocyst formation after ICSI and clinical pregnancy after ART [100].
Bacterial colonies were detected in ejaculate samples from patients with fertility disorders. In the colonies, heteromorphic microorganisms were held together in a diffusive substance, probably of a polysaccharide nature, or covered with membranes as bacterial biofilms. The majority of microcolonies were attached to squamous epithelial cells, whereas some were associated with sperm heads or tails (Figure 9a–d).
(a) Bacterial microcolony (B) attached to sperm head (H). (c) Bacterial microcolony (B) attached to sperm tail (T). (b, d) Bacterial microcolonies attached to the epithelial cells (EC). A diffuse substance (a–c) or membranes (Me) (d) are detected between bacterial cells.
Moretti et al. [101] examined ejaculate samples from infertile patients and detected
Bacteria may damage spermatozoa even in the absence of an overt inflammatory reaction. We observed higher contents of acrosome-reacted spermatozoa (i.e., those with a premature acrosomal reaction) in the ejaculate samples that contained bacterial microcolonies [55].
Despite the success of molecular biology, the morphological methods of research continue to play a considerable role in determining the reasons of male subfertility and infertility.
Indications for the studies using TEM are as follows:
Idiopathic infertility with normozoospermia or with small deviations in the semen parameters (revealing anomalies of spermatozoa that are not visible in the traditional spermiological study).
Examination of patients whose wives had a history of miscarriage due to abnormal embryo development, such as non-developing pregnancy or spontaneous abortion in the first trimester of natural pregnancy or ART failure.
Differential diagnosis of genetically determined and functional forms of asthenozoospermia and teratozoospermia.
Testing for ultrastructural sperm abnormalities makes it possible not only to identify the cause of infertility but also to choose proper clinical tactics, that is, to select treatments, to recommend ART using own spermatozoa, or to offer ART using donor sperm.
This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation (project no. 14-50-00029) and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project no. 16-04-01447) and by Moscow State University Development Program PNR5.13.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\\n\\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\\n\\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\\n\\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\\n\\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\\n\\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\\n\\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\\n\\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\\n\\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\\n\\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\\n\\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\\n\\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\\n\\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\\n\\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\\n\\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\\n\\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
\\n\\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\\n\\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\\n\\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\\n\\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\\n\\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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\n\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\n\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\n\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\n\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\n\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\n\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\n\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\n\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\n\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\n\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\n\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\n\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
\n\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{title:"Infectious Diseases",id:"6"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/176614",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"176614"},fullPath:"/profiles/176614",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()