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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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She received her BS and MS in Chemistry from Lanzhou University, China and her PhD in Neuroscience from the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium. Dr. Qu has spent part of her career at the National Institutes of Health, USA, studying depression mechanisms underlying serotonin post-receptor regulated signaling transduction. She is also involved in a drug discovery program at Johnson and Johnson in the USA developing novel dual-acting antidepressants with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. In 2002, she received a Sevier Young Investigator Award from the Serotonin Club at the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (IUPHAR) Satellite Meeting on Serotonin. 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Currently, hydrocarbons remain as the leading energy source. While the amount of conventional light crude oil becomes less and less available, heavy crude oils and offshore crude oils are becoming very important resources. The high viscosity of these hydrocarbons becomes a critical issue during oil recovery and/or production operations. This is also a problem for offshore crude oil production, which also shows very high viscosities because of the low temperatures (i.e. 1.5–1.6°C) of the reservoirs.
\nThe flow of high viscosity oils through pipelines is very difficult, requiring much higher pumping power. This creates complications during oil production and transportation. Therefore, reducing the viscosity of the crude oil is paramount [1–4].
\nAlthough, there has been extensive research into this issue for more than 30 years, little progress has been achieved thus far. Currently, the dominant method to reduce the viscosity of heavy crude oil remains heating by the injection of steam and/or hot water. The application of these thermal processes requires time due to heat transfer issues. Furthermore, these processes are energy-intensive and environmentally unfavorable (i.e. large volumes of CO2 emissions during the generation of steam). Moreover, the application of thermal methods for the recovery of offshore heavy crude oils is technically difficult and expensive.
\nFlow turbulence is an additional issue relevant here [5–9]. The efficient transportation of crude oil via pipelines requires the suppression of turbulence, because under turbulent flow regime, much more pumping energy is required.
\n(a) Laminar flow in pipeline. (b) Turbulent flow in pipeline.
Flow is laminar when the Reynolds number is (Figure 1a):
\nwhere D is the diameter of the pipeline, v is the average flow velocity, ρ is the oil density, and η is the oil viscosity. Equation (2) gives the friction factor for laminar flow:
\nThe pressure drop ΔP is as follows,
\nwhere L is the length of the pipeline.
\nEquation (4) gives the flow rate Q for laminar flow:
\nFigure 1b shows a turbulent flow inside a pipeline. Flow is turbulent when the Reynolds number is higher than 2300 (NR > 2300), which causes an erratic flow pattern in all directions, resulting in significant loss of energy. Therefore, the flow of fluids (i.e. heavy crude oil) under turbulent flow regime requires much more pumping power.
\nThe friction factor for turbulent flow within 2300 NR < 100000 can be estimated by the Blasius equation [10] as follows,
\nEquation (6) gives the flow rate for turbulent flow:
\nEquations (4) and (6) indicate that flow under laminar conditions is energetically more efficient than under turbulent conditions. For example, under laminar flow conditions, a 30% increase in the oil flow rate requires a 30% increase in pumping pressure; while under turbulent flow conditions, it requires a pressure increase of 58.3%; which means that the pump needs to provide 94.3% more power. Therefore, suppressing turbulence is crucial during oil transportation by pipelines. For instance, a common practice in the field is to add drag-reducing agents, DRA (i.e. chemical additives based on polymers) to the oil before pumping it through pipelines to suppress turbulence [11]. However, the addition of DRA agents increases the oil viscosity, and it has no effect on laminar flow.
\nThe crucial and challenging issue is clear: the efficient transportation of oil through pipelines requires the simultaneous reduction of the oil viscosity and suppression of turbulence. These issues are not only crucial for the engineering field but also important for several other technical fields, because turbulence remains as one of the most important unsolved problems of classical physics [8].
\nCurrently, conventional pipeline transportation methods cannot simultaneously and effectively reduce fluid (i.e. crude oil) viscosity and suppress turbulence. Thermal methods for crude oil viscosity reduction cannot suppress turbulence. As the temperature increases, the oil viscosity decreases, the Reynolds number increases, and as a result turbulence increases. Other conventional technologies to reduce oil viscosity, such as heavy oil dilution with solvents, cannot accomplish the simultaneous reduction of viscosity and suppression of turbulence, either.
\nAn unconventional technology is required to solve these challenging issues. It is necessary to enhance oil flow output by simultaneously decreasing the oil viscosity along the flow direction, while increasing it in the direction perpendicular to the pipeline axis, because turbulence always starts from the vortices and expands perpendicular to the flow direction. In other words, oil viscosity must be anisotropic: reduced along the pipeline direction and increased in the direction perpendicular to the flow, which makes the flow regime laminar along the pipeline axis even if NR>> 2300.
\nThis chapter describes the electrorheology (ER) technology, which provides an efficient solution for the simultaneous reduction of oil viscosity and suppression of turbulence during crude oil transportation via pipeline [2, 3, 9].
\nCrude oil is a liquid suspension, which depending on the chemical composition might contain particles suspended within the liquid hydrocarbon phase, such as asphaltenes, resins, fine sand particles, and wax particles. The application of a strong electric field in a small section of the pipeline causes the polarization of the suspended particles contained in the oil phase, aggregating them into short chains along the flow direction. This ER application is significantly different from traditional ER fluids, where the applied electric field is perpendicular to the flow direction, leading to increase the effective viscosity or even solidify the ER fluids [12]. Here the applied electric field and the aggregated chains are in the flow direction (Figure 2).
Aggregation of suspended particles into short chains under the influence of a local electric field.
Such aggregation breaks the rotational symmetry and makes the oil viscosity anisotropic, accomplishing two goals: the reduction of the viscosity along the flow direction and the substantial increase in the viscosity in the direction perpendicular to the flow. These viscosity changes supress all vortices and rotating motions; hence, turbulence is suppressed, which enhances the flow parallel to the pipeline horizontal axis. This green technology does not involve the application of chemical additives to the oil phase and is environmentally friendly. It is also energy efficient since it only aggregates the particles and does not heat the bulk of the oil phase. Neutron scattering experiments and field tests on pipelines fully support the theoretical approach of this technology. It is anticipated that electrorheology (ER) will play an important role during heavy crude oil recovery and/or production, enhanced oil recovery applications, and transportation through pipelines.
\nRefined fractions of crude oil such as gasoline, kerosene, and diesel have very low viscosities and low dielectric constants. Paraffinic and heavier oils have higher viscosities because these oils contain randomly suspended paraffin, asphaltenes, resins, sulfur, and other solid compounds having large molecular weights. These suspended particles have higher dielectric constants that make them polarized in a strong electric field (Figure 2). Under the influence of a strong electric field, similar to conventional electrorheological fluids, these particles in crude oil form chains that aggregate into thick columns [12, 13, 15].
\nDuring the aggregation of dipoles into chains or chain-based columns, the total energy U(N) of the system is negative making it energetically favorable. As the total number of particles, N, in the aggregated chain or column increases, the energy per particle U(N)/N is more negative. The probability to have such structure of N aggregated particles is proportional to exp[-U(N)/kBT]. Therefore, an increase in N accelerates particle aggregation. The aggregated structure is more stable if it has more particles. For this reason, the formation of thick columns takes place in ER fluids under the application of an electric field.
\nIn the ideal aggregated structure, all particles would aggregate into one thick column, body-centered tetragonal lattice [13, 14]. In reality, the aggregation process is very fast, and particle aggregation spontaneously spreads under the electric field leading to quick formation of many stable thick columns.
\nNeutron scattering experimental set-up.
Small-angle neutron scattering is a useful technique to confirm the induced aggregation of solid particles contained in crude oil when subjected to a strong electric field [15].
\nThe NG7 Small-Angle Neutron Scattering or SANS facility, NCNR, is located in Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA. The SANS instrument is 30-m long, and it is equipped with a high-resolution 2D detector and focusing refractive lenses. The Q-range of the instrument goes from 0.008 to 7.0 nm−1 to enable the detection of structural features in materials ranging from roughly 1 nm to over 500 nm.
\n\n\nAs shown in Figure 3, the crude oil sample goes in a special capacitor, consisting of two pieces of cadmium electrodes and two pieces of quartz glass windows. The neutron beam passes through the quartz windows and through the crude oil sample into a detector. The application of a high voltage to the cadmium electrodes produces an electric field perpendicular to the neutron beam. Cadmium electrodes are suitable neutron absorbers, which reduces neutron scattering noise.
\nScattering patterns at various electric fields obtained from a paraffin base crude oil. (a) E = 0 V/cm, (b) E = 2500 V/cm, (c) E = 4000 V/cm, (d) E = 7500 V/cm, (e) E = 11,000 V/cm, (f) E = 15,000 V/cm.
In this experimental work, the samples evaluated were a light paraffin base crude oil (API° 34) and a heavy asphalt base crude oil (API° 21). The test results have confirmed that under the influence of a strong electric field, the suspended particles from both the paraffin base crude and the asphalt base crude oil aggregated into short chains. As shown in Figure 4a, in the absence of an electric field, the scattering was isotropic and sparse indicating a random dispersion of particles in the oil phase. The application of an initial electric field of 250 V/mm induced the onset of particles aggregation. The scattering signal revealed that the particles suspended in the light paraffin base crude oil started to aggregate into a short chain with a length of 68 nm and a thickness of 34 nm (Figure 4b). As the applied electrical field increased to E = 400 V/mm, the neutron scattering signal indicated that the short chain acquired a prolate spheroid shape with a length of 75.2 nm and a thickness of 37.6 nm (Figure 4c). At a higher electrical field of E = 750 V/mm, the chain length increased to 94 nm long and the thickness to 38.4 nm (Figure 4d). At a higher electric field of 1100 V/mm, the chain reached a length of 94.8 nm and a thickness of 38.6 nm (Figure 4e). Finally, at the highest value of the electrical field applied of E = 1500 V/mm (Figure 4f), the chain dimensions were 94.8 nm length and 45 nm thickness. Therefore, as the electric field increases, the aggregated chains become longer and thicker (Table 1).
\n\nElectric field (V/mm) | \nLength 2a (nm) | \nThickness 2b (nm) | \n
---|---|---|
0 | \n~6 | \n~6 | \n
250 | \n68.0 | \n34.0 | \n
400 | \n75.2 | \n34.8 | \n
750 | \n94.0 | \n38.4 | \n
1100 | \n94.8 | \n38.6 | \n
1500 | \n94.8 | \n45.0 | \n
Aggregated short chains of light paraffin base crude oil.
The asphalt base crude oil showed similar behavior under the ER treatments at different electric field intensities. For example, under an electric field of 1000 V/mm, the asphalt particles aggregated into a short chain in a prolate spheroid shape with a length of 78 nm and a thickness of 50 nm [15].
\nBased on the neutron scattering information, it is possible to approximate the short chain to a prolate spheroid (Figure 5) with its rotational z-axis along the flow direction.
Aggregated short chains or prolate spheroids.
Equation (7) allows determining the dimensions of the prolate spheroid (short chain of agglomerates) as follows:
\nHere
Einstein studied the viscosity of dilute liquid suspensions and found that the intrinsic viscosity for spheres is [η] = 2.5 [16]. For the prolate spheroids, the intrinsic viscosity along the z-axis [η‖] is smaller than 2.5, while the intrinsic viscosity along the directions perpendicular to the z-axis, [η⊥] is higher than 2.5. For crude oils with API° gravities lower than 34° (heavier crude oils), the aggregated chains will be longer than the aggregated chains observed in the nuclear scattering experiment for paraffinic oil. If for instance, it is assumed that (a−b)/a= 0.8, then [η‖] = 2.035 and [η⊥] = 3.548 [17]. This information of intrinsic viscosities enables the calculation of the viscosities using the Krieger-Dougherty equation [18],
\nwhere ηi is the effective viscosity,
A viscosity increase in the direction perpendicular to the flow causes the suppression of turbulence because the vortices in turbulent flow move in the direction transversal to the pipeline axis. For this reason, the formation of aggregated short chains in the bulk of the crude oil plays a similar function as the addition of drag-reducing agents (DRA) to the crude oil. However, the addition of DRA could cause further issues at the oil refineries. Moreover, the more significant aspect of this technology is the simultaneous reduction of viscosity, which enhances the flow output, while the addition of DRA to the oil phase cannot reduce the viscosity of the oil.
\nAnother advantage of this technology is that the aggregated chains in the laminar flow migrate toward the center of the pipe that corresponds to minimum shear rate zone due to the Segré-Silberberg effect [22]. Therefore, this technology also reduces the sedimentation and/or deposition of particles on the pipeline walls. All these factors are essential for significant improvement of oil transportation via pipelines.
\nA series of laboratory tests evaluated the performance of different types of crude oils [23]. However, this chapter summarizes only the behavior of the Daqing crude oil, which is a well-known paraffinic crude oil with a pour point of around 30°C from the Daqing oil field, China.
\nThe experimental procedure was as follows. The crude oil sample was loaded at the top of a cylindrical container. Underneath the cylinder, a valve allowed the flow of crude oil through three electrodes into a long capillary tube with a diameter of 0.2673 cm. A cup on a microbalance collected the crude oil that flowed down through the capillary tube. A computer connected to the microbalance recorded the oil mass as a function of time using a LabVIEW data acquisition system, which allowed determining the flow rate, Q. This experimental device was located inside an oven to keep the target temperature at 35.1°C during the experimentation. The middle electrode was connected to the positive output of the high-voltage power supply. The other two electrodes were connected to the negative output of the power supply. After the power supply was turned on, the strong electric field was produced in both capacitors along the flow direction, one vertically up and the other vertically down, forcing the suspended particles in the crude oil to aggregate into streamlined short chains along the flow direction causing the reduction of the crude oil effective viscosity. Since there are only dipolar interactions involved, such arrangement of the electrodes works well. It reduces the requirement of high voltage and makes the technology safer. Figure 6 shows a picture of the experimental set-up.
Experimental set-up.
In these experimental runs, the NR was very low, and the crude oil flowed through the capillary tube under laminar flow conditions, which allowed determining the oil viscosity along the flow direction using Eq. (9),
\nwhere R and L are the respective radius and length of the capillary tube, h is the height of the oil level above the capillary tube,
where Q is the flow rate, R is the radius of the capillary tube, and
In all the experimental runs, crude oil flowed down by gravity in the absence of electric field to allow the stabilization of the oil and to obtain the baseline behavior of the crude oil (i.e. initial oil viscosity). Afterwards, crude oil flowed down by gravity under the effect of different electric field intensities. The oil flow rate increased rapidly under the effect of the tested electric fields. Figure 7 shows the mass of oil passing through the electric field as a function of time and electric field. In Figure 7, a sudden change of the slope corresponds to a rapid increase in the mass of oil passing down as a function of time. Therefore, it was straightforward to determine the viscosity of the oil before and after the application of the electric field.
Mass of oil as a function of time and electric field.
Effect of electric field on Daqing crude oil. (a) Mass flow rate as a function of electric field (b) Viscosity as a function of electric field. Data obtained a temperature of 35.1°C.
This study allowed determining the optimum electric field that induced the largest reduction of oil viscosity. As shown in Figure 7, the mass flow rate in the absence of electric field was 0.04182 g/s, which corresponded to a viscosity of 764.5 cP. The application of an electric field of 7200 V/cm increased the flow rate to 0.28252 g/s, which corresponded to a viscosity of 113.16 cP. A further increase of the electric field to 8000 V/cm increased the flow rate to 0.318095 g/s that was equivalent to a final viscosity of 100.5 cP from an initial value of 764.5 cP.
\nReplication tests gave consistent results and confirmed that the application of the ER treatment effectively reduces \tirection.
\n\nFigure 8a plots the mass flow rate as a function of electric field. The mass flow rate of the oil increased by 661% when the electric field was increased from 0 to 8000 V/cm, which induced the simultaneous reduction of the crude oil viscosity by 86.9%.
\nThe photo of the AOT device installed in the pipeline.
These field tests employed the testing pipeline route at the Rocky Mountain Oil Test Center (RMOTC) facility near Casper, Wyoming, equipped with a positive displacement (PD) pump. The electrical device or Applied Oil Technology (AOT) device was connected at 7.219 km of the testing route (Figure 9). Sensors inside the pipeline (inner diameter of 14.163 cm) at various locations measured the oil pressure and temperature.
\nFigure 9 shows a photo of the AOT device installed at the RMOTC pipeline system. The device was connected downstream the pump, which pumped the crude oil to the top of the device. Then, the oil flowed down through the electric field and the pipeline. Several mesh electrodes (39 units) inside the vertical pipe of the device with a gap of 3 cm between two neighboring ones induced the axial electric field inside the vertical pipe.
\nThe field tests used two loops as follows:
\n(1) Close loop. The oil flowed through the pump, the AOT device, and the pipeline for several cycles.
(2) Open loop. In this case, after one cycle, the oil flowed to a storage tank and fresh oil from another supply tank was pumped through the device and pipeline.
Pressure loss across the test loop as a function of the application of an electric field using the AOT device.
In these tests, the viscosity reduction was first determined along the flow direction under laminar flow regime (NR = 1205.21). The pump was set at a constant Q of 46.56 m3/h, which provided a linear velocity of 82.09 cm/s. The properties of the crude oil were API° = 34, initial viscosity = 81.6 cP at 12.1°C, and density = 0.8459 g/cm3. As the untreated oil flowed through the pipeline, the pressure loss was 1.07 bar/km. The application of an electric field of 2300 V/cm caused a reduction of pressure loss across the loop from 1.07 to 0.641 bar/km (40% reduction). Similarly, the viscosity along the flow direction reduced from 81.6 cP to 48.95 cP (40% reduction). Then, the AOT device was turned-off and the pressure loss across the loop gradually returned to the original value in the absence of the electric field (Figure 10). Measurement of the pumping power requirements is useful to evaluate the effect of the ER treatment on the flow properties of the crude oil. Before the application the ER treatment, the pump required a total power of 14.2 kW. However, the ER treatment gradually reduced the pumping requirements to a steady value of 8.9 kW, which is equivalent to an energy saving of 5.3 kW. The AOT device utilized less than 100 W of electric power during the lifespan of the experimentation.
\nThese tests were conducted with a Reynolds number near the critical value of 2300 first, then extended to Reynolds number well above 6000. The pump was set at a constant Q of 95.392 m3/h that corresponded to a flow velocity v of 168.2 cm/s. The conditions of the initial test were crude oil with an initial viscosity of 93.7 cP at 11.5 °C, a Q of 95.392 m3/h, laminar flow with a
A further increase of the electric field to 3000 V/cm caused an additional reduction of the oil viscosity to 75.6 cP and an increase in the NR to 2678.2. Likewise, if the flow regime were turbulent at this condition, the pressure drop along the loop would increase to 3.73 bar/km. On the contrary, the pressure loss along the pipeline reduced to 2.03 bar/km, and the pump power requirement decreased to 48.3 kW, which corresponds to a laminar flow regime. Observations from replication tests were consistent.
\nAnother field test evaluated the performance of the paraffin base Daqing crude oil, which has a pour point around 30°C. The transportation of this oil requires that the temperature within the pipeline system must be maintained in the range of 55–72°C through 15–20 km of insulated pipeline length (pipeline inner diameter 14.5 cm), before the pipeline system reaches another heating station.
\nInitially, several pre-tests established the conditions for turbulent flow regime within the temperature range previously indicated. For example, crude oil at 55.6°C and viscosity of 16.92 cP was flowed through the pipeline at a flow rate of 34.46 m3/h and a pressure of 7.0 bar; under these conditions, NR was 4128.3 (turbulent regime). In another pre-test, crude oil at 71.1°C and a viscosity of 12.4 cP was pumped at a pressure of 7.0 bar. The experimentally measured Q was 36 m3/h. According to Eq. (6), under these flow conditions (i.e. pressure and oil viscosity), Q must be 36.02 m3/h for a turbulent flow regime, which was in agreement with the experimentally measured Q. On the other hand, if the flow were laminar at the same flow conditions, the calculated Q using Eq. (1) should be 47.02 m3/h, which is much higher than the measured Q.
\nIn other pre-experimental run, crude oil at 55.6°C was flowed through the test loop at a pumping pressure of 8.35 bar. The measured Q was 38.1 m3/h. If the flow were laminar, according to Eq. (1), the Q should be 41.1 m3/h. However, the measured Q (38.1 m3/h) was equal to the Q estimated using the Blasius formula (Eq. 6) of 38.11 m3/h.
\nOverall, these pre-tests demonstrated that the flow of crude oil at 55.6 and 71.1°C was turbulent and more importantly that heating of the crude oil does not suppress turbulence.
\nThe procedure used to evaluate the effect of the application of an electric field on the suppression of turbulence during the flow of crude oil through the test loop was as follows.
\nFlow conditions: temperature of crude oil = 55.6 °C, pumping pressure = 3.1 bar, Q = 16.4 m3/h, and NR = 1964.7 (laminar flow regime).
\nThe application of an electric field of 13.3 kV/cm reduced the oil viscosity along the flow direction to 14.14 cP and gradually increased Q to 19.6 m3/h. Although NR increased to 2808.9, the flow regime was still laminar (based on the theoretical flow rate, which was in agreement with the experimentally measured Q).
\nIn order to test the crude oil flow behavior at much higher NR at a constant electric field of 13.3 kV/cm, the flowing pressure was increased from 3.1 to 5.0 bar and Q was increased to 31.6 m3/h, which corresponded to an NR of 4528.6. Nevertheless, under these conditions the flow remained laminar because the measured Q was in agreement with the theoretical estimation (Eq. 1) of Q = 31.61 m3/h for a laminar flow regime.
\nA further increase in the pumping pressure to 7.0 bar, under a constant electric field of 13.3 kV/cm, caused an increase in Q to 44.3 m3/h and an NR of 6348.7. However, according to Eq. (1), the flow of crude oil remained laminar. Table 2 summarizes these experimental observations.
\nFlow rate (m3/h) | \nViscosity (cP) | \nReynolds number | \nElectric field (V/mm) | \nPressure (bar) | \nTemperature (°C) | \nFlow regime | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
34.36 | \n16.92 | \n4128.3 | \n0 | \n7.0 | \n55.6 | \nTurbulent | \n
36.0 | \n12.40 | \n5890.3 | \n0 | \n7.0 | \n71.1 | \nTurbulent | \n
38.1 | \n16.92 | \n4565.6 | \n0 | \n8.35 | \n55.6 | \nTurbulent | \n
16.4 | \n16.92 | \n1964.7 | \n0 | \n3.1 | \n55.6 | \nLaminar | \n
19.6 | \n14.14 | \n2808.9 | \n1333 | \n3.1 | \n55.6 | \nLaminar | \n
31.6 | \n14.14 | \n4528.6 | \n1333 | \n5.0 | \n55.6 | \nLaminar | \n
44.3 | \n14.14 | \n6348.7 | \n1333 | \n7.0 | \n55.6 | \nLaminar | \n
Test results with NR > 2300.
Pumping pressure versus flow rate.
Figure 11 plots the applied pumping pressure as a function of Q (m3/h) for untreated and treated crude oil. It is clear that even at very high Q (40 m3/h) and large NR= 6348, the flow regime of the ER-treated crude oil remained laminar. On the contrary, the flow of the untreated oil became turbulent NR >2300. These experimental observations clearly confirm that the ER treatment effectively suppresses the onset of turbulent flow regime.
\n\nThese field tests employed a section of the Keystone Phase II pipeline near Wichita, Kansas. Figure 12 shows a picture of the AOT device installed in this pipeline system. The device was downstream of the pump, which pumped the crude oil to the top of the device, entering the four parallel cylinders through the mesh electrodes, and then to the pipeline downstream.
AOT device installed on the Keystone pipeline system.
These tests evaluated the performance of an asphalt base crude oil. The crude oil had a density of 0.887 g/cm3 and a viscosity of 214.1 cP at 25°C. The inner diameter of the pipeline was 35 inch (88.9 cm) and Q was kept constant at 2280 m3/h, which corresponds to a flow velocity of 1.02 m/s. Under these conditions, the NR was 3757.9, which indicates turbulent flow conditions. From Eq. (5), the estimated friction factor for this turbulent flow is fT = 0.04011; while the pressure difference along the pipeline was estimated using Eq. (11) as follows,
\nwhere L is the distance between the Keystone pump station and the next downstream pump station, ρ is the flow velocity, and D is the pipeline diameter.
\nEquation (12) allows estimating the required pumping power, Pwi.
\nwhere Q is the flow rate and ΔP is the pressure difference in Eq. (11). The application of an electric field caused the reduction of the crude oil viscosity along the flow direction from 214.1 to 142.5 cP; while the viscosity of the oil in the direction perpendicular to the flow was significantly increased (>700 cP). Under these conditions, the treated oil flow was laminar. Figure 13 shows that after the AOT device is turned-on, the treated crude oil flowing under laminar conditions pushes the rear of the untreated oil downstream the pipeline, which flows under turbulent conditions.
Treated oil under laminar flow conditions pushes the untreated oil under turbulent flow conditions downstream the pipeline.
If the AOT device was on for time t (Figure 13), the length of the laminar flow section is vt along the pipeline; while the turbulent flow had length of L-vt. The Reynolds number for the laminar flow was 5646.1, and the friction factor was fL = 0.011335258. Equation (13) allows the estimation of the pump power requirements for the period
Substituting the values for
(a) Estimated pump power requirements as a function of time and electric field. (b) Experimental pump power versus time.
After
Figure 14b displays the experimental pump power reduction after the application of ER treatment. Before the treatment, the pump required a power of 2826 kW to transport the crude oil. After 2 hours of treatment, the pump power requirements stabilized at around 800 kW, while Q remained constant at 2280 m3/h. In this case, the total reduction of pumping power requirements was 71.7%.
\nIn this experimental study, the AOT device required <1 kW of power; while the pumping power required to transport the heavy crude oil at a Q = 2280 m3/h was significantly reduced with overall power savings > 2000 kW. These experimental observations confirm the theoretical predictions and demonstrate the efficiency of this technology for transporting heavy crude oil via pipeline.
\nThe anisotropic viscosity of the crude oil is the result of the aggregation of suspended particles into short chains along the flow direction under the effect of an electric field. Therefore, the reduced crude oil viscosity along the flow direction and the turbulence suppression effect will diminish if the aggregated short chains deassembled partially or completely.
\nLaboratory-bench scale tests evaluated the lifespan of the anisotropic viscosity effect after the ER treatment. The experimental procedure consisted in the application of the electric field to the oil sample at a pre-established temperature for about 5 seconds. Afterwards, the sample was stored at the corresponding temperature, and the crude oil viscosity was measured as a function of time. Tables 3 and 4 summarize the experimental results obtained from the evaluation of two crude oils.
Viscosity (cP) | \n911 | \n390 | \n408 | \n421 | \n441 | \n480 | \n487 | \n
Time (h) | \nUntreated | \n0 | \n4 | \n8 | \n12 | \n23 | \n26 | \n
Viscosity performance of the Daqing crude oil after the ER treatment at 35.1°C. The applied electric field was 8 kV/cm for 5 seconds.
Viscosity (cP) | \n261.3 | \n121.1 | \n151.2 | \n172.4 | \n
Time (h) | \nUntreated | \n0 | \n12 | \n24 | \n
Viscosity performance of crude oil (API 34°) after the ER treatment at −3.1°C. The applied electric field was 1.6 kV/mm for 5 seconds.
These experimental results indicate that while the aggregated chains gradually deassembled as a function of time, the deaggregation process is slow and the viscosity of the crude oil increases very slowly. In these experiments, the anisotropic viscosity of the treated crude oil lasted for more than 24 hours.
\nCrude oil viscosity and temperature as a function of time.
Tests at the RMOTC pipeline also evaluated the lifespan of the ER treatment. These field tests used the pipeline loop described in Section C and employed a crude oil with an API° 34° and an initial viscosity of 118.06 cP. The positive displacement pump drove the crude oil through the AOT device and the pipeline loop during six and half hours. The electric field applied was 2 kV/cm, which reduced the viscosity of the crude oil along the flow direction from 118.06 to 51.8 cP (viscosity reduction of 56.12%). After 6.5 hours, the AOT device was turned-off, but the crude oil circulated the pipeline loop for more than 11 hours. During this period, the pressure loss across the pipeline loop and the pump power requirements were continuously monitored.
\nThe experimental observations indicate that the reduced viscosity of the treated oil, the pressure loss, and the pump power requirements remained stable during a period of 11 hours. Afterwards, the pressure loss and pump power requirements started to increase, signifying that the viscosity reduction effect on the treated crude oil began to disappear. Figure 15 summarizes these experimental observations.
\nThe lasting effect of the ER treatment (11 hours) obtained in the pipeline loop (field test) was shorter than the lasting effect determined at the laboratory scale (>24 hours). In the field test, the PD pump continuously pumped the crude oil through the pipeline loop. This continuous pumping through the PD pump could cause the disruption and breaking of the aggregated particles that induce the oil viscosity increase; while in the experiments conducted in the laboratory, only Brownian motion caused shear forces on the aggregated chains.
\nNevertheless, in industrial ER applications, a treatment lifespan of 11 hours seems to be practical, considering that the electric field can be re-applied to adjust the viscosity of the crude oil as needed. Furthermore, the lasting effect of the ER treatment simultaneously suppresses turbulence [24].
\nElectrorheology, ER, is effective in simultaneously reducing the viscosity and suppressing turbulence during oil transportation via pipeline.
\nExperimental work at laboratory bench scale and field tests demonstrate the ER technology efficiently induces the aggregation of suspended particles contained in crude oils. These aggregated particles form short chains along the flow direction, which simultaneously reduce the crude oil viscosity and suppress turbulence, enhancing flow output.
\nTypical flow of crude oil in pipeline becomes turbulent when the Reynolds number exceeds 2300; the ER-treated crude oil remains laminar even at Reynolds numbers close to 10,000. Furthermore, field tests indicate that the ER effect on the viscosity and flow properties of the crude oil lasts 11 hours, after the ER treatment has ceased. The application of this technology for oil transportation via pipeline is in rapid development.
\nThe ER technology shows great potential for heavy oil extraction and EOR operations; however, these applications require significant more research.
\nIncrease in global temperature had major impact on crop productivity especially in tropical and sub tropical regimes. Based on climate model predictions, around 1.8–4.0°C rise in air temperature was expected in 21st century [1]. The increase in temperature beyond a certain threshold level tends to induce detrimental effects in plant growth and development. In general, the elevation in temperature of 10–15°C above ambient triggers heat shock in crop plants. The extent of induced heat stress depends on the duration, intensity and rate of increase in global air temperature [2]. Indian lowlands share 15 per cent of global wheat production. The change in global climate would shift these fertile lowlands into heat stressed unproductive environment [3]. Similarly, the cultivation of cereals in Southern Africa and South East Asia was predicted to be heat stressed zone in near future [4]. Around 4–14% yield decline in rice was encountered due to elevated temperature of 1°C in South-East Asia [5]. The declined productivity due to elevated temperature imposes the urgent need for development of climate resilience genotypes. Evolving heat tolerant cultivars would highly benefit the livelihood of developing countries as around 70–80% of population relies on agriculture. Understanding the effect of heat stress on crop plants and its adaptation mechanisms would help in framing out the breeding strategies for high temperature tolerance.
\nHeat tolerance in crop plants is a complex mechanism involving adaptations through altered physiological process, morpho-anatomical features and induction of several biochemical pathways. On exposure to high temperature, several signal transduction pathways were triggered leading to changes in gene expression. As a result, varied stress related proteins were synthesized contributing heat tolerance in plants [6]. The tolerance mechanism to high temperature stress varies within genotypes of a plant species. The existing variation between and within species provide scope for evolving heat tolerant lines through conventional breeding approaches [7]. Dissecting out genetic information through molecular tools would hasten the development of climate resilient cultivars contributing to food security in near future. A brief review on plant response, adaptation mechanisms and genetic approaches to combat heat stress were presented in this chapter.
\nHeat stress had varying impact on different phenological stages viz., germination, seedling, vegetative, flowering and reproductive of crop plants [8]. The plant response to heat stress depends on the duration, degree of rise in temperature and plant type. Under tropical regimes, high temperature with intense solar radiation poses a major limiting factor for yield by inducing leaf abscission, leaf senescence, scorching of leaves, branches and stems, growth inhibition, pollen infertility and poor seed formation [9, 10]. A significant decline in relative growth rate, shoot dry weight and net assimilation rate was recorded in sugarcane, maize and pearl millet on exposure to high temperature stress [11]. High reduction in grain quality was recorded in most of the cereal crops grown under heat stress environments [12]. Several physiological processes such as partitioning of assimilates, plant-water relations and shoot growth was affected due to heat stress in common bean [13]. In general, the susceptibility to heat stress was found higher at reproductive stage of plant development. An excessive yield loss is recorded in legumes on exposure to high temperature (30–35°C) during anthesis stage [14]. Drastic reduction in grain number and weight was observed in wheat at high temperature regimes [15]. Heat stress affects several metabolic pathways leading to accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which is a major component for oxidative stress in crop plants [16]. The photosystem centres (PS I and PS II) of chloroplast, mitochondria and peroxisomes are the major sites for generation of ROS in plants [17]. High temperature stress disrupts the stability of cell membrane through protein denaturation [18]. The induction of ROS due to high temperature stress was correlated with premature leaf senescence in Gossypium sp. [19]. Accumulation of ROS in root cells was evidenced in wheat on exposure to high temperature for two days [20].
\nPlants tend to adapt several complex mechanisms through phenological and morphological changes to combat high temperature stress (Figure 1). On heat stress regimes, plants exhibit varied short term escape/avoidance mechanisms viz., altered leaf orientation, transpirational cooling, altered membrane lipid properties, early maturation and so on for its survival. Plants show varied degree of leaf rolling upon intensity of solar radiation. A significant tolerance to high temperature was observed in wheat by maintenance of water potential in flag leaf through adoption of leaf rolling under heat shock conditions [21]. Increase in trichomatous and stomatal densities, waxy layer on leaves, and larger xylem vessels are the common features induced during heat stress [22]. On contrary, plants also evolve long term tolerance mechanisms for its effective survival and productivity under high temperature. Induction of osmoprotectants, antioxidants, late embryogenesis abundant proteins, dehydrins, and heat shock proteins are the major factors involved in counteracting the heat shocks. Accumulation of osmolytes such as proline, trehalose, and glycine betaine plays a vital role in imparting tolerance via cellular osmotic adjustment, detoxification of ROS, stabilization of enzymes and membrane proteins [23]. Several enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense components are also involved in protection against oxidative stress induced by free radicals [24]. The activities of ROS scavenging enzymes are temperature specific. In general, most of the antioxidant enzymes show increased activity with elevation in temperatures. It is also influenced by genotype, growing season and phenological stages of plant [25]. Under high temperature conditions, several signaling molecules such as nitrous oxide, Ca-dependent protein kinases, Mitogen mediated protein kinase, sugars, and phytohormones play a role in stimulation of stress responsive genes via transduction pathways [26]. Evolving adaptation mechanisms (either tolerance or avoidance) to high temperature and drought would be more rewarding at arid conditions as it is often correlated.
\nAdaptation mechanisms for high temperature tolerance in crop plants.
Breeding for high temperature tolerance requires an essential knowledge on plant adaptation response to heat shocks. In general, the genotypes exhibiting less detrimental effect on photosynthesis and reproductive development tend to survive well under heat prone areas [27]. Involvement of these two components in selection criteria would be beneficial in evolving thermo tolerant cultivars. Tolerant genotypes evolve several morphological, physiological and biochemical alterations in response to heat shocks. Knowledge on sensitivity of several phenological stages to high temperature will pave way for trait specific improvement. High temperature is often correlated with other environmental factors which poses a major limitation for selection under field conditions. At present, varied selection criteria has been developed by scientists, which favors delineation of superior variety at prevailing environment [28]. Heat tolerant index has been evolved for sorghum which depicts the proportion of growth recovery after exposure to high temperature stress. It is the ratio of increase in coleoptile growth in a heat stress environment [50°C] to the enhancement in coleoptile length under normal environment (non-stress) [29]. It proves cost effective and rapid method to screen a large population size within shorter period. A proper validation of such technique would facilitate the development of tolerant lines in other crop species. Pollen viability and fruit set was considered as major selection criteria to predict yield under high temperature stress in tomato [30]. Physiological based trait selection such as harvest index, photosynthetic efficiency, respiration rate, delayed senescence and canopy architecture will also contribute towards increased tolerance to heat stress [31, 32].
\nInter-mating among closely related individuals for improvement of economic traits resulted in decline of genetic variability in a crop species [33]. Characterization of gene pool including land races and wild relatives would offer several tolerant genes for abiotic tolerance. Extensive efforts were made in screening of heat tolerant genotypes which can be directly introduced as a cultivar or utilized to introgress gene into new genetic background [34]. Thermo-tolerant lines were successfully isolated from wild gene pool in wheat [35]. High magnitude of variation was observed in wild progenitor “Aegilops tauschii” of wheat for cell viability and membrane stability [36]. Similarly, a heat tolerant source for reproductive stage was identified in A. geniculata and A. speltoides Tausch which would pave way in development of thermo-tolerant hexaploid wheat cultivars in near future [37]. A higher growth rate and improved photosynthetic efficiency was observed in wild relative “Oryza meridionalis” of rice at high temperature [38]. Indirect selection on pollen viability led to identification of thermo-tolerant accessions in soybean (DG 5630RR) [39], chickpea (ICC15614 & ICC1205) [40], maize (AZ100) [41], and several other crop species. Direct selection based on yield under target environment (heat stress) resulted in development of tolerant lines in many tropical grain legumes. Four tolerant genotypes/accessions viz., SRC-1-12-1-48, SRC-1-12-1-182, 98012-3-1-2-1 and 98020-3-1-7-2 were isolated in common bean by employing stress tolerant indices [42]. Nine thermo-tolerant wild accessions were delineated in USDA upland cotton germplasm by employing chlorophyll fluorescence technique [43].
\nEvolving thermo-tolerance through conventional breeding approach proves promising in many crop species. Breeding for early maturing genotype in broccoli had improved head quality by avoiding heat stress at flowering stage [44]. In general, breeding programmes are carried out in hotter regions which promote selection of thermo-tolerant traits. Physiological based trait breeding was practiced at International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) for development of heat tolerant cultivars in wheat. The parental genotypes were characterized through various crossing schemes and appropriate breeding programme was framed for improvement of thermo related traits [45]. A wild ancestor “T. tauschii” was utilized as a gene donor for achieving increased grain size and filling percent under high temperature through recurrent selection [46]. Similarly, three cycles of recurrent selection had led to improved yield under heat stress regimes in potato [47]. Thermo tolerant alleles were introgressed into heat sensitive cultivar “Paymaster 404” from a donor accession “7456” of G. barbadense through backcross breeding [48]. A significant improvement in yield was realized under heat stress environment by adoption of gametic selection in maize [41]. A deep rooted cultivar “Nagina 22 (N22)” of aus rice exhibited high pollen viability and spikelet fertility (64–86%) under heat stress [49]. The thermo-tolerance of N22 was successfully introgressed into Xieqingzao B line through backcross method [50]. Dissecting out the genetic and physiological basis of thermo-tolerance will hasten up the development of resilient cultivars suited to hotter regions.
\nThe genetic basis of thermo-tolerance is not clearly understood because of complex trait inheritance. Advances in molecular approaches such as DNA marker identification and genotyping assay had paved way in determination of several QTL’s associated with high temperature tolerance [51]. In wheat, QTL’s were identified for canopy temperature, and chlorophyll fluorescence imparting tolerance to heat stress [52]. A major QTL “Htg 6.1” in lettuce was involved in enhancement of seed germination capacity at high temperature [53]. A recessive QTL for increased spikelet fertility under high temperature was dissected out in rice at chromosome 4. The identified QTL were found in several populations of heat tolerant rice cultivars [54]. Six QTL’s were involved to enhance fruit set at high temperature in tomato [55]. Five thermo tolerant QTL’s were identified in Brassica campestris by employing random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers [56]. In maize, eleven major QTL’s for increased pollen germination and pollen tube growth under high temperature was mapped using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers [57]. Identification of candidate QTL’s would pave way in precise introgression of heat tolerant genes into superior cultivars through marker assisted breeding approach.
\nThe closely associated markers with targeted QTL will hasten the recovery of superior genotypes with heat tolerant traits in a population. A marker assisted breeding approach was employed in rice to derive heat tolerant line with superior grain quality. Two flanking markers viz., ktIndel001 and RFT1 enclosing 1.5 Mb chromosomal region was transferred from tolerant cultivar “Kokoromachi” to Tohoku 168. Significant improvement in grain quality under high temperature was observed in the derived NIL’s compared to susceptible cultivar “Tohoku 168” [58]. Fourteen SSR markers linked to heat susceptibility index of grain filling per cent and single kernel weight was identified in bread wheat which was employed in marker assisted selection (MAS) to screen genotypes for thermo tolerance [59]. Utilization of MAS approach for heat tolerance remains less efficient because of high gene x environment and epistatic interactions. The low breeding efficiency can be resolved by genomic selection (GS) approach which involves wide number of molecular markers exhibiting high genome coverage. High genetic gain is realized in GS approach due to close association between predicted and true breeding value over generations [60].
\nAt present, transgenic approach also proves to be desirable tool for designing thermo tolerant lines via introgression of genes from diverse gene pools [61]. The genetic transformation was focused primarily on transcription factors, induction of heat shock proteins, molecular chaperones, osmolytes, antioxidant components and growth regulators [62]. Heat shock proteins play a primary role in imparting thermo tolerance in crop species. It is functionally associated with diverse group of molecular chaperones that is involved in restoration of degraded proteins to their native structure under high temperature. Induction of heat shock proteins through genetic manipulation was achieved in arabidopsis [63], maize [64], rice [65], soybean [66], and pepper [67]. The DREB gene family was also reported to impart heat tolerant response in many crop species. Over expression of ZmDREB2A in maize [68] and GmDREB2A in soybean [69] was associated with increased survival and adaptation under high temperature. Transgenic techniques were employed to alter membrane lipid properties for thermo-tolerance in crop species. High proportion of saturated fatty acid in membrane had increased tolerance under heat stress. Suppression of omega-3 fatty acid desaturase gene in chloroplast had reduced the accumulation of trieonic fatty acid in transgenic tobacco [70] and tomato [71] leading to thermo-tolerance. A significant accumulation of glycine betaine (osmolyte) was achieved in arabidopsis through transfer of “cod gene” from Arthrobacter globiformis [72]. High proportion of glycine betaine protects the PSII component by inhibiting the ROS activities under heat stress. Implementation of transgenic approaches in other crop species will accelerate the development of resilient genotypes suited to high temperature regimes.
\nDevelopment of thermo-tolerant lines has to be prioritized to meet out the future climatic change coupled with food demands. Knowledge on plant response and adaptation mechanisms to heat stress is required for framing out breeding strategies. It remains a challenging task in evolving resilient genotypes suited to high temperature because of less efficient screening protocols at field conditions. The existence of low genetic variation for heat response related traits limited the progress of conventional breeding approach in many crop species. Use of molecular breeding strategies had opened up several heat tolerant related QTL’s in crop species. However, still precise research work involving huge marker data is needed for attaining high breeding efficiency for thermo tolerance. Recently, the involvement of transgenic approach paved way for utilization of tolerant source from diverse gene pools. Study on induction of heat shock proteins led to increased thermo tolerance in many crop species. Similarly, other heat response related traits such as induction of antioxidant components, osmolytes, and chaperones were also included in transgenic approach for inducing heat stress tolerance. Thus, high economic yield could be realized at elevated temperature regimes with the involvement of combined breeding approaches.
\nThe authors are highly thankful to Dr. V. Geethalakshmi, Director, Directorate of Crop Management, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) for her valuable suggestions towards this chapter. We also acknowledge Dr. P. Jayamani, Professor and Head, Department of Pulses, TNAU; Dr. M. Raveendran, Professor and Head, Department of Biotechnology, TNAU; and Dr. K. Ganesamurthy, Professor and Head, Department of Rice, TNAU for rendering supportive documents on high temperature tolerance.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest towards this chapter.
The authors express their gratitude to the Directorate of Crop Management for providing scientific support on high temperature tolerance.
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\n\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\n\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
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