Mean values and comparison of mean separation analysis (ANOVA) of the fatty acids relative to the 1108 monovarietal olive oil samples.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5431",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Breast Cancer - From Biology to Medicine",title:"Breast Cancer",subtitle:"From Biology to Medicine",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Breast Cancer - From Biology to Medicine thoroughly examines breast cancer from basic definitions, to cellular and molecular biology, to diagnosis and treatment. This book also has some additional focus on preclinical and clinical results in diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer. The book begins with introduction on epidemiology and pathophysiology of breast cancer in Section 1. In Section 2, the subsequent chapters introduce molecular and cellular biology of breast cancer with some particular signaling pathways, the gene expression, as well as the gene methylation and genomic imprinting, especially the existence of breast cancer stem cells. In Section 3, some new diagnostic methods and updated therapies from surgery, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, immunotherapy, radiotherapy, and some complementary therapies are discussed. This book provides a succinct yet comprehensive overview of breast cancer for advanced students, graduate students, and researchers as well as those working with breast cancer in a clinical setting.",isbn:"978-953-51-3000-0",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2999-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4882-1",doi:"10.5772/62922",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"breast-cancer-from-biology-to-medicine",numberOfPages:568,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d90527637742a2483c1d96d5a5f7cc02",bookSignature:"Phuc Van Pham",publishedDate:"April 5th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5431.jpg",numberOfDownloads:43945,numberOfWosCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitations:33,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:57,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:117,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 11th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 2nd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 29th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 27th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 26th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"28799",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Phuc Van",middleName:"Van",surname:"Pham",slug:"phuc-van-pham",fullName:"Phuc Van Pham",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/28799/images/system/28799.png",biography:"Phuc Van Pham received his Ph.D. in Human Physiology from Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. He is currently an Associate Professor of Biology at Vietnam National University; Direct of Stem Cell Institute; Director of the Laboratory of Stem Cell Research and Application; and Vice-Director of the Laboratory of Cancer Research. He is a longstanding lecturer and translational scientist at the University, and is a member of several societies and journal editorial boards focused on stem cells as well as cellular therapy.",institutionString:"VNU-HCM University of Science",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1075",title:"Breast Oncology",slug:"breast-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"53860",title:"Epidemiology, Pathology, Management and Open Challenges of Breast Cancer in Central Sudan: A Prototypical Limited Resource African Setting",doi:"10.5772/67175",slug:"epidemiology-pathology-management-and-open-challenges-of-breast-cancer-in-central-sudan-a-prototypic",totalDownloads:2013,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Little is known about breast cancer in Sudan. According to the recent data published by the Khartoum Cancer Registry, breast cancer was the most common cancer among Sudanese women. Generally, breast cancer in native African women is characterized by young age at onset, occurrence in multiparous premenopausal patients, advanced stage at diagnosis, large tumor size, high‐grade and triple‐negative phenotype, with correspondingly poor prognosis. In Sudan, it was reported that about 70% of the women diagnosed with breast cancer were younger than 50 years old. We present here data from local and international publications as well as primary information from the National Cancer Institute in Wad Medani (one of the only two cancer hospitals of the country, both located in Central Sudan in Khartoum and Wad Medani). We provide an up‐to‐date situation analysis of breast cancer in Central Sudan as an example for an African reality and the various open challenges of breast cancer in a limited resource setting. A better understanding of breast cancer in black African women is of global relevance, as there is an alarming increase in breast cancer among young black women worldwide, and these patients have the lowest survival rates.",signatures:"Renato Mariani-Costantini, Moawia Mohammed Ali Elhassan,\nGitana Maria Aceto, Ahmed Abdalla Mohamedani and Khalid\nDafaallah Awadelkarim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53860",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53860",authors:[{id:"34845",title:"Prof.",name:"Renato",surname:"Mariani Costantini",slug:"renato-mariani-costantini",fullName:"Renato Mariani Costantini"},{id:"43821",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",surname:"Awadelkarim",slug:"khalid-awadelkarim",fullName:"Khalid Awadelkarim"},{id:"190476",title:"Dr.",name:"Moawia",surname:"Elhassan",slug:"moawia-elhassan",fullName:"Moawia Elhassan"},{id:"190485",title:"Dr.",name:"Gitana",surname:"Aceto",slug:"gitana-aceto",fullName:"Gitana Aceto"},{id:"194585",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed Abdalla",surname:"Mohamedani",slug:"ahmed-abdalla-mohamedani",fullName:"Ahmed Abdalla Mohamedani"}],corrections:null},{id:"52969",title:"Histopathological Characteristics: Clinical Course of Breast Cancer Subtypes Depending on the ER(+) (−)/PR(+) (−) Receptor Status",doi:"10.5772/66176",slug:"histopathological-characteristics-clinical-course-of-breast-cancer-subtypes-depending-on-the-er-pr-r",totalDownloads:1890,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer patients were divided into separate groups, which were the estrogen receptor (ER)+/progesterone receptor (PR)+ HER2−, the ER or PR+ HER2−, the ER+/PR+ HER2+, the ER or PR+ HER2+, the ER−/PR− HER2−, and the ER−/PR− HER2+ groups. Patients with the ER/PR(+)/HER2− subtype breast cancers show better clinical prognosis compared to the hormone-negative, triple-negative (TN), and HER2+ subtypes. TN, HER2+ tumors in postmenopausal women were of higher grade, showing lymph node and lymphovascular invasion with poor prognosis in all case series. However, the ER+/PR−/HER2+ subgroup had the lowest survival rates in 2- and 5-year follow-ups. Comparison between the ER+PR+HER2+ and ER+PR−HER2− subgroups showed that HER2− status is an indicator of improved prognosis in long-term follow-up. Single hormone receptor (HR)(+) status, particularly HER2(−) cases, was in between the favorable and poor survival subgroups. The ER−, PR−, and HER2+ properties were found to be risk factors for frequent recurrences. In this chapter, breast cancer subtypes are compared with each other. Results from different studies highlight the importance of ER/PR/HER2 receptor variations in the choice of treatment and prognosis of breast cancer.",signatures:"Nilufer Bulut",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52969",authors:[{id:"189255",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nilufer",surname:"Bulut",slug:"nilufer-bulut",fullName:"Nilufer Bulut"}],corrections:null},{id:"54191",title:"Breast Cancer as an Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)-Associated Malignancy",doi:"10.5772/66988",slug:"breast-cancer-as-an-epstein-barr-virus-ebv-associated-malignancy",totalDownloads:1470,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Epstein Barr Virus is among the very first oncogenic viruses to be identified as culprits of human malignancies. Its role as an etiologic agent of breast cancer however remains debated despite mounting molecular evidence. In this chapter we address the challenge of multiple molecular etiologies of breast cancer (BC) with emphasis on the Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) as a potential causative agent within a frame work of gene/environment interaction. We also hope to contribute to a critique of the a concept of universal single agent or gene in cancer etiology. In addition to reviewing further reasons of why EBV should be considered a tumor virus, coupling molecular targets at the initiation stage, we examine evidence for the culpability of EBV as oncogenic virus in relation to the genetic and epigenetic events that leads to carcinogenesis of cancer; and the subsequent downstream interaction including genetic and epigenetic modifiers of signaling and molecular function underlying the cancerous phenotype. The TNF family is taken as an example of how the epigenetic reprogramming process, impacts molecular targets and how these combined interplay of molecular events impinges on pathogenesis and malignancy of breast cancer in humans.",signatures:"Ghimja Fessahaye and Muntaser E. Ibrahim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54191",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54191",authors:[{id:"69817",title:"Prof.",name:"Muntaser",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"muntaser-ibrahim",fullName:"Muntaser Ibrahim"}],corrections:null},{id:"53856",title:"Early-Stage Progression of Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/65633",slug:"early-stage-progression-of-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1684,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer can be defined as a group of diseases with heterogeneous origins, molecular profiles and behaviors characterized by uncontrolled proliferation of cells within the mammary tissue. Around one in eight women in the US will develop breast cancer in their lifetime, making it the second most frequently diagnosed cancer behind skin cancer [1]. In 2015, an estimated 231,840 cases of invasive carcinoma were diagnosed, and over 40,000 deaths were caused by breast cancer which accounts for almost 7% of all cancer mortality each year. In 2015, 60,290 cases of in situ breast cancer were diagnosed, representing over 14% of all new cancer cases among women and men. The steep increase in diagnosis of early‐stage breast cancer over the past 10 years is believed to be a result of more frequent mammography. However, since over half of these in situ lesions will not progress to invasive breast cancer, controversies have arisen about approaches to treatment and prevention of progression of early‐stage in situ breast cancer. Understanding the mechanisms of transition of normal breast to in situ pre‐neoplastic lesions and invasive breast cancer is currently a major focus of breast cancer research with implications for preventive and clinical management of breast cancer. In this review, we give an overview of current knowledge on the molecular and pathological changes that occur during early‐stage progression of breast cancer and describe some of the current models that are used to study this process.",signatures:"William Kietzman, Anna T. Riegel and Virginie Ory",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53856",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53856",authors:[{id:"190578",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",surname:"Riegel",slug:"anna-riegel",fullName:"Anna Riegel"},{id:"190580",title:"Dr.",name:"Virginie",surname:"Ory",slug:"virginie-ory",fullName:"Virginie Ory"},{id:"190583",title:"MSc.",name:"William",surname:"Kietzman",slug:"william-kietzman",fullName:"William Kietzman"}],corrections:null},{id:"54190",title:"GWAS in Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/67223",slug:"gwas-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1985,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer is the most diagnosed cancer in women, and the second cause of cancer-related deaths among women worldwide. It is expected that more than 240,000 new cases and 40,450 deaths related to the disease will occur in 2016. It is well known that inherited genetic variants are drivers for breast cancer development. There are many mechanisms through which germline genetic variation affects prognosis, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, which account for approximately 20% of the increased hereditary risks. Therefore, it is evident that the genetic pathways that underlie cancer development are complex in which networks of multiple alleles confer disease susceptibility and risks. Global analyses through genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have revealed several loci across the genome are associated with the breast cancer. This chapter compiles all breast GWAS released since 2007, year of the first article published in this area, and discuss the future directions of this field. Currently, hundreds of genetic markers are linked to breast cancer, and understanding the underlying mechanisms of these variants might lead to the discover of biomarkers and targets for therapy in patients.",signatures:"Paulo C.M. Lyra‐Junior, Nayara G. Tessarollo, Isabella S. Guimarães,\nTaciane B. Henriques, Diandra Z. dos Santos, Marcele L.M. de Souza,\nVictor Hugo M. Marques, Laura F.R.L. de Oliveira, Krislayne V.\nSiqueira, Ian V. Silva, Leticia B.A. Rangel and Alan T. Branco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54190",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54190",authors:[{id:"60359",title:"Dr.",name:"Letícia",surname:"Rangel",slug:"leticia-rangel",fullName:"Letícia Rangel"}],corrections:null},{id:"54294",title:"Circulating Tumor Cells in Breast Cancer: A Potential Liquid Biopsy",doi:"10.5772/66439",slug:"circulating-tumor-cells-in-breast-cancer-a-potential-liquid-biopsy",totalDownloads:2017,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) have emerged as a new generation of liquid biomarker that allows for noninvasive longitudinal disease monitoring. CTCs represent a rare cell population in the blood, surrounded by billions of hematopoietic cells. Due to the rarity of CTCs in the blood, the isolation of pure CTCs’ populations has proven to be challenging. However, a number of new technologies have emerged using CTCs cytometric/immunological and physical characteristics. Currently, patients with greater than 5 CTCs have a shorter progression-free survival, as compared with those with less than 5 CTCs per 7.5 ml of whole blood. Although the CTC count itself is an independent prognostic marker, the field is shifting toward understanding metastasis-relevant marker expression on CTCs for the improvement of the prognostic significance of CTCs. This chapter first introduces the principles of CTC isolation and detection methods, then the clinical utility of CTCs for prediction of prognosis and therapy response. Lastly, the heterogeneity of CTCs will be discussed.",signatures:"Mohamed Kamal, Wajeeha Razaq, Macall Leslie, Smita Adhikari and\nTakemi Tanaka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54294",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54294",authors:[{id:"188855",title:"Dr.",name:"Takemi",surname:"Tanaka",slug:"takemi-tanaka",fullName:"Takemi Tanaka"},{id:"196565",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Kamal",slug:"mohamed-kamal",fullName:"Mohamed Kamal"},{id:"196566",title:"Dr.",name:"Wajeeha",surname:"Razaq",slug:"wajeeha-razaq",fullName:"Wajeeha Razaq"},{id:"196568",title:"BSc.",name:"Macall",surname:"Leslie",slug:"macall-leslie",fullName:"Macall Leslie"}],corrections:null},{id:"53849",title:"DNA Hypermethylation in Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/66900",slug:"dna-hypermethylation-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1781,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cancer development is a complex process with multiple steps. Many factors, including radiation, chemicals, viruses, genetic and epigenetic changes, lead to abnormal proliferation of a single cell, which results in the outgrowth of a population of clonal-derived tumour cells. It has established that DNA hypermethylation, an epigenetic mechanism that occurred by the addition of a methyl group at 5′ position of the pyrimidine ring of cytosine residues at CpG islands through the action of DNA methyltransferase enzymes, has been considered as the cause of human tumorigenesis, including breast cancer development. Moreover, DNA hypermethylation holds a promising application as a potential biomarker for the early detection, prognosis and prediction of drug sensitivity in cancer. Therefore, this chapter focuses on the description and exemplification of the DNA hypermethylation changes, particularly, highlight the DNA hypermethylation as a potential biomarker applied in predictive, diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic monitoring of breast cancer.",signatures:"Le Huyen Ai Thuy, Lao Duc Thuan and Truong Kim Phuong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53849",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53849",authors:[{id:"188780",title:"Dr.",name:"Huyen Ai Thuy",surname:"Le",slug:"huyen-ai-thuy-le",fullName:"Huyen Ai Thuy Le"},{id:"190443",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Thuan Duc",surname:"Lao",slug:"thuan-duc-lao",fullName:"Thuan Duc Lao"},{id:"201479",title:"MSc.",name:"Phuong",surname:"Kim Truong",slug:"phuong-kim-truong",fullName:"Phuong Kim Truong"}],corrections:null},{id:"53690",title:"ErbB2 Receptor in Breast Cancer: Implications in Cancer Cell Migration, Invasion and Resistance to Targeted Therapy",doi:"10.5772/66902",slug:"erbb2-receptor-in-breast-cancer-implications-in-cancer-cell-migration-invasion-and-resistance-to-tar",totalDownloads:1570,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Overexpression of ErbB2 is found in several types of human carcinomas. In breast tumors, ErbB2 overexpression is detected in up to 20% of patients. Breast cancers in with amplification of ErbB2 are characterized by rapid tumor growth, lower survival rate and increased disease progression. The molecular mechanisms underlying the oncogenic action of ErbB2 involve a complex signaling network that tightly regulates malignant cell migration and invasion and hence metastatic potential. Recent efforts have been made to identify gene expression signatures of ErbB2-positive invasive breast cancers that may represent important mediators of ErbB2-induced tumorigenesis and metastatic progression.\nIn this chapter, we will discuss the canonical ErbB2 signaling pathways responsible for tumor growth and dissemination along with newly identified mediators such as adaptor protein p130Cas and miRNAs. From a therapeutic point of view, the treatment with anti-ErbB2 monoclonal antibody trastuzumab has greatly improved the outcomes of patients with ErbB2 aggressive cancer. Nevertheless, de novo and acquired resistance to trastuzumab therapy still represent a major clinical problem. In the second part of the chapter, we will provide an overview of the mechanisms so far implicated in the onset of resistance to targeted therapy and of the new strategies to overcome resistance.",signatures:"Maria del Pilar Camacho-Leal, Marianna Sciortino and Sara Cabodi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53690",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53690",authors:[{id:"189004",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Del Pilar",surname:"Camacho Leal",slug:"maria-del-pilar-camacho-leal",fullName:"Maria Del Pilar Camacho Leal"}],corrections:null},{id:"52973",title:"Analysis of 10086 Microarray Gene Expression Data Uncovers Genes that Subclassify Breast Cancer Intrinsic Subtypes",doi:"10.5772/66161",slug:"analysis-of-10086-microarray-gene-expression-data-uncovers-genes-that-subclassify-breast-cancer-intr",totalDownloads:1630,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer is a complex disease comprising molecularly distinct subtypes. The prognosis and treatment differ between subtypes; thus, it is important to distinguish one subtype from another. In this chapter, we make use of high-throughput microarray dataset to perform breast cancer subtyping of 10086 samples. Aside from the four major subtypes, that is, Basal-like, HER2-enriched, luminal A, and luminal B, we defined a normal-like subtype that has a gene expression profile similar to that found in normal and adjacent normal breast samples. Also, a group of luminal B-like samples with better prognosis was distinguished from the high-risk luminal B breast cancer. We additionally identified 33 surface-protein encoding genes whose gene expression profiles were associated with survival outcomes. We believe these genes are potential therapeutic targets and diagnostic biomarkers for breast cancer.",signatures:"I-Hsuan Lin and Ming-Ta Hsu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52973",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52973",authors:[{id:"49774",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming-Ta",surname:"Hsu",slug:"ming-ta-hsu",fullName:"Ming-Ta Hsu"},{id:"172713",title:"Dr.",name:"I-Hsuan",surname:"Lin",slug:"i-hsuan-lin",fullName:"I-Hsuan Lin"}],corrections:null},{id:"52901",title:"Jab1/Csn5 Signaling in Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/66174",slug:"jab1-csn5-signaling-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1304,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"c-Jun activation domain-binding protein1 (Jab1), also known as a monomer or the fifth component of the constitutive photomorphogenesis 9 signalosome (Csn5) complex, regulates cell proliferation, cell-cycle progression, and apoptosis and affects a series of pathways. Jab1/Csn5 also promotes cell transformation and tumorigenesis, and its overexpression in many tumor types suggests it is involved in cancer progression and closely associated with poor cancer prognosis. Jab1/Csn5 dysregulation contributes to oncogenesis by deactivating several tumor suppressors. Increasing evidence of the role of Jab1/Csn5 overexpression in breast and other cancers has spurred interest in Jab1/Csn5 inhibitors for cancer therapy. In this chapter, we summarize the evidence demonstrating the importance of Jab1/Csn5 expression in breast and other cancers and review recent advances in dissecting the Jab1/Csn5 signaling pathway along with its potential as a therapeutic target for cancer.",signatures:"Yunbao Pan and Francois X. Claret",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52901",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52901",authors:[{id:"108913",title:"Dr.",name:"Francois",surname:"Claret",slug:"francois-claret",fullName:"Francois Claret"},{id:"190726",title:"Dr.",name:"Yunbao",surname:"Pan",slug:"yunbao-pan",fullName:"Yunbao Pan"}],corrections:null},{id:"52920",title:"Splicing Factors in Breast Cancer: Drivers of the Breast Tumor Fate",doi:"10.5772/66162",slug:"splicing-factors-in-breast-cancer-drivers-of-the-breast-tumor-fate",totalDownloads:1571,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Splicing is a critical step in gene expression, responsible for the excision of introns, producing the mature form of mRNA. Also, the possible arrangements of exons enlarge the proteome in 80%, enabling one gene to encode more than one protein isoform, thus increasing proteome. Growing data show deregulation of splicing events in cancer, being breast cancer the most studied. This aberrant pattern of splicing has an important role in breast tumor progression. These alterations are mainly caused by misexpression of some critical alternative splicing factors. The behavior of these splicing factors is implicated with important clinical features, such as chemoresistance, aggressiveness, and also metastases. In this chapter, the role of five splicing factors is discussed in the light of relevant data about in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo studies to construct a representative scheme of their behavior in breast cancer progression. Although the presented five splicing factors have important role in breast cancer, only three of them (ESRP1, RBFOX2, and SRSF1) have a more prominent role in tumorigenesis and tumor progression. These concepts will elucidate their role in tumorigenesis and a prospective use as biomarkers in breast cancer.",signatures:"Felipe A. C. da Luz, Paula C. Brígido, Alberto S. Moraes, Rogério A.\nAraújo and Marcelo J. B. Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52920",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52920",authors:[{id:"190065",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Silva",slug:"marcelo-silva",fullName:"Marcelo Silva"},{id:"190214",title:"MSc.",name:"Felipe",surname:"Da Luz",slug:"felipe-da-luz",fullName:"Felipe Da Luz"},{id:"190215",title:"Prof.",name:"Rogério",surname:"De Araújo",slug:"rogerio-de-araujo",fullName:"Rogério De Araújo"},{id:"190216",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Moraes",slug:"alberto-moraes",fullName:"Alberto Moraes"}],corrections:null},{id:"53577",title:"The Role of Stem Cells in Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/66904",slug:"the-role-of-stem-cells-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1803,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A significant progress has been made in describing cellular hierarchy and the stem cell niche in the human mammary gland. Mammary stem and progenitor cells exist in two different states: epithelial-like and mesenchymal-like. Several features of the mammary stem cells predispose them to play a critical role in breast cancer initiation, progression and metastasis. Signaling pathways contributing to the self-renewal, such as Wnt, Notch, Hh and BMP, have been shown to be linked with breast cancer stem cells. Furthermore, biomarkers connected with stemness, such as CD44, CD24, EpCAM and ALDH1, have been identified and used to characterize these cells. Additionally, many different miRNA families and microenvironmental factors were shown to regulate a lot of cancer stem cells properties and maintain their stemness. All these findings have started a new era of breast cancer research. In present breast cancer, stem cells have become the targets of breast cancer therapy, although the tests are mainly on the basic stage level. Since the cancer stem cells are able to escape chemotherapy and are resistant to drugs, radiotherapy and apoptotic processes, the therapeutic targeting is mostly concentrated on the disruption of survival signaling pathways and the use of modern technology, like nanotechnology.",signatures:"Joanna Magdalena Zarzynska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53577",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53577",authors:[{id:"175016",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",surname:"Zarzynska",slug:"joanna-zarzynska",fullName:"Joanna Zarzynska"}],corrections:null},{id:"54049",title:"Ion Channels in Breast Cancer: From Signaling to Therapy",doi:"10.5772/66172",slug:"ion-channels-in-breast-cancer-from-signaling-to-therapy",totalDownloads:2032,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Breast cancer consists of an assortment of illness and therapeutic failure is mostly due to the complex and heterogeneous phenotype of the disease. Recently, changes in expression of several ion channels have been associated with malignancy including breast cancers. This suggests that breast cancer cells might gain a selective advantage by controlling ion channel expression/activity and that ion channels can contribute to the hallmarks of cancer. Due to the growing body of research demonstrating that ion channels are key factors in breast cancer biology. In this chapter, we discuss the role of specific ion channels in contributing to hallmarks of breast and whether these ion channels can be used as potential pharmacologic targets for breast cancer.",signatures:"Dowd Jonathan, Hendin Josh, Daniela F. Fukushiro-Lopes, David\nLaczynski and Saverio Gentile",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54049",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54049",authors:[{id:"185692",title:"Prof.",name:"Saverio",surname:"Gentile",slug:"saverio-gentile",fullName:"Saverio Gentile"}],corrections:null},{id:"53531",title:"Modern Radiotherapy Era in Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/66906",slug:"modern-radiotherapy-era-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1838,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Radiation therapy (RT) is one of the major treatment modalities that are used in breast cancer treatment, and depending on the chest-wall anatomy, RT fields have to be customized. Techniques used in planning have been evolving since last two decades from two dimensional (2D) to three-dimensional (3D), while intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT), volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) and even proton therapy have been an option in daily approach. In addition, technological hardware and software advances in delivery and planning systems, total treatment duration of breast RT have been shortened in last decades along with recent hypofractionated radiotherapy schemes or emerging partial-breast irradiation protocols. The other attractive approach—accelerated partial breast irradiation (APBI) could be a reasonable option for highly selected subpopulation of early-stage breast cancer patients out of a clinical trial. Long-term follow-up results have emerged heart and coronary sparing with maximum safety and efficacy. The most important advance could be named as cardiac sparing—deep breath-hold approach—in all the modern technique improvement. Although most advanced techniques in management of breast cancer have not been verified to increase survival, we suggest recommending resource stratified advanced in order to provide best technical and clinical care in this long-term survivor candidates.",signatures:"Yasemin Bolukbasi and Ugur Selek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53531",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53531",authors:[{id:"189528",title:"Dr.",name:"Ugur",surname:"Selek",slug:"ugur-selek",fullName:"Ugur Selek"},{id:"190551",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",surname:"Bolukbasi",slug:"yasemin-bolukbasi",fullName:"Yasemin Bolukbasi"}],corrections:null},{id:"53892",title:"Breast Cancer and Flavonoids as Treatment Strategy",doi:"10.5772/66169",slug:"breast-cancer-and-flavonoids-as-treatment-strategy",totalDownloads:2038,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer type among women. Despite recent progress in early detection and therapeutic strategies, the rate of mortality is increasing. Anti-estrogens or aromatase inhibitors are preferred to treat the women diagnosed with estrogen-receptor (ER) positive tumors. However, breast tumors usually show intra-tumoral heterogeneity with ER-positive and -negative cells. The advanced breast cancer cells lose the estrogen responsiveness and become aggressive by developing new strategies for rapid proliferation such as mutations in cell cycle machinery. New promising drugs are still being investigating against these types of tumors especially to overcome acquired resistance against chemotherapeutic drugs; however, a successful treatment for metastatic tumors is still unclear. Flavonoids, with various pharmacological activities, are plant or fungus secondary metabolites present in human diet. In plants, beside their role in pigmentation, they may also act as messengers, regulators and cell cycle inhibitors. Therefore, they are being tested in ovarian, cervical as well as breast cancer. Due to the positive correlation between flavonoids-rich diet and lower risk of cancer, flavonoids are referred as chemopreventive agents. The current chapter emphasizes the therapeutic potential of flavonoids and their synthetic analogues as anti-cancer agents in breast cancer providing new insights into the molecular mechanisms.",signatures:"Pinar Obakan-Yerlikaya, Elif Damla Arisan, Ajda Coker-Gurkan and\nNarcin Palavan-Unsal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53892",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53892",authors:[{id:"183217",title:"Dr.",name:"Damla",surname:"Arisan",slug:"damla-arisan",fullName:"Damla Arisan"},{id:"183665",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajda",surname:"Coker-Gurkan",slug:"ajda-coker-gurkan",fullName:"Ajda Coker-Gurkan"},{id:"183666",title:"Prof.",name:"Pinar",surname:"Obakan-Yerlikaya",slug:"pinar-obakan-yerlikaya",fullName:"Pinar Obakan-Yerlikaya"},{id:"183669",title:"Prof.",name:"Narcin",surname:"Palavan-Unsal",slug:"narcin-palavan-unsal",fullName:"Narcin Palavan-Unsal"}],corrections:null},{id:"52931",title:"Translational Challenges and Therapeutic Opportunities in BRCA1-Related Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/66168",slug:"translational-challenges-and-therapeutic-opportunities-in-brca1-related-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although significant progress has been made in the management of the hereditary cancer syndrome related to mutations of BRCA1, two fundamental and clinically relevant questions regarding BRCA1-related cancer syndrome remain unresolved: (1) What factors account for the tissue specificity of the BRCA1-related cancer risk? (2) How does a mutation or loss of BRCA1 lead to the basal-like phenotype of breast cancer? This review focuses on recent studies in BRCA1-related pathways that lead to specific characteristics of the hereditary cancer syndrome and discusses the current translational evidence for exploiting these pathways in new therapeutic strategies. Mounting evidence suggests that estrogen signaling and metabolism, oxidative stress, specific secondary mutations, and regulation of specific progenitor cells and transcriptional programs are critical in BRCA1-associated breast cancer. Strategies geared toward estrogen reduction may play a role in treatment and prevention. Therapies aimed at mitigating oxidative stress may be a strategy for risk reduction, while cancer-cell-specific sensitivity to oxidative stress may also be an opportunity for specific targeting. BRCA1-related transcriptional regulation and signaling provide a number of therapeutic targets, including the PI3-AKT and Notch pathways. Thus, significant opportunities exist in translational and clinical research for developing the treatment strategies for the management of BRCA1-related breast cancer.",signatures:"Jeffrey Johnson, William Audeh, Hisashi Tanaka, Farin Amersi,\nArmando E. Giuliano and Xiaojiang Cui",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52931",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52931",authors:[{id:"188836",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaojiang",surname:"Cui",slug:"xiaojiang-cui",fullName:"Xiaojiang Cui"},{id:"194416",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffrey",surname:"Johnson",slug:"jeffrey-johnson",fullName:"Jeffrey Johnson"},{id:"194417",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"Audeh",slug:"william-audeh",fullName:"William Audeh"},{id:"194418",title:"Dr.",name:"Hisashi",surname:"Tanaka",slug:"hisashi-tanaka",fullName:"Hisashi Tanaka"},{id:"194419",title:"Dr.",name:"Farin",surname:"Amersi",slug:"farin-amersi",fullName:"Farin Amersi"},{id:"194420",title:"Dr.",name:"Armando",surname:"Giuliano",slug:"armando-giuliano",fullName:"Armando Giuliano"}],corrections:null},{id:"53631",title:"Molecular Fingerprints and Biomarkers of Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/66899",slug:"molecular-fingerprints-and-biomarkers-of-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1673,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Substantial progress has been made over the past three decades in understanding breast cancer (BC) molecular biology, genomics, and targeted therapy. The recent comprehensive molecular and pathological diversity observed in BC patients indicates that BC is not a homogeneous disease; It may be appropriately defined as a myriad of diseases. The explosion of molecular information in the past 10 years has led to a better understanding of the biologic diversity of breast cancers (BCs), and clues to the different etiologic pathways to BC development. It will be useful to study the epigenetics of BC cells and define the mechanisms of both genetic and epigenetic driving alterations beside the mutations. Identifying the oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes is the purpose cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. Oncogenes as well as novel ones involved in the significantly altered regions would enable researchers to identify new causes and molecular pathways that may be targeted at BC treatment. Our main goal is to provide comprehensive understanding of underlying molecular mechanisms and hallmarks of BC, focusing on the identification of fingerprints and novel molecular targets that will greatly improve the cancer predictive, prognostic, and diagnostic biomarkers and, in addition, the possible targets for novel therapies.",signatures:"Hala Fawzy Mohamed Kamel, Hiba Saeed Bagader Al-Amodi and\nHanan Mohamed AbdElmoneim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53631",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53631",authors:[{id:"179315",title:"Dr.",name:"Hala",surname:"Fawzy Mohamed Kamel",slug:"hala-fawzy-mohamed-kamel",fullName:"Hala Fawzy Mohamed Kamel"},{id:"184928",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiba",surname:"Al-Amodi",slug:"hiba-al-amodi",fullName:"Hiba Al-Amodi"},{id:"190459",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanan",surname:"Mohamed AbdElmoneim",slug:"hanan-mohamed-abdelmoneim",fullName:"Hanan Mohamed AbdElmoneim"}],corrections:null},{id:"53942",title:"Cardiac Toxicity of HER2-Directed Therapy in Women with Breast Cancer: Epidemiology, Etiology, Risk Factors, and Management",doi:"10.5772/66437",slug:"cardiac-toxicity-of-her2-directed-therapy-in-women-with-breast-cancer-epidemiology-etiology-risk-fac",totalDownloads:1544,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The HER2-targeted therapy have profoundly changed the outcomes of women with HER2-positive breast cancers. Trastuzumab and pertuzumab, HER2-targeting monoclonal antibodies, lapatinib and Neratinib, small molecule inhibitors of HER2 and the epidermal growth factor receptor, and ado-trastuzumab emtansine, a HER2-positive directed antibody drug conjugate, are approved for the treatment of HER2-positive breast cancer.",signatures:"Shahid Ahmed, Arooba Talat, Nayyer Iqbal, Mohamed Emara, Duc\nLe, Amir Sami and Jim Xiang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53942",authors:[{id:"178507",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahid",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"shahid-ahmed",fullName:"Shahid Ahmed"}],corrections:null},{id:"53499",title:"Aspects of Immediate and Delayed Alloplastic Breast Reconstruction After Mastectomy",doi:"10.5772/66876",slug:"aspects-of-immediate-and-delayed-alloplastic-breast-reconstruction-after-mastectomy",totalDownloads:1392,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Seventy percent of patients with early breast cancer can be treated by breast-conserving surgery, while the remaining 30% are forced to receive mastectomy. Nearly 30% of these patients choose breast reconstruction. In the last decade, new alternative techniques and improved surgical devices have significantly improved techniques for breast reconstruction that especially include immediate or delayed breast reconstruction with silicone implants as an excellent option. In general, implant reconstruction may be single- or two-stage procedures. Single-stage reconstruction is the preferred technique for patients with small breasts and minimal ptosis, while large breasts with ptosis require reduction mastopexy either combined with dermoglandular flap or with titane net for covering the caudal pole of the implant. Thus, excellent cosmetic results can be achieved. Recent studies showed a significant survival benefit for postmastectomy irradiation in nodal-positive patients, so that many candidates for breast reconstruction are irradiated with a higher probability of wound-healing complications after breast reconstruction and increased rates of other complications like capsular fibrosis.",signatures:"Michael Friedrich and Stefan Kraemer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53499",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53499",authors:[{id:"189408",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Friedrich",slug:"michael-friedrich",fullName:"Michael Friedrich"},{id:"189826",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Krämer",slug:"stefan-kramer",fullName:"Stefan Krämer"}],corrections:null},{id:"52933",title:"Internal Mammary Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy",doi:"10.5772/66158",slug:"internal-mammary-sentinel-lymph-node-biopsy",totalDownloads:1377,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The conception of internal mammary sentinel lymph node biopsy (IM‐SLNB) has been added to the 2009 American Joint Committee on Cancer breast cancer staging manual. However, there has still been slight variation in the surgical treatment model owing to the low visualization rate of internal mammary sentinel lymph nodes (IM‐SLN) with the traditional radiotracer injection technique. According to the hypothesis of IM‐SLN, a modified injection technique (periareolar intraparenchymal, high volume, and ultrasound guidance) was established, which could significantly improve the IM‐SLN visualization rate, and make the IM‐SLNB procedure possible in routine practice. IM‐SLNB could provide minimally invasive staging, prognosis, and decision‐making individually, especially for the patients with clinically positive axilla lymph nodes. Moreover, radiotherapy targeting on internal mammary lymph nodes (IMLN) should be tailored and balanced between the potential benefit and toxicity, and radiotherapy guided by IM‐SLNB could achieve this goal. In the era of emphasizing the effective adjuvant therapy, within the changing therapy approach—more systemic treatment, less loco‐regional treatment—oncologist should reconsider the application of regional IMLN therapy.",signatures:"Yong‐Sheng Wang, Peng‐Fei Qiu and Bin‐Bin Cong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52933",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52933",authors:[{id:"189822",title:"Prof.",name:"Yong-Sheng",surname:"Wang",slug:"yong-sheng-wang",fullName:"Yong-Sheng Wang"},{id:"190524",title:"Dr.",name:"Peng-Fei",surname:"Qiu",slug:"peng-fei-qiu",fullName:"Peng-Fei Qiu"},{id:"190526",title:"Dr.",name:"Bin-Bin",surname:"Cong",slug:"bin-bin-cong",fullName:"Bin-Bin Cong"}],corrections:null},{id:"53532",title:"Nanobiotechnology for Breast Cancer Treatment",doi:"10.5772/66989",slug:"nanobiotechnology-for-breast-cancer-treatment",totalDownloads:2786,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite many technological breakthroughs, even the best breast cancer treatments available today are not 100% effective. Chemotherapy has improved, but many drugs still do not reach the tumor site at effective doses and are often associated with high systemic toxicity and poor pharmacokinetics. Moreover, for many malignancies, diagnosis is obtainable only in metastatic stages of development, reducing the overall effectiveness of treatment. The choice of available treatments depends on tumor characteristics such as biomarkers, tumor size, metastatic disease, ligands, and antigen or endocrine receptor expression. Combined with surgical resection, chemotherapy and radiation remain the first line of treatment for patients with cancer. Even with these treatments, however, cancer continues to have high fatality rates and current therapeutic modalities have yet to significantly improve the often dismal prognosis of this disease. Nanotechnology is a highly focused approach, which may provide more effective and less toxic treatment when compared to chemotherapy. This area of research has emerged as cancer treatment in the form of new drugs and has reached promising results in preclinical and clinical trials proving its value as a potential tumor therapy.",signatures:"Márcia Rocha, Natalia Chaves and Sônia Báo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53532",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53532",authors:[{id:"147895",title:"Dr.",name:"Sônia Nair",surname:"Báo",slug:"sonia-nair-bao",fullName:"Sônia Nair Báo"},{id:"190527",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Chaves",slug:"natalia-chaves",fullName:"Natalia Chaves"},{id:"190529",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcia",surname:"Oliveira Da Rocha",slug:"marcia-oliveira-da-rocha",fullName:"Marcia Oliveira Da Rocha"}],corrections:null},{id:"53910",title:"Immunotherapeutic and Preventive Role of Purified Extract Rich in Beta-Glucans Derived from D-Fraction of Grifola frondosa Mushroom in Experimental Mice Biomodel of Mammary Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/66890",slug:"immunotherapeutic-and-preventive-role-of-purified-extract-rich-in-beta-glucans-derived-from-d-fracti",totalDownloads:1378,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The overall vision of the modern science needs to change to a revalorization of the natural compounds and their beneficial effects on human diseases, such as cancer. Medicinal mushrooms have been used since thousands of years due to its healing properties. Maitake (Grifola frondosa) is presented as one of the most interesting medicinal mushrooms that have been studied. Until now, Maitake D-Fraction may have anticarcinogenic activity, preventing oncogenesis and metastasis in certain tumor types. However, the exact molecular mechanism by which D-Fraction acts are yet unknown. The results shown in this chapter suggest that Maitake D-Fraction Pro4X, administered intraperitoneally, prevents significantly the development of mammary tumorigenesis, increases survival, and reduces the process of angiogenesis in BALBc mice. Although yet to determine the active component of the extract and the molecular mechanism by which it operates in the breast carcinogenesis process. The socioeconomic impact of this research project could be important, considering that in Argentina similar studies using natural compounds derived from medicinal mushrooms for cancer therapy have not yet been performed. The beneficial effects of Maitake, if proven, could be useful for the treatment of cancer patients who are undergoing chemotherapy or radiation or for breast cancer prevention in high-risk population.",signatures:"Aguilera Braico, Diego Máximo and Gabriela Andrea Balogh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53910",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53910",authors:[{id:"190412",title:"MSc.",name:"Diego",surname:"Aguilera Braico",slug:"diego-aguilera-braico",fullName:"Diego Aguilera Braico"},{id:"190413",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Balogh",slug:"gabriela-balogh",fullName:"Gabriela Balogh"}],corrections:null},{id:"53993",title:"Breast Cancer: From Transcriptional Control to Clinical Outcome",doi:"10.5772/66888",slug:"breast-cancer-from-transcriptional-control-to-clinical-outcome",totalDownloads:1595,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women worldwide. The risk of breast cancer in women increases with age, and this is partly attributable to the accumulation of genetic lesions. Growing evidence demonstrates the role played by epigenetic modifiers and the tumor microenvironment in contributing to the increased risk of breast cancer. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the epigenetic regulatory signatures that impact the well-studied signaling pathways in breast tissues. Additionally, we will also delve into the therapeutic and diagnostic potential of noncoding RNAs in breast cancer.",signatures:"Sudhakar Jha, Deepa Rajagopalan, Shainan Hora and Shweta\nPradip Jadhav",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53993",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53993",authors:[{id:"190426",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",surname:"Jha",slug:"sudhakar-jha",fullName:"Sudhakar Jha"}],corrections:null},{id:"54012",title:"Immune Regulation in Breast Cancer Metastasis and Immunotherapy",doi:"10.5772/66991",slug:"immune-regulation-in-breast-cancer-metastasis-and-immunotherapy",totalDownloads:1424,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are significant alterations in the tumor surrounding stromal cells in addition to the cancer cells in tumor microenvironment. Tumor cells can metastasize by acquiring the ability to escape immune control and surveillance. A decline in the ability of the immune cells to recognize and kill the tumor leads to tumor relapse or metastasis after primary treatment. Comprehensive review in this chapter will be conducted to further investigate into the mechanism of immune evasion in metastatic tumor microenvironment. The immune cells, stromal cells, extracellular matrix protein/component, and their interaction will be reviewed and summarized. Breast cancer has not been previously viewed as a particularly immunogenic type of tumor. Nevertheless, immune parameters have been increasingly studied in breast cancer, and accumulating data show that they are relevant for the development and progression of this tumor type. Consequently, immunotherapies of breast cancer are now tested in different clinical trials. The prospect of immunotherapy in metastatic breast cancer will be introduced. The importance of host‐targeted modulation/therapy will be increased in addition to cancer‐targeted strategies. We have to better define subpopulations of breast cancer patients to optimize the immunological way to overcome the cancer metastasis.",signatures:"Ming-Shen Dai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54012",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54012",authors:[{id:"190480",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Shen",surname:"Dai",slug:"ming-shen-dai",fullName:"Ming-Shen Dai"}],corrections:null},{id:"53440",title:"Felt Needs for Rehabilitation After Breast Cancer Treatment in Mexico",doi:"10.5772/66436",slug:"felt-needs-for-rehabilitation-after-breast-cancer-treatment-in-mexico",totalDownloads:1418,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequent type of malignancy among women worldwide and the most common cause of mortality, particularly in low and middle‐income countries. As detection and treatment have improved, a larger number of surviving women need adequate rehabilitation after treatment. However, awareness among affected patients remains low. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore the needs and expectations concerning rehabilitation among Mexican women after breast surgery. An ethnographic approach was used. Eight focus groups were conducted in the north‐central state of San Luis Potosí, Mexico, in 2014, in which women under treatment and survivors participated. Results showed that women had insufficient and misleading information concerning the need for rehabilitation from health care authorities. Women seemed to focus more on survival than on quality of life after treatment even though impairments limiting their daily life activities caused frustration and feelings of uselessness. In conclusion, many women perceived the need for rehabilitation, but information was largely lacking. Public health services fail to provide rehabilitation services, which are now partially covered by private organizations. Treatment for breast cancer should be accompanied by rehabilitation. Awareness, availability and access to physiotherapy services need to be put in place.",signatures:"Viveka Hammelin, Luz María Tejada‐Tayabas, Dulce María Galarza‐\nTejada and Joel Monárrez‐Espino",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53440",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53440",authors:[{id:"190554",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Joel",surname:"Monárrez-Espino",slug:"joel-monarrez-espino",fullName:"Joel Monárrez-Espino"}],corrections:null},{id:"53341",title:"Naringenin Inhibits Proliferation and Survival of Tamoxifen‐ Resistant Breast Cancer Cells",doi:"10.5772/66698",slug:"naringenin-inhibits-proliferation-and-survival-of-tamoxifen-resistant-breast-cancer-cells",totalDownloads:1512,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The majority of breast cancers are estrogen receptor positive (ER+) and utilize estrogen to promote cell proliferation. Thus, the ER has been the target of many therapies. While this strategy has been successful, the long‐term use of antiestrogen therapies, such as tamoxifen (Tam), frequently results in Tam resistance (Tam‐R). Tam‐R cells may proliferate due to the activation of the phosphatidylinositol‐3 kinase (PI3K) and the mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways. Targeting these proliferation and survival pathways after the development of resistance is critical for the treatment of drug‐resistant cancers. We have identified the flavanone Naringenin (Nar) as an inhibitor of both the PI3K and MAPK pathways. Here, we show that Nar impairs cell proliferation and induces apoptosis of Tam‐R MCF‐7 breast cancer cells. We also demonstrate that Nar treatment reduced the levels of both ERK and AKT in Tam‐R cells. Furthermore, Nar treatment localized ERα to a perinuclear region in Tam‐R cells. Nar may function by inhibiting both the PI3K and MAPK pathways as well as localizing ERα to the cytoplasm to impair cell proliferation of Tam‐R MCF‐7 cells. These studies provide insight into the molecular mechanisms involved in cell proliferation of Tam‐R breast cancer cells.",signatures:"Joseph Ramos, Talia Hatkevich, Lauren Eanes, Idalys Santos‐Sanchez\nand Yashomati M. Patel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53341",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53341",authors:[{id:"192549",title:"Dr.",name:"Yashomati",surname:"Patel",slug:"yashomati-patel",fullName:"Yashomati Patel"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5770",title:"Mesenchymal Stem Cells",subtitle:"Isolation, Characterization and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d2f6e69167ad835f02cf8848065c202",slug:"mesenchymal-stem-cells-isolation-characterization-and-applications",bookSignature:"Phuc Van Pham",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5770.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"28799",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Phuc Van",surname:"Pham",slug:"phuc-van-pham",fullName:"Phuc Van Pham"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"329",title:"Breast Cancer",subtitle:"Carcinogenesis, Cell Growth and Signalling Pathways",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf7902b7672e9142e56de2289bcaa5a",slug:"breast-cancer-carcinogenesis-cell-growth-and-signalling-pathways",bookSignature:"Mehmet Gunduz and Esra Gunduz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/329.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"46056",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehmet",surname:"Gunduz",slug:"mehmet-gunduz",fullName:"Mehmet Gunduz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1278",title:"Breast Cancer",subtitle:"Focusing Tumor Microenvironment, Stem cells and Metastasis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd2df7c338f309db645c7c183571f6a8",slug:"breast-cancer-focusing-tumor-microenvironment-stem-cells-and-metastasis",bookSignature:"Mehmet Gunduz and Esra Gunduz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1278.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"46056",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehmet",surname:"Gunduz",slug:"mehmet-gunduz",fullName:"Mehmet Gunduz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1277",title:"Breast Cancer",subtitle:"Current and Alternative Therapeutic Modalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9c0bc3b171254b2a3f7d52bee5c559aa",slug:"breast-cancer-current-and-alternative-therapeutic-modalities",bookSignature:"Esra Gunduz and Mehmet Gunduz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1277.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61074",title:"Dr.",name:"Esra",surname:"Gunduz",slug:"esra-gunduz",fullName:"Esra Gunduz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2883",title:"Oncogene and Cancer",subtitle:"From Bench to Clinic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba08b50f799acf44d8d2f0f0c6c2e768",slug:"oncogene-and-cancer-from-bench-to-clinic",bookSignature:"Yahwardiah Siregar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2883.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"137622",title:"Dr.",name:"Yahwardiah",surname:"Siregar",slug:"yahwardiah-siregar",fullName:"Yahwardiah Siregar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1276",title:"Targeting New Pathways and Cell Death in Breast Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1541edf35e439e637938657d6ac482b",slug:"targeting-new-pathways-and-cell-death-in-breast-cancer",bookSignature:"Rebecca L. 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Henneman",slug:"john-r.-henneman",email:"jrh78@bri.ksu.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"Kansas State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"78994",slug:"dry-hydrogen-peroxide-for-viral-inactivation",signatures:"Chris Lee and John R. Henneman",dateSubmitted:"August 18th 2021",dateReviewed:"September 14th 2021",datePrePublished:"October 21st 2021",datePublished:"May 18th 2022",book:{id:"11006",title:"Disinfection of Viruses",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Disinfection of Viruses",slug:"disinfection-of-viruses",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",bookSignature:"Raymond W. Nims and M. Khalid Ijaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11006.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104702",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond W.",middleName:null,surname:"Nims",slug:"raymond-w.-nims",fullName:"Raymond W. 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The reproducibility and cost of the lifestyle interventions (e.g., exercise, sleep, nutritious diet, national child care, pollution limitations) on QALYs will also be documented. The ratio of (QALY/Cost) weighted by reproducibility and transferability should give a rank-ordered list of actions humans can take to increase the quality years of human consciousness. Differences in the optimized list of rank-ordered interventions to maximize the quality of life between nation-states with varying GDP and government types (i.e., the lack of transferability) will be discussed. These local maximums for QALY optimization will be discussed in light of possible avenues that allow countries to overcome national hurdles that allow them to reach greater QALY global maximums.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book welcomes topics related to the quality of life measurements (QALYs) both within a community and between disparate societies, as well as the transferability/durability of these QALY gains.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-609-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-608-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-610-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5a6bcdaf5ee144d043bcdab893ff9e1c",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sage Arbor",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11474.jpg",keywords:"Health, Lifespan, Obesity, Pollution, Culture, Government, Demographics, Race, GDP, Age, Rate of Change, Automation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 7th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 24th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 23rd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A computational biologist that has worked across a broad biomedical spectrum to optimize human health, Dr. Arbor combines research from academia (Duke, Washington University) and companies (Pfizer, Dupont) to deliver datasets to the wider scientific community. His recent focus includes quality of life modifiers and bioethical versus religious standards.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"245319",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sage",middleName:null,surname:"Arbor",slug:"sage-arbor",fullName:"Sage Arbor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245319/images/system/245319.png",biography:"Sage Arbor is a computational biologist whose research includes fields ranging from drug design, systems biology, and epigenetic database creation to fitness app development. His work spans a broad biomedical spectrum from drug design to clinical trial analysis, including being a medical school professor and researcher, project management of developers/analysts of globally distributed labs, electronic medical record data mining (SQL and NoSQL), Python/pandas coding, data segmentation, 6σ improvement, pathway mapping, and computational drug design and synthesis. Having worked at multiple academic institutions (Duke, Marian University) and companies (e.g., Pfizer and Dupont), his research has been on both proprietary and open-access datasets for publication to the wider scientific community. 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\n\t\t\tThe
Knowledge and development of the characteristics of Italian monovarietal extra virgin olive oils will also lead to an improvement in knowledge of the areas where these oils are produced, in turn developing tourism, a crucial sector for the Italian economy.
\n\t\t\tIn Italy, new regulation was recently introduced forcing virgin and extra virgin olive oil producers to indicate the location of both olive harvest and oil production. More recently the European Commission has established compulsory standards for the labelling of origin for extra virgin and virgin olive oils (Reg EC n.182/2009). The significant increase in demand for extra virgin olive oils is due not only to the health benefits it offers, but also to its organoleptic properties; the large number of Italian olive cultivars allows for the production of different monovarietal oils marked out by a wide range of pleasant flavours.
\n\t\t\tAs the genotype of origin affects the chemical and sensory characteristics of extra virgin olive oil deeply, the preservation and characterization of authocthonous cultivars and clones play a key role in the marketing of high quality olive oils.
\n\t\t\tConservation of genetic resources for olives has important implications for both adaptation of the cultivars to their local environment and their agronomical performance under specific conditions. This also implies that every initiative to promote olive cultivation ought to take into consideration the local varieties and also that every region should preserve its own plant material to safeguard olive adaptation and productivity and to maintain the intrinsic characteristics of its olive oil which represent a deep connection with the territory of origin.
\n\t\t\tIn the EU olive oils can be linked to the cultivar of origin and in turn to its area of production under the rules of the Protected Denominations of Origin (PDO) or of the European Protected Geographical Indication (PGI).
\n\t\t\tSeveral typical Italian extra virgin olive oils have qualified for PDO and PGI status, as many as 42 PDO and 1 PGI. Generally, these products are blends of different varieties according to the different cultivar percentage reported in the Product specification; some Italian PDO oils are obtained from the transformation of a single cultivar (monovarietal oils) for example the PDO Nostrana di Brisighella.
\n\t\t\tItalian olive cultivation is marked out by its extremely rich and varied varietal heritage. An important objective being pursued by every region is the protection and preservation of autochthonous Italian olive cultivars. This can be seen in the spread of regional varietal catalogs and also in the ongoing rise in the number of monovarietal olive oils taking part in the Italian National Review of Monovarietal olive oils as organized by ASSAM Marche [2].
\n\t\t\tIn Italy this review serves to characterize monovarietal oils in terms of both chemical and sensory profiles. The organization of events, courses and forums involving olive farmers, crushers, consumers and catering operators has contributed to an improvement in the visibility of the market for Italian monovarietal olive oils. Studies into the quality of monovarietal oils increase the value of the product while showcasing the region of origin and educating the consumer about their nutritional and organoleptic value.
\n\t\t\tIn Italy the market for monovarietal and organic oils is growing due to consumers paying greater attention to both flavour and health benefits of the product.
\n\t\tASSAM and IBIMET-CNR have created and are managing a database of chemical and sensory profiles of extra virgin oils participating in the Italian National Review of Monovarietal olive oils. This dynamic database includes a large number of observations for each monovarietal oil, and can allow for ongoing updates every year, thus providing more accurate chemical and sensory average data for the oils. For each monocultivar oil, chemical and sensory profiles were calculated and described, including a large number of oil samples from different regions.
\n\t\t\tThe Review reached its ninth edition as of 2004, and the large number of oil samples has led to improvements in results, in turn diminishing the effect of the main variables which have a significant influence on the quality of the oil: seasonality, ripening and different milling technologies.
\n\t\t\tSensory analysis was laid out by the “ASSAM – Marche Panel” as recognized by the IOOC (International Olive Oil Council) and the Italian Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Forestry Policy under the conditions described in EC Reg. 640/2008.
\n\t\t\tThe 150 samples collected during the first and the second year (edition 2004-2005) were used to identify the specific descriptors for the sensory analyses of monovarietal extra virgin olive oil and to set up the relative profile sheet [3].
\n\t\t\tEach panellist smelled and tasted the oil, in order to analyse olfactory, gustatory, tactile and kinaesthetic characteristics. Thirteen attributes were evaluated: 9 during the olfactory phase (olive fruity, olive fresh leaf, grass, fresh almond, artichoke, tomato, apple, berries and aromatic herbs) and 4 during the gustatory phase (olive fruity, bitter, pungent and fluidity). Attributes were assessed on an oriented 10-cm line scale and quantified measuring the location of the mark from the origin. Data obtained for the 13 descriptors were used to define the sensory profile of each sample using the median values [4].
\n\t\t\tFatty acid composition, determined according to Reg. EC Reg.796/2002 methodology [5], and total phenolic content determined according to the Folin-Ciocalteu spectrophotometric method expressed as milligrams of gallic acid per kilogram of oil, were determined by Centro Agrochimico ASSAM, Jesi (AN).
\n\t\t\tChemical and sensory data were processed using SAS 9.1.3 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Explorative analysis and descriptive statistics were performed for each set of data in order to identify outliers, extreme observations and to obtain distributional properties of the data. Descriptive measures (moments, basic measures of location and variability, confidence intervals for the mean, standard deviation, and variance) of chemical and sensory variables were calculated for each monovarietal oil.
\n\t\t\tCurrently, the database includes 2092 oils produced from 130 different cultivars from 18 Italian regions. Nutritional properties, expressed as fatty acid and total phenol content, and the sensory profiles of each Italian monovarietal oil were published in the Catalogue of Italian Monovarietal oils [6] and at
Below are listed the average sensory profiles of the 16 most represented monovarietal oils. The number of samples belonging to each cultivar are indicated in brackets: Ascolana Tenera (36 samples), Bianchera (34), Biancolilla (28), Bosana (133), Casaliva (39), Coratina (80), Frantoio (122), Itrana (102), Leccino (105), Mignola (38), Moraiolo (83), Nocellara del Belice (49), Peranzana (47), Piantone di Mogliano (57), Raggia (54), Ravece (101).
\n\t\t\tAscolana Tenera – Marche region. Sensory profile: intense olive fruity, strongly grassy with hints of tomato and artichoke; balanced in taste, with medium intensity of bitter and pungent notes.
Bosana – Sardegna region. Sensory profile: medium olive fruity, grassy with prevalent scent of thistle and artichoke and hints of almond and tomato. Medium intensity of bitter and pungent notes.
Bianchera – Friuli Venezia Giulia region. Sensory profile: medium-intense olive fruity, with grassy scent, artichoke, almond and tomato; medium bitter and pungent flavours.
Casaliva – Lago di Garda area. Sensory profile: medium-intense olive fruity, with marked almond scent and light flavour of grass and artichoke; well balanced taste with medium intensity of bitter and pungent notes.
Biancolilla – Sicilia region. Sensory profile: medium-intense olive fruity, with a marked grass scent and light hint of almond, artichoke and tomato; bitter and pungent flavours are of medium-light intensity.
Coratina – Puglia region. Sensory profile: medium olive fruity, with a marked fresh almond scent together with notes of grass and artichoke; bitter and pungent flavours are of medium-high intensity.
Frantoio – Central-North Italy. Sensory profile: medium-high olive fruity, with a marked fresh almond and and light flavour of grass and artichoke; bitter and pungent flavours are of medium intensity.
Itrana – Lazio region. Sensory profile: high olive fruity intensity, with grass, tomato and artichoke scent and light almond flavor; well balanced taste with a bitter and pungent medium-light intensity.
Leccino – North-central Italy. Sensory profile: medium olive fruity intensity, with almond scent and light grass and artichoke flavor; medium intensity of pungency and bitter taste
Mignola – Marche region. Sensory profile: medium olive fruity intensity, with a peculiar flavor of soft fruits; medium intensity of pungency notes and marked bitter taste.
Nocellara del Belice – Sicilia region. Sensory profile: medium-high olive fruity intensity, with grassy and tomato notes and light scent of artichoke and almond; well balanced taste with medium intensity of bitter and pungency notes.
Piantone di Mogliano – Marche region. Sensory profile: medium olive fruity intensity, with almond scent; medium-light intensity of pungency and bitter taste.
Moraiolo – Central Italy. Sensory profile: medium olive fruity intensity, with scents of grass, almond and artichoke; medium intensity of pungency and bitter taste.
Peranzana – Puglia region. Sensory profile: medium olive fruity intensity, with scent of grass, artichoke, almond and tomato; medium intensity of pungency and bitter taste.
Raggia – Marche region. Sensory profile: medium olive fruity intensity, with strong green almond scent and light grass and artichoke flavor; well balanced to taste with medium intensity of pungency and bitter taste.
Ravece – Campania region. Sensory profile: medium-high olive fruity intensity, with grass, tomato and artichoke scent along with light almond scent; medium intensity of pungency and bitter taste.
The availability of this monovarietal oil database allows for a statistic elaboration of the data in order to meet different aims of the research into olive cultivation and olive oil quality. Some studies will be carried out considering the cultivars Frantoio and Leccino, which are widespread along the Italian peninsula, in order to evaluate the effect of the environment (climate, altitude and latitude) on the chemical and sensory profiles of monovarietal olive oils.
\n\t\t\tMoreover the quality and typicality of extra virgin olive oil are primarily determined by genetic, agronomical, environmental factors, and by technological parameters of oil processing [7,8,9]. Genetic matrix (cultivar) plays a key role in the chemical and sensory quality of the oil [10].
\n\t\t\tIt is important to underline that a smaller number of studies has considered the seasonal effect on the chemical and sensory profile of olive oil. The seasonality, which is deeply related to the different climate events of the crop year, may influence the ripening process of olives, thus affecting the oil composition and the resulting quality of olive oil. This thesis is supported by a study carried out by IBIMET-CNR and ASSAM on the evaluation of the influence of the cultivar and seasonality, as well as their interaction on monovarietal oil composition.
\n\t\t\tThe study was performed on 1108 monovarietal oils from the 16 most representative Italian cultivars.
\n\t\t\tNutritional properties, expressed as fatty acid and total phenols contents, and the sensory profiles were considered.
\n\t\t\tThe procedure was based on the analysis of variance (ANOVA) by a complete factorial design in order to examine treatment interdependencies (variety and crop year). A Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was also performed on chemical and sensory data separately, using mean values of each crop year of each cultivar collected.
\n\t\t\tFatty acids with the highest index of variability (heptadecenoic, linoleic, oleic, stearic and palmitic) were selected according to their p-level and F-values and submitted to PCA.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTable 1 reports mean values and comparison of mean separation analysis of the fatty acids belonging to the 1108 monovarietal olive oil samples. Regarding oleic acid, the contents of which as reported to EC Official Reg. EC Reg.702/2007 [11] range from 55 to 83%, the range of oleic acid of oils considered in this study varied from 71% to 77% showing their high nutritional level, some cultivars such as Coratina and Itrana are characterized by the production with the highest amount of acid oleic (above 77%).
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tConsidering organoleptic quality, Table 2 shows mean values and comparison of mean separation analysis of the sensory attributes of the monovarietal oils. All monovarietal oils have presented significant intensities of grass attributes with the highest levels of 3.2 noted in Ascolana Tenera and Biancolilla. Considering the peculiar attributes, which are heavily cultivar–dependent, such as fresh almond, artichoke, tomato, aromatic herbs and berries [12, 13], oils produced by Coratina, Frantoio, Leccino, Moraiolo and Piantone di Mogliano are distinguished for their high intensity of fresh almond, a typical pleasant flavour which characterized these cultivars.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | ||||||||||||
ASCOLANA T. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t75.57 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13.42 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.98 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t394 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t
BIANCHERA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.98 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\th | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t76.26 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12.70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.52 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t646 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t
BIANCOLILLA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9.38 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t71.92 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ti | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13.69 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t327 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t
BOSANA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10.07 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t72.83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\th | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12.71 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.09 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t440 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t
CASALIVA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\te | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t76.84 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12.38 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tfg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tfg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t411 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcde | \n\t\t\t\t\t
CORATINA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.08 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7.07 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t77.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t11.24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\th | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tefg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t588 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t
FRANTOIO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6.99 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t76.09 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12.77 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.81 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tefg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t495 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t
ITRANA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.09 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6.17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tfgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t77.66 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12.06 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tefg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t329 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t
LECCINO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\td | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6.69 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t75.00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ted | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14.01 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tfg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t414 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcde | \n\t\t\t\t\t
MIGNOLA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8.71 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t71.42 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ti | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14.63 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.84 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tefg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t503 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t
MORAIOLO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.09 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7.41 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\td | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t75.59 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13.00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.68 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t504 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t
NOCELLARA B. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\td | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8.20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t73.73 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tfg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.63 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t358 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PERANZANA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.08 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9.41 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t73.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13.00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.87 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tefg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t375 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PIANTONE M. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6.55 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tefg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t76.58 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12.14 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.97 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t395 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t
RAGGIA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7.49 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\td | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t74.45 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13.40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.89 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t414 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcde | \n\t\t\t\t\t
RAVECE | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.08 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9.23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t73.28 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12.51 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tefg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.78 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t473 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbc | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Mean values and comparison of mean separation analysis (ANOVA) of the fatty acids relative to the 1108 monovarietal olive oil samples.
All monovarietal oils considered in this study presented a significant intensity of artichoke flavours.
\n\t\t\tBosana, Peranzana, Itrana and Ravece oils exhibited the highest intensity, while in Piantone di Mogliano and Leccino oils, slight artichoke attributes were noted. With regard to this last attribute, oils of Ravece, Ascolana Tenera and Itrana are distinguished also for their high intensity of tomato flavour. Berries flavour characterized the oil produced by the Mignola cultivar.
\n\t\t\tAll monovarietal extra virgin olive oil considered in this study were characterized by a significant level of bitterness showing a range from 3.9 to 5.3. In particular Piantone di Mogliano, and Biancolilla oils presented the lowest intensity of bitterness. It is interesting to underline that the same oils were also characterized by a lower total phenol content (see tab. 1). By contrast, the monovarietal oils of Coratina, Bianchera and Mignola which exhibited the highest intensity of bitterness, also showed the highest phenolic content.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | ||||||||||
ASCOLANA T. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\th | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbcde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t
BIANCHERA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t
BIANCOLILLA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbcde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t
BOSANA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tfg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t
CASALIVA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdefg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\te | \n\t\t\t\t\t
CORATINA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tefg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tefg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbcde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\te | \n\t\t\t\t\t
FRANTOIO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tabc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\te | \n\t\t\t\t\t
ITRANA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t
LECCINO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tfgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\te | \n\t\t\t\t\t
MIGNOLA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tfg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\th | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\th | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\th | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\te | \n\t\t\t\t\t
MORAIOLO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tabcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t
NOCELLARA B. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbcde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PERANZANA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tabc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PIANTONE M. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\th | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tfg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tde | \n\t\t\t\t\t
RAGGIA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tefg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\te | \n\t\t\t\t\t
RAVECE | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tabc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tgh | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tabc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAb | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t | ||||||||
ASCOLANA T. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
BIANCHERA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
BIANCOLILLA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
BOSANA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
CASALIVA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcdef | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
CORATINA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
FRANTOIO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
ITRANA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
LECCINO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
MIGNOLA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\ta | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tabc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
MORAIOLO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tabc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
NOCELLARA B. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcde | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
PERANZANA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
PIANTONE M. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcdef | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
RAGGIA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tf | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcdef | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
RAVECE | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tb | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tbcd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t |
Mean values and comparison of mean separation analysis (ANOVA) of the sensory attributes relative to the 1108 monovarietal olive oil samples.
Regarding the influence of the genetic matrix and the crop year in Table 3 we see that in all fatty acids analysed, the effects of the cultivar and crop year are highly significant. The effect of the interaction between the two factors is also highly significant on the content of fatty acid, with the exception of palmitoleic, heptadecenoic and heptadecanoic acids. Also the total phenolic contents are heavily influenced by both the cultivar and the year, as well as the interaction between the two factors. It is interesting to underline that both factors (cultivar and crop year) have similarly significant influence on the contents of the most important fatty acids as linoleic, linolenic, oleic, palmitic and palmitoleic.
\n\t\t\tFor oleic and palmitoleic the main factor was, however, the cultivar, in fact ANOVA procedure explains the 68.30% and 70.32% of its variation respectively. The cultivar did not represent a great source of variability for linolenic acid: only 7.88%, while the crop year shows a variation of 85.95%.
\n\t\t\tEicosanoic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24.34 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10.49 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t65.17 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Eicosenoic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10.98 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t80.78 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8.24 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Heptadecanoic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t56.17 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20.08 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t23.75 * | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Heptadecenoic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t82.95 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8.11 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8.94 ns | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Linoleic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t69.61 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20.07 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10.32 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Linolenic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7.88 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t85.95 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6.17 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Oleic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t68.30 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17.58 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14.12 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Palmitic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t55.37 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t27.72 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t16.91 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Palmitoleic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t70.32 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9.44 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20.24 * | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Stearic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t52.43 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t39.64 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7.93 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Total phenols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t51.32 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t26.64 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t22.04 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Variability expressed as percent of the Total Sum of the Squares for fatty acid composition and total phenols. *, **, *** Significant F-values the 0.05 (*), 0.01 (**) or 0.001 (***) level, respectively; ns = nonsignificant.
The sensory profiles of the 1108 oil samples were submitted to the ANOVA procedure by a complete factorial design. The effect of the cultivar factor is highly significant on the sensory attributes. Olive fruity, grass, fresh almond, tomato and berries were strongly influenced by the cultivar. For these attributes the variability, expressed as percentage of the total sum of the squares, the cultivar factor is characterized by a range from 71.77% to 90.75%. In general the crop year factor for all the sensory attributes remains limited and the interaction with the cultivar is not significant with the exception of berries, bitter and pungent (table 4).
\n\t\t\tOlive fruity | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t71.77 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.93 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t22.30 ns | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Grass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t75.92 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.54 ns | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t21.54 ns | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Fresh almond | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t73.59 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9.81 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t16.60 ns | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Artichoke | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t56.96 ** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t15.38 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t27.66 ns | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Tomato | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t90.75 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.48 * | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7.77 ns | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Berries | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t75.71 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.99 ** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t23.30 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Aromatic herbs | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t26.86 ** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10.17 * | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t62.97 ns | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Bitter | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t49.02 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17.04 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t33.94 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Pungent | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t26.35 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t42.63 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t31.02 *** | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Variability expressed as percent of the Total Sum of the Squares for sensory attributes. *, **, *** Significant F-values the 0.05 (*), 0.01 (**) or 0.001 (***) level, respectively; ns =not significant.
The decision to carry out a study of a large number of labelled commercial extra virgin olive oils was taken in order to provide the consumer with information about the chemical and sensory properties of extra virgin olive oils which are currently available on the Italian market. The commercial potential of the monovarietal oils can be exploited either in terms of purity, relying on the specific characteristics of the single cultivar, or mixing the monovarietal oils from each cultivars as a "blend" based on the different typologies of Italian olive oil.
\n\t\t\tFor this purpose these oil typologies were assessed by clustering the collected olive oil data according to different sensory profiles. Descriptive analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis of sensory characters were performed. Monovarietal oils were clustered in six different sensory typologies emphasising the variability and the depth of aromas characterising Italian Monovarietal oils.
\n\t\t\tSuch classification of monovarietal oils typologies may help the consumer in making an informed choice, and in matching more easily with the wide range of flavours found in Italian cuisine.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThese monovarietal oils were classified as belonging to typology 1:
\n\t\t\tCaninese, Carboncella, Carpellese, Cornetta, Dolce Agogia, Dolce di Rossano, Dritta, Gentile di Chieti, Gentile di Larino, Leccino, Limoncella, Nebbio, Ogliarola, Ogliarola del Bradano, Paesana Bianca, Piantone di Mogliano, Raggia, Raggiola, Rajo, Razzola, Rosciola, Salviana, Sargano di Fermo, Taggiasca.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTypology 1 Sensory profile: medium olive fruity intensity, with prevalent almond scent and light notes of grass/leaf and artichoke; pungent and bitter taste of medium-light intensity.
These monovarietal oils were classified as belonging to typology 2:
\n\t\t\tCasaliva, Coratina, Correggiolo, Frantoio, Moraiolo, Ogliarola Garganica, Oliva Nera di Colletorto, Olivastra Seggianese, Pendolino, Raggiolo, Razzo, San Felice, Sargano di Ascoli.
\n\t\t\tTypology 2 : Sensory profile: medium olive fruity intensity, with prevalent almond scent and light notes of grass/leaf and artichoke; pungent and bitter taste of medium intensity.
Typology 3 Sensory profile: medium olive fruity intensity, with peculiar soft fruits scent; pungency and bitter taste of medium intensity.
These monovarietal oils were classified as belonging to typology 3: Cellina di Nardò, Mignola, Ogliarola Salentina
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThese monovarietal oils were classified as belonging to typology 4: Biancolilla, Bosana, Carolea, Coroncina, I77, Majatica di Ferrandina, Maurino, Orbetana, Peranzana, Prempesa, Salella, Semidana, Tonda del Matese.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTypology 4 Sensory profile: medium olive fruity intensity, with scent of grass, artichoke fresh almond and tomato; pungency and bitter taste of medium light intensity.
Typology 5 Sensory profile: medium high olive fruity with grassy notes, tomato and artichoke scent and light flavour of fresh almond; pungency and bitter taste of medium intensity.
These monovarietal oils were classified as belonging to typology 5. Ascolana Tenera, Cerasuola, Ghiacciolo, Itrana, Nera di Oliena, Nocellara del Belice, Nocellara Etnea, Nocellara Messinese, Ortice, Ravece, Tonda Iblea
\n\t\t\tTypology 6 Sensory profile: medium high olive fruity with grass/leaf and artichoke notes, light flavor of fresh almond and tomato, medium intensity of bitter and pungency taste.
These monovarietal oils were classified as belonging to typology 6: Bianchera, FS17, Intosso, Lantesca, Leccio del Corno, Nostrana di Brisighella, Piantone di Falerone, Picholene
\n\t\t\n\t\tAt a national level the varietal biodiversity culture is being promoted ever more heavily, resulting in increasing diversification of production of extra virgin olive oil which constitutes the necessary basis for creating blends and PDOs which appeal to consumers.
\n\t\t\tVarious Italian regions are conducting research into the promotion of the genetic heritage of the olive cultures, drawing on social and cultural elements of olive culture. For a strong and healthy olive culture, the cultivation process should not only fulfil the demands of intensification and optimization of production, but also balance this with respect for the ancient traditions and heritage- traditions and heritage which we see throughout Italy in the form of monumental trees, archaeological exhibits, ancient tools and gastronomic traditions which have extra virgin olive oil at their very heart.
\n\t\t\tDevelopment of olive production with care being taken to respect biodiversity and cultural traditions- and, as a consequence, the different autochthonous genotypes- is key to ensuring sustainable and environmentally friendly olive production processes.
\n\t\t\tThe will to proceed with recovery and exploitation of Italian germplasm, encourages the development of marginal areas, but also allows for the protection of biodiversity and ecological systems in specific areas where the olive tree plays an important role for buoyancy and hydro-geological protection for the characterization of the landscape.
\n\t\t\tThe exploitation of monovarietal oil results in the propagation of many native Italian varieties involving research institutes, University and nurseries called upon to halt the erosion of genetic heritage of Italian olive.
\n\t\t\tThe unique Italian monovarietal heritage plays a key role in the "diversification" culture that should guide Italian production in order to avoid the standardization of products recently observed in the GDO market. The promotion of the "diversification" culture has to be reached both by increasing the cultivated land – and also discouraging the substitution of pre-existing cultivar or the implantation of new "universal" ones with the sole aim of greater production - and by the reinforcement of the elements that characterize GDO territoriality: organoleptic and sensorial diversification.
\n\t\t\tThe quality oil market is expanding and Italy is still the reference point at an international level. The operators of the production chain and national institutions have the task of developing appropriate strategies to strengthen the position of production, sales and marketing.
\n\t\t\tAs has happened in the case of wine, the varieties typical to these regions may become a symbol of high quality product and find a better place in the market.
\n\t\t\tThis approach can be a first step toward traceability and authenticity of these particular productions in order to protect the interest of both consumer and producer.
\n\t\t\tThe authors are aware of the numerous variables: mill typology, olive ripening index and agronomic practice, which influence the overall olive oil quality. These variables are not usually known for commercial oils.
\n\t\t\tKnowledge of the chemical and sensory profiles of the Italian monovarietal olive oils could potentially start a certification process for these oils, thus leading to greater guarantees of origin and consequently greater guarantees of quality for the consumer.
\n\t\tIncreasing population and food demand has forced the farming community to apply excess amount of chemical fertilizer that leads to degradation of soil health and causing environmental pollution. Factor productivity of the soil is also decreasing due to injudicious fertilization. The technology advancement and industrialization has created many challenges associated with sustainability. Sustainability is a concept of utilizing the natural resources without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. Rapid urbanization and industrial growth is worrisome with respect to huge amount of waste generation. Unscientific management of these wastes causing social, economic, and environmental problems. After consuming so much chemicals during the green revolution era, the soil eventually became unproductive due to a lack of sufficient organic matter amendments. Vermicomposting is one of the many potential approaches that have gained significant attention over decades. It is an eco-friendly concept of waste management where decomposition process is aided by microorganisms [1, 2, 3]. Earthworms are the biological engineers since the beginning of humankind. The technique of culturing earthworm for managing wastes and preparing compost is known as vermicomposting. Vermicomposting is defined as a bio-oxidative process where earthworms and decomposer microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes) act synergistically to manage organic waste in a scientific way that also aids in improvement of soil physical, chemical, and biological properties [4]. A wide range of raw materials (Figure 1) such as agricultural waste [5], animal waste [6], and municipality [7] waste are decomposed by earthworms and microorganisms for preparing vermicompost. This bio-technique increases mineralization of waste material led to enhancement in bioavailability of essential plant nutrients. Vermicompost not only supplies plant nutrients and growth promoting hormones but also improves soil physical property through soil aggregation [8]. Hence it is used as a component of organic farming. Vermicompost has also been proven to be a miraculous plant growth stimulator [9]. Vermicast, the end product is also rich in hormones and enzymes which make the soil environment favorable for soil biota. Residue burning is a common issue nowadays that causing severe environmental hazards. This issue can also be overcome by adopting vermicomposting technique.
Vermicompost and its role in agriculture.
In spite of having so many benefits, use of vermicompost is still not accepted widely due to lack of awareness and technology barriers. There is a need for proper extension to explore the potentialities of vermicompost. So, this study was conducted with the objectives for getting a precise idea about general properties, preparation methods, benefits and its limitations, and most importantly understanding the significance of vermicompost in crop production.
Among the soil biota, earth worm is one of the major kinds and a key component of tropical and subtropical ecosystems [10, 11]. It helps is soil aggregation, nutrient recycling, litter decomposition, etc. Earthworm improves the soil environment by producing cast, pellets, and galleries. Mucus secretion from the gut of earth worm enhances microbial activity. Around 3000 species of earthworms documented so far [12]. The earthworms are of three types that have been described in Figure 2.
Earth warm classification.
The most common earthworms [13] have successfully used in India for vermicompost preparation are:
Apart from being ecological engineer, earth worm is a rich source of protein thus it can be used as high quality feed to farm animals. Das et al. [13] reported that earthworm cast increases mushroom production. The brief difference between chemical fertilizer and vermicompost is given in Table 1.
Indices | Chemical fertilizers | Vermicompost |
---|---|---|
Synthesis process | They are synthesized and manufactured in factories. | They are the product of natural decomposition of organic matter with the help of earth worms. |
Macronutrients | Major chemical fertilizer contains only one macronutrient (either nitrogen or phosphorus or potassium). | Vermicompost contains almost all the primary minerals along with some quantities of secondary minerals (Ca, Mg, and S) [14]. |
Micronutrients | Not present. | Significant amount of micronutrients: Zn, B, Mn, Fe, Cu, etc. also present [15]. |
Soil structure | Over use of chemical fertilizer degrades soil structure. | It improves soil aggregation, water holding capacity, soil aeration, etc. |
Biological activity of soil | It reduces biological activity of soil. | It improves activity of soil microbes thus enhances soil fertility [16]. |
Environmental impact | Excessive use of chemical fertilizers causes environmental pollution. | Vermicompost is an eco-friendly approach [17]. |
Saving cost of cultivation | Use of chemical fertilizers increases the cost of cultivation. | The farmer/consumer can expect approximately $110–$350 in additional income from applying one ton of vermicompost due to offset costs of traditional fertilizer and pesticides [18]. |
Difference between chemical fertilizer and vermicompost.
Most commonly used earthworm species are: African earthworm (
African earthworm (
Tiger worm (
Asian worms (
In terms of sustainable crop production, the acceptability of vermicompost has been rising rapidly as soon as the human realizes the significance of organic inputs in crop field. The excreta of earthworms, which is considered as the main product, that is, vermicompost has several characteristics. These are:
A good vermicompost is always non-toxic, well-decomposed, ecologically compatible, and environment friendly.
Any type of green waste viz. municipal waste, agricultural waste, sewage sludge, industrial waste, and human feces can be used for the conversion by earthworm.
When turning of soil is occurred in proper manner, it is symptomatic to aerobic decomposition which will produce normal odor after preparation. If there is improper aeration, foul odor can be formed.
The final outcome of vermicomposting would be comprising of fine particulate structure, granular form.
Vermicompost plays the role of a “soil conditioner” by improving the soil porosity, drainage, and water holding capacity [19].
Vermicompost is rich in almost all essential macro and micro plant nutrients. Several experiment states that average nutrient content of vermicompost is greater than other conventional compost, produced from other procedures.
Among all the secondary nutrients, calcium content in vermicompost is higher than other compost.
In contrast with other conventional compost, vermicompost contains worm mucus which facilitates in preventing washing away of nutrients present there [20].
Due to vermi-conversion, heavy metal present in feeding material is found to be reduced in earthworm cast owing to its accumulation in worm tissue. According to the feed used, the rate of removal of heavy metal depends in vermicomposting techniques. This property makes vermicompost lesser contaminant than any other compost. Thus, it becomes more environmentally sustainable [21].
There are certain differences found in chemical properties between simple farm yard compost and vermicompost. Vermicompost ranges higher in macro and micro-nutrients as well as soil organic carbon status that can be observed from the Table 2 [22].
Properties | Compost | Vermicompost |
---|---|---|
pH | 7.16 | 7.72 |
EC (dSm−1) | 3.65 | 6.88 |
OC | 20.5 | 17.3 |
Total N (%) | 2.42 | 3.5 |
Total P (%) | 0.88 | 0.71 |
Total K (mg.kg−1) | 653.5 | 950.5 |
Total Ca (%) | 2.9 | 3.5 |
Total Mg (%) | 1.5 | 2.8 |
Total Fe (mg.kg−1) | 4467 | 6045 |
Total Zn (mg.kg−1) | 115.5 | 189.5 |
Total Cu (mg.kg−1) | 59 | 38 |
Total Mn (mg.kg−1) | 221.45 | 344.15 |
C:N | 8.47 | 5.51 |
Chemical properties of compost and vermicompost.
The by-product of earth casting is an inhabitant of several microorganism, viz. bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes. These micro-organisms release several enzyme and phytohormones which helps in improving plant growth. Thus, vermicompost facilitates both microbial and enzymatic activity [22, 23].
The microbial population of nitrogen fixer bacteria and other symbiotic associative bacteria are supposed to be in a good range of numbers in the excreta of earthworm.
In addition, earthworm casts harbor a large number of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) propagules. These propagules survive up to 11 months on the cast, and helps in increasing microbial activity to produce nitrogen and phosphorus in readily available form to the plant (Table 3) [24].
Properties | Impact | References |
---|---|---|
Soil physical properties | Soil aggregation, soil structure, and water holding capacity, infiltration rate improves after vermicompost application. | Edwards and Burrow [19] |
Soil chemical properties | Vermicompost also offers a greater chance for reducing salinity, alkalinity, and reduction of heavy metal contamination. | Nancarrow et al. [20] |
Soil microbial properties | Microbial biomass is also increases with the use of vermicompost. | Blouin et al. [12] |
Effect of vermicompost on different soil properties.
Earthworms are often termed as “Bio-engineers” because of their unique ability to convert organic wastes into dark brown nutrient rich compost materials. We use these worms along with some easy-available inputs to produce the vermicompost. In South-Asian countries like India, we often see market price of the vermicompost is very low, which is attributed to the low-cost inputs of this compost. This vermicompost can be prepared in various techniques, among all those two most common methods are: bed and pit methods.
Bed method is easy to prepare and maintain throughout the process as here composting is done on pucca or kachcha floor by making the bed with organic materials like hay, straw, corn silage, etc.
Pit method is comparatively strenuous process where composting is done on cemented pits of approx. The unit is covered with grass or any other organic mixtures (Figures 6–10).
Bed method.
Pit method.
Spraying of water in bed.
Adult worms in compost.
Fully prepared vermicompost.
Addition of vermicompost improves soil physico-chemical properties viz. soil structure, soil water holding capacity, penetration resistance, bulk density, soil organic carbon, aggregation, nutrient content, etc. According to the findings of various long term research addition of vermicompost reduces the bulk density of the soil and increases the water holding capacity of soil [25]. Aksakal et al. [26] found that when vermicompost was added in the soil, the mean bulk density, and mean total porosity were the least. Air permeability rose and penetration resistance reduced dramatically as wet aggregate stability improved and bulk density reduced. Increased microbial population and activity led in the development of aggregates and increased soil porosity, resulting in decreased particle and bulk densities. Physicochemical characteristics such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), porosity, moisture content, water holding capacity, and chemical properties like nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, and magnesium were all found to be significantly improved in vermicompost treated soil, while the corresponding physicochemical values in control soil were minimal in rice crop [27]. Vermicompost has indeed been found to have significant concentration of total and bioavailable nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (NPK), and micronutrients, as well as microbial and enzyme activity and growth regulators [28]. Polysaccharides appeared to be abundant in vermicompost [29]. Polysaccharide worked as a cementing ingredient in the soil, causing aggregate stability, which helped to establish and maintain the soil structure for improved aeration, water retention, drainage, and aerobic conditions. The preservation of soil structure is essential for root elongation and nutrient uptake. The inclusion of mucus secretion and microorganisms from the earthworm’s gut improves the soil’s aggregate stability. The absorbent organic matter in vermicomposts increases the soil’s water retention capacity by holding only the quantity of water required by the plant roots [30]. Vermicomposts have been found to have a higher base exchange capacity and a higher oxidation potential rise [31]. The C/N ratio of vermicompost is usually lower, indicating that it is more suited for use as a soil amendment. By altering the physiochemical parameters of the soil, vermicompost was able to limit the loss of nutrients through leaching [32]. Humic acid and biologically active compounds like plant growth regulators are abundant in vermicompost [33]. Humic acid has been proven to improve nutrient accretion in situations where nutrients are scarce or when additional nutrients are provided. Humic acids may have a hormone-like effect on plant growth and productivity as a result of their involvement in cell respiration, photosynthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, biogenesis, and a variety of other enzymatic functions.
Biological properties of soil can be enhanced through application of vermicompost. Recent studies founded that soil biological characteristics viz. soil organic carbon as well as soil microbial biomass, enzymatic activity, population of different beneficial microorganism, hormones, etc. significantly enhanced with application of vermicompost [34]. The activity of the dehydrogenase enzyme, which is commonly employed to quantify the respiratory activity of microbial communities, was shown to be higher in vermicompost than in commercial medium [35]. Application of vermicompost improved the nitrogen status of soil by introducing the beneficial microorganism in the rhizosphere of the plant which ultimately enhances the nitrogenase activity in soil, which is the enzyme responsible for nitrogen fixation (Tables 4 and 5).
Crop | Treatments | Physiochemical effects | References | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | EC (dSm−1) | BD (g cm−3) | Porosity (%) | |||
Rice | Control | 7.4 ± 2.01 | 2.0 ± 1.0 | — | 39 ± 2.0 | Tharmaraj et al. [27] |
Vermicompost | 7.1 ± 0.01 | 1.01 ± 1.0 | — | 41 ± 1.0 | ||
Vermi-wash | 7.2 ± 1.02 | 2.0 ± 1.1 | — | 40 ± 1.1 | ||
Vermicompost+ Vermi-wash | 7.0 + 0.03 | 0.02 ± 0.01 | — | 44 ± 1.0 | ||
Wheat | Soil sample | 8.56 | 25.82 | 1.52 | 25.38 | Mahmoud et al. [36] |
Vermicompost @5 g kg−1 soil | 7.6 | 4.65 | 1.42 | 26.85 |
Effect of vermicompost on physiochemical properties of soil on different crops.
Parameters | Compost (g m−2) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Vermicompost | Conventional compost | |||
100 | 150 | 100 | 150 | |
Nitrogen (%) | 0.61 | 0.72 | 0.54 | 0.62 |
Phosphorus (%) | 0.0057 | 0.0077 | 0.0039 | 0.0047 |
Potassium (%) | 11.11 | 11.17 | 10.41 | 10.48 |
Calcium (%) | 1.443 | 1.683 | 0.561 | 0.641 |
Comparison between the effect of vermicompost and conventional compost on different nutrient content of the
Source: Islam et al. [37].
Vermicompost has a great importance to increase the soil fertility level. In recent years organic amendments are getting more importance for nutrient management and sustainable crop production since the long-term use of inorganic fertilizer lacking organic additives has the ability to ruin soil qualities [34]. Long-term treatment of balanced inorganic fertilizers led to reduced soil bulk density, improved total porosity, and higher water-holding capacity. Inorganic fertilizers also promoted soil aggregation in deeper soil layers and raised maize and wheat grain and straw yields [38]. In their research, using farmyard manure (organic fertilizer) instead of inorganic fertilizer improved soil qualities in a similar way. Furthermore, compost provides substantially higher boosts in soil organic carbon as well as some plant nutrients when compared to mineral fertilizers [39, 40]. Thus, using vermicompost improves overall soil fertility by improving numerous soil physical, chemical, and biological qualities.
Vermicompost promotes the growth and development of a variety of plant species, especially various horticulture crops, that is, sweet corn, tomato, strawberry [41], cereals crop rice [27], wheat, sorghum [32], fruit crops papaya [42], and pineapple [43]. Several growth and yield metrics viz. stem diameter, plant height, marketable yield per plant, mean leaf number, and total plant biomass of tomato plant were recorded significantly higher with the application of vermicompost (Figure 11).
Effect of vermicompost on growth parameters of
The increase in growth and development of plant is due to the improving action of vermicompost application on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties which ultimately improves the overall soil fertility, which enhances the plant growth and development. Vermicompost has been demonstrated to improve plant dry weight [44] and uptake of plant N [45] serve as a naturally available, slow released sources of plant nutrients.
Various studies had showed that vermicompost is useful for remedies of different plant diseases. Many plant diseases caused by soil-borne, foliar plant pathogens, and pests have been suppressed by vermicompost products, which have been proven to be effective as organic fertilizers and biological control agents. In conventional agriculture, excessive and repeated use of chemical pesticides resulted in “biological resistance” in crop diseases and pests. As a result, significantly higher doses are now needed to inhibit them for the growth of high-yielding crops that are more sensitive to pests and diseases [46]. A study was conducted to compared the inhibition performance of two different methods, in which two nonconventional chemicals ZnSO4 and oxalic acid, as well as the bio-control agent
Vermicompost has a greater importance in bioremediation and detoxification of industrial waste. Because of their robust metabolic system and the participation of earthworm gut bacteria and chloragocyte cells, earthworms have the potential to valorize and detoxification of heavy metals in industrial by-products. The majority of research found that vermicompost made from organic waste comprises greater concentrations of humic chemicals, which are important for plant growth [49]. Earthworm has a vast role in bioconversion of waste materials. Because of their robust metabolic system and participation of varied intestinal micro biota, enzymes, and chloragocyte cells that decrease hazardous forms to benign forms, earthworms have the ability to bio-convert and detoxify most heavy metals in industrial sludges (Table 6) [51].
Industry sludge type | Earthworm species used | Physico-chemical properties and heavy metals reduction | References |
---|---|---|---|
Sewage sludge derived biochar | Biochar injected before composting lowered | Malińska et al. [50] | |
Municipal sludge mixed with cow dung | Cr, Cu, Ni, and Pb all the metal compounds were reduced after vermicomposting. | Srivastava et al. [51] |
Effect of different types of earthworm species on heavy metal reductions of industrial sludge.
Vermicomposting is a time taking process. It requires almost 6-month for decomposing the organic wastes to prepare vermicompost.
In comparison to the traditional composting process, vermicompost requires higher maintenance.
Vermicompost may harbor pest and diseases as the temperature of vermicomposting pit have to be cool enough to support earthworm life.
Since vermicompost is organic in nature, it is not harmful for the environment. Vermicomposting process is also easy to operate and can be successfully prepared by unskilled small and marginal farmers. Amidst the environmental degradation and increasing food demand, vermicompost can be a solution. Although, its use alone in agriculture would not be able to meet the food demand but its use with chemical fertilizer through integrated manner can achieve sustainability in food production. The adoption rate of vermicompost is low and there is tendency of adopting vermicompost by female famers only. The potentiality of vermicompost is still not fully exploited yet. Hence, there is a need to appoint more extension worker to educate the farmers about vermicomposting and its benefits for achieving sustainability.
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