Main components present in some EOs of flavoring plants.
\r\n\tThis book discusses the anatomy and pathophysiological characteristics of the biliary tract, the latest progress in the treatment of different diseases of the biliary tract, and the management of complications. We hope that this book will provide clinicians with evidence for clinical decision-making and provide scientists with a comprehensive overview of current developments in this vital area.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-699-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-698-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-700-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"75ea7752fb410b6d399b549bb66e9b58",bookSignature:"Prof. Qiang Yan and Dr. Huaping Shen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11852.jpg",keywords:"Physiological Anatomy, Pathophysiology, Choledochal Cyst, Bile Duct Stone, Inflammation, Obstructive Jaundice, Gallbladder Carcinoma, Cholangiocarcinoma, Diagnosis, Therapeutics, Surgical Treatment, Management of Complications",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 20th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 7th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 6th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Medical doctor, adjunct professor, and FACS, Chairman of Department of General Surgery at Zhejiang University Huzhou Hospital and Director of Department of Hepatopancreatic and Biliary Surgery and Department of Surgery Teaching and Research.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Associate chief of the Department of Hepatopancreatic & Biliary (HPB) Surgery, Zhejiang University Huzhou Hospital who has been engaged in hepatobiliary and pancreatic surgery for 9 years, and is an expert in diagnosis and treatments of diseases in hepatobiliary and pancreatic fields.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"247970",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiang",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",slug:"qiang-yan",fullName:"Qiang Yan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247970/images/system/247970.png",biography:"Qiang Yan, MD, is a master’s supervisor, adjunct professor, and Fellow of the American College of Surgeons (FACS). He is the chairman of the Department of General Surgery and the director of the Department of Hepatopancreatic and Biliary Surgery and Department of Surgery Teaching and Research, Zhejiang University Huzhou Hospital.\nDr. Yan is a member of the Committees of Biliary Surgeons, Department of Surgeons and Hepatobiliary Minimal of Non-invasive Surgery, Chinese Medical Doctor Association, and many other academic associations. He is also a special member of the editorial committees of the Chinese Journal of General Surgery, Liver Cancer, and Chinese Journal of Clinicians. He is a participant in the High-Level Talents of Zhejiang Medicine and Zhejiang Province 151 Talents. Dr. Yan completed advanced studies in hepatobiliary pancreatic surgery at Stanford University Medical Center, California, and University Hospital Regensburg, Germany. He has more than thirty high-quality papers to his credit.",institutionString:"Huzhou Central Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Zhejiang University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"344080",title:"Dr.",name:"Huaping",middleName:null,surname:"Shen",slug:"huaping-shen",fullName:"Huaping Shen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/344080/images/system/344080.png",biography:"Huaping Shen is an associate chief of the Department of Hepatopancreatic and Biliary (HPB) Surgery, Zhejiang University Huzhou Hospital. He has been engaged in hepatobiliary and pancreatic surgery for 10 years and is an expert in diagnosis and treatment of hepatobiliary and pancreatic diseases. Dr. Shen has ten medical papers to his credit and has participated in seven research projects.",institutionString:"Zhejiang University Huzhou Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Zhejiang University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10318",title:"Recent Advances in Pancreatitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4660cc6cfdbc562d1f25e6e05b6b77f1",slug:"recent-advances-in-pancreatitis",bookSignature:"Qiang Yan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10318.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"247970",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiang",surname:"Yan",slug:"qiang-yan",fullName:"Qiang Yan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7869",title:"Advanced Endoscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"92f6ce51b737e9086a6059ab7470eee9",slug:"advanced-endoscopy",bookSignature:"Qiang Yan and Xu Sun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7869.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"247970",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiang",surname:"Yan",slug:"qiang-yan",fullName:"Qiang Yan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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The only natural differential operator on a manifold is the exterior derivative operator which takes \n
On a compact manifold, the spectrum of the Laplacian on \n
The heat kernel is one of the more important objects in such diverse areas as global analysis, spectral geometry, differential geometry, as well as in mathematical physics in general. As an example from physics, the main objects that are investigated in quantum field theory are described by Green functions of self‐adjoint, elliptic partial differential operators on manifolds as well as their spectral invariants, such as functional determinants. In spectral geometry, there is interest in the relation of the spectrum of natural elliptic partial differential operators with respect to the geometry of the manifold [4–6].
\nCurrently, there is great interest in the study of nontrivial links between the spectral invariants and nonlinear, completely integrable evolutionary systems, such as the Korteweg‐de Vries hierarchy. In many interesting situations, these systems are actually infinite‐dimensional Hamiltonian systems. The spectral invariants of a linear elliptic partial differential operator are nothing but the integrals of motion of the system. There are many other applications to physics such as to gauge theories and gravity [7].
\nIn general, the existence of nonisometric isospectral manifolds implies that the spectrum alone does not determine the geometry entirely. It is also important to study more general invariants of partial differential operators that are not spectral invariants. This means that they depend not only on the eigenvalues but also on the eigenfunctions of the operator. Therefore, they contain much more information with respect to the underlying geometry of the manifold.
\nThe spectrum of a differential operator is not only studied directly, but the related spectral functions such as the spectral traces of functions of the operator, such as the zeta function and the heat trace, are relevant as well [8, 9]. Often the spectrum is not known exactly, which is why different asymptotic regimes are investigated [10, 11]. The small parameter asymptotic expansion of the heat trace yields information concerning the asymptotic properties of the spectrum. The trace of the heat semigroup as the parameter approaches zero is controlled by an infinite sequence of geometric quantities, such as the volume of the manifold and the integral of the scalar curvature of the manifold. The large parameter behavior of the traces of the heat kernels is parameter independent and in fact equals the Euler characteristic of the manifold. The small parameter behavior is given by an integral of a complicated curvature‐dependent expression. It is quite remarkable that when the dimension of the manifold equals two, the equality of the short‐ and long‐term behaviors of the heat flow implies the classic Gauss‐Bonnet theorem. The main objectives of the chapter are to develop the heat equation approach with Schrödinger operator on a vector bundle and outline how it leads to the Hodge theorem [12, 13]. The heat equation asymptotics will be developed [14, 15] andit is seen that the Gauss‐Bonnet theorem can be proved for a two‐dimensional manifold based on it. Moreover, this kind of approach implies that there is a generalization of the Gauss‐Bonnet theorem as well in higher dimensions greater than two [16, 17].
\nFor an \n
It is then possible to define a system of one‐forms \n
It then follows that the Christoffel coefficients and components of the Riemann tensor for \n
The inner product induced by the Riemannian metric on \n
where if \n
is the Riemannian measure on \n
\n
where \n
(ii) If \n
In terms of the two operators \n
The operator \n
\n
is called the Hodge‐de Rham operator. It has the property that it is a self‐conjugate operator, \n
Let \n
\n
If \n
The connection may be regarded as a first‐order derivative operator \n
\n
In terms of the operator (Eq. (12)), define a second‐order differential operator \n
where \n
\n
In Eq. (14), \n
The operator defined by Eq. (14) does not contain first‐order covariant derivatives and is of a type called a Schrödinger operator. Thus, Weitzenböck formula (14) implies the that Laplacian can be expressed in the form \n
The crucial point for the theory of the heat operator is the existence of a fundamental solution. In fact, the Hodge theorem can be proved by making use of the fundamental solution.
\n\n
with parameter \n
where \n
for all \n
\n
The Cauchy problem can be formulated for the heat equation such that existence, regularity and uniqueness of solution can be established. The Hilbert‐Schmidt theorem can be invoked to develop a Fourier expansion theorem applicable to this Schrödinger operator.
\nSuppose \n
Moreover, denoting the completion of the inner product space \n
Finally, the set \n
where \n
Denote \n
\n
with \n
\n
Differentiating with respect to \n
It follows from this that
\nand since \n
Consequently, for any \n
Moreover, \n
Upon comparing these last two expressions, it is clear that \n
One application of the heat equation method developed so far is to develop and give a proof of the Hodge theorem.
\n\n
\n\n
For any \n
The first part is a direct consequence of the expansion theorem and due to the fact \n
The Hodge theorem has many applications, but one in particular fits here. It is used in conjunction with the de Rham cohomology group \n
Since \n
From Eq. (21), construct
\nIn 1935, Hodge claimed a theorem, which stated every element in \n
\n
where \n
\n
\n\n
This implies that \n
\n
\n\n
There is an orthogonal decomposition of \n
\n
\n
The \n
Let \n
In Eq. (26), the function \n
It is the objective to find conditions for which Eq. (26) satisfies the heat equation or the following equality:
\nTo carry out this, a normal coordinate system denoted by \n
In terms of these coordinates, we calculate the components of \n
and define the differential operator
\nThe notion of the heat operator (15) on Eq. (26) is worked out one term at a time. First, the derivative with respect to \n
It is very convenient to abbreviate the function appearing in front of the sum in Eq. (30) as follows:
\nLet \n
In terms of the function in Eq. (31), the operator \n
The individual components of (32) can be calculated as follows; since \n
Consequently,
\nand the Laplace‐Beltrami operator on the function \n
\nExpression (34) goes into the first term on the right side of Eq. (32). The second term on the right‐hand side of (32) takes the form,
\nSubstituting these results into (32), it follows that
\nCombining Eq. (36) with the derivative of \n
This is summarized in the following Lemma.
\n\n
for all \n
In fact, for fixed \n
\n
Based on Eq. (39), the \n
\n
\n
and \n
The integral of Eq. (42) over \n
To estimate the remaining integral, choose a normal coordinate system at \n
Therefore, in the limit using Definition 2.4,
\nThis result implies that
\nThe convergence here is uniform.
\nThere exists an asymptotic expansion for the heat kernel which is extremely useful and has several applications. It is one of the main intentions here to present this. An application of its use appears later.
\n\n
and the symbol on the right‐hand side of Eq. (44) signifies a quantity \n
\n
From the previous theorem and existence and regularity of the fundamental solution, the result \n
Let \n
We have set \n
The formula for Levi iteration yields upon summing this over \n
Using this bound, the required estimate is obtained,
\nThis finishes the proof.
\nNow if all the Hodge theorem is used, formal expressions for the index can be obtained. Suppose \n
For any \n
Consequently, an expression for the index \n
\n
where \n
Let \n
This is clearly \n
\n
\n
Replacing \n
Then for any \n
\n
\n
Integrating this on both sides, it is found that
\nNote that Eq. (48) is a series with positive terms which converges uniformly as \n
In fact, as \n
and the previous theorem imply that \n
As far as \n
by Theorem 3.5, where \n
\n
\n
The spectrum of the Laplacian on functions characterizes a lot of interesting geometric information. Note that Eq. (52) can be written as
\nand the trace does not appear in the case of functions. The superscript on the Laplacian \n
Two Riemannian manifolds are said to be isospectral if the eigenvalues of their Laplacians on functions counted with multiplicities coincide.
\n\n
\n
This implies that \n
Since the right‐hand side of the equation depends on \n
Iterating this argument leads to the set of equations
\nfor all \n
The proof illustrates that in fact there exist an infinite sequence of obstructions to claiming that two manifolds are isospectral, namely the set of integrals \n
\n
for some universal polynomials \n
Thus, \n
\n
\n
The large \n
These results can be summarized by the elegant formula
\nwhere \n
Suppose that \n
\n
\n
The sum on the right \n
This has the consequence that
\nis independent of the parameter \n
From the asymptotic expansion theorem, the following expression for \n
The \n
\n
\n
\n
since the scalar curvature is two times the Gaussian. Now it must be that \n
Therefore, \n
As an application of this theorem, note that the calculation of \n
\n
\n
On a surface, the scalar curvature is twice the Gaussian curvature, so by the Gauss‐Bonnet theorem,
\nHowever, oriented surfaces with the same Euler characteristic are diffeomorphic.
\nThe heat equation approach has been seen to be quite deep, leading both to the Hodge theorem and also to a proof of the Gauss‐Bonnet theorem. Moreover, it is clear from the asymptotic development that there is a generalization of this theorem to higher dimensions. The four‐dimensional Chern‐Gauss‐Bonnet integrand is given by the invariant \n
Let \n
The Euler characteristic \n
\n
This was proved first by Chern, but of greater significance here, this can be deduced from the heat equation approach that has been introduced here. There is a proof by Patodi [18], but there is no room for it now. It should be hoped that more interesting results will come out in this area as well in the future.
\nAromatic plants are increasingly used as therapeutic agents and as food supplements, along with industrial synthesis products. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that more than 80% of the world population uses products based on plant extracts and/or their active components for various purposes, including health care and phytotherapy [1, 2, 3].
Essential oils (EOs) are volatile compounds, products of secondary metabolic processes of aromatic plants and despite being practically insoluble in water, can be carried away by water vapor. They are largely obtained by water distillation or using steam distillation, from different parts of the plant, including the whole plant or just the wood, roots, leaves or flowers [4, 5]. Other processes to obtain oils from plants include expression, solvent extraction, CO2 extraction, maceration, cold pressure extraction [6]. Indeed, the species, the plant geographical conditions, and the part of the plant used as well as the extraction method used will be determinants for the EOs chemical profile [7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Otherwise, in the distillation process, thermal degradation of sensitive compounds, the photo-oxidation of light-sensitive compounds or the hydrolysis of esterified compounds are factors that can affect the chemical profile of EOs [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12].
Aromatic, spice and medicinal plants are part of the Mediterranean diet, recognized by the WHO as a healthy and health-promoting type of diet [1, 2]. They also represent a growing interest in the food industry and are often used in alternative or complementary therapies in conventional medicine [13, 14]. Due to their effectiveness and, mainly, due to the lower number of adverse effects, when compared to synthetic drugs, the use of aromatic plants as functional foods as well their EOs may be an important role in the prevention of pathologies with high mortality and morbidity, such atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, several infections, chronic inflammatory diseases, cancer and autoimmune diseases [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Some flavoring plants used in the Mediterranean diet are frequently used in Alentejo (South of Portugal) as food additives or flavors. Most of them belong to the Lamiaceae family and include
The genus
The genus
The genus
The genus
EOs are an important source of bioactive compounds with application in phytotherapy and traditional medicine. They are volatile complex compounds characterized by a strong odor and are rich in terpene compounds, namely monoterpenes (C10) and sesquiterpenes (C15), although diterpenes (C20) may also be present, as well as a variety of low molecular weight aliphatic hydrocarbons, acids, alcohols, aldehydes, acyclic esters or lactones and, exceptionally, compounds containing nitrogen (N) and sculpture (S), coumarins and phenylpropanoid homologs [6, 71, 72].
Among the different terpenes present in EOs, 1,8-cineole or eucalyptol (1,3,3-trimethyl-2-oxabicyclo [2.2.2] octane) in cyclic monoterpene oxide with a strong odor well known as the major constituent (>70%) of diverse eucalyptus species [73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78]. Some studies have demonstrated the high pharmacological potential of 1,8-cineole, namely as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compound [73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81]. With no negative effects in animal experiments, 1,8-cineole is considered safe when administered at normal doses (very high value of LD50 in rats - between 1.5 and 2.5 g/kg) [82]. Nevertheless, EOs of some Lamiaceae flavoring plants showed high content in 1,8-cineole, such as some lavenders (
Due to their natural function, the chemical composition of EOs is determined not only by the genus, species, and subspecies of an aromatic plant but also by external factors such as geographic location, environmental conditions of the region, cultivation conditions, season and time of harvest [7, 8, 9, 10]. In addition, it is also necessary to consider some procedures, such as techniques of plant collection or post-harvest conservation, part of the plant used, and the EOs extraction method also affects the chemical composition of EOs [7, 8, 9, 10].
Table 1 presents some of the main components of EOs of aromatic plants from the Mediterranean region of the genera
EO | Country | Part used | Major volatile compounds | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Portugal (Algarve) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (26–34%); α-Necrodyl acetate (11–18%) | [21] | |
Portugal (Penamacor) | Flowers | 1,8-Cineole (3–4%); Camphor (8–21%); Linalool (1.4–3%); α-Necrodil acetate (2–20%) | [22] | |
Portugal (Penamacor) | Leaves | 1,8-Cineole (13.9–16.4%); Camphor (1–3%); Linalool (1–2%); α-Necrodil acetate (8–19%) | [22] | |
Portugal (Alentejo) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (19%); α-Necrodyl acetate (16%); Lavandulol (12%); α-Necrodol (11%); | [23] | |
Portugal (Piódão region) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (6.4%); α-Necrodyl acetate (17%) | [83] | |
Portugal (Algarve) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (34%); Fenchone (18%); α-Necrodyl acetate (3%) | [83] | |
Spain (Toledo; Sevilha) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (0.4–21%); Fenchone (1.4–22%); Camphor (2–54%) | [84] | |
Spain (Sevilha) | Flowering aerial parts | α-Necrodol, α-Necrodyl acetate and 1,8-Cineole, (>50%) | [85] | |
Spain | Leaves flowers | Camphor (81%); 1,8-Cineole ( Camphor (88%); 1,8-Cineole ( | [86] | |
Spain (Sevilha) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (16%); α-Necrodyl acetate (23%) | [87] | |
Portugal | Flowering parts | 1,8-cineole (6–34%); fenchone (0–18%); α-Necrodyl acetate (3–17%); | [88] | |
Portugal (Algarve) | Flowering aerial parts | Fenchone (42–44%); Camphor (35–36%) | [21] | |
Portugal (Algarve) | Flowering aerial parts | Camphor (41%); Fenchone (38%) | [25] | |
Portugal (Santarém) | Flowering aerial parts | Fenchone (62–70%); 1,8-Cineole (6–28%) | [89] | |
Portugal (Trás-os-Montes) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (24%); Camphor (32.4%) | [42] | |
Portugal (Coimbra) | Flowering aerial parts | Fenchone (49%); α-Pinene (5%); α-Cadinol (4%) | [42] | |
Portugal (North and Center) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (2.4–56%); Fenchone (1.3–60%); Camphor (4–48%) | [90] | |
Portugal | Flowering parts | 1,8-Cineole (12–34%); fenchone (6–50%); Camphor (10–34%); | [88] | |
Portugal (Algarve) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (35%); Camphor (13%); α-Pinene (9%) | [45] | |
Portugal (Algarve) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (33%); Camphor (20%) | [21] | |
Portugal (Algarve) | Flowering aerial parts; | 1,8-Cineole (18–25%); Camphor (9–12%); Borneol (4–5%); α- terpineol (1–4%) | [43] | |
Portugal (Algarve) | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (30%); Isopulegone (36%) | [26] | |
Portugal (Alentejo) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (28%); Menthone (22%); Menthol (16.3%) | [27] | |
Italy (Basilicata region) | Flowering aerial parts | Pulegone (45%); Menthone (16%); Piperitenone (13%); Piperitone (6%) | [92] | |
Italy (Sardinia Island) | Flowering aerial parts | Pulegone (40–64%); Piperitenone (6–8%); Piperitenone oxide (2.5–19%) | [50] | |
Portugal | Flowering aerial parts | Isomenthone (36–51%); 1,8-Cineole (21%); | [50] | |
Serbia | Flowering aerial parts | Pulegone (76%) | [93] | |
Si Chuan Province, China | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (27%); α-Pinene (19%); Camphor (14%); Camphene (12%); β-Pinene (7%) | [29] | |
Iran | Aerial parts | α-Pinene (15%); 1,8-Cineole (7%); Linalool (15%), | [30] | |
Portugal (Vila Real) | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (23–67%) | [58] | |
Algeria | Leaves and stems | 1,8-Cineole (leaves: 54%,stem: 30%) | [91] | |
Portugal (Algarve) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (47–61%) | [94] | |
Portugal (Algarve) | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (41%) | [26] | |
Italy | Micropropa-gated plantlets | 1,8-Cineole (58%); Linalool (25%) | [95] | |
Spain (Murcia) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (39–74%); Linalool (2.2–43%) | [36] | |
Portugal (Alentejo) | Flowering aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (71%) | [27] | |
Portugal (Ribatejo) | Aerial parts (flowering) | 1,8-Cineole (59%); Borneol (10%) | [96] | |
Portugal (Porto Alto) | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (48%) | [70] | |
Portugal (samora Correia) | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (29%); Borneol (29%) | [70] | |
Portugal (Poceirão) | Aerial parts | 1,8-Cineole (28%); Linalyl acetate (20%); Linalool (17%) | [70] |
Main components present in some EOs of flavoring plants.
Some studies report that
EO of
Analysis of the EO of
Depending on the variety and region,
Plants and their extracts have been used by mankind since the beginning of history and their secondary metabolites have traditionally played an important role in human health and well-being [71], increasingly important in therapeutics, due to their efficacy and, above all, due to the lower number of adverse effects when compared to synthetic drugs.
Table 2 reports some pharmacological activities (antioxidant analgesic, anti-inflammatory and cholinesterase inhibition) of EOs of some
EOs | Biological activities | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Antioxidant and analgesic or anti-inflammatory potential | [21, 22, 23, 24, 88] | |
Antioxidant activity and cholinesterases inhibition | [21, 25, 88] | |
Antioxidant activity | [21] | |
Antioxidant and Antitumoral potential | [26, 27, 28] | |
Antioxidant activity and acetylcholinesterase inhibition; Antiproliferative activities | [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35] | |
Antioxidant potential and Acetylcholinesterase inhibition, Lipoxygenase inhibition and anti-tumoral activities | [26, 27, 36] |
Biological properties of EOs with high content in 1,8-cineole.
The adverse effects of oxidative stress on human health have become a serious issue. This results from the imbalance between oxidant and antioxidant molecules, which can induce cellular damage by free radicals and promote the development of many current disease conditions, including inflammation, autoimmune diseases, cataracts, cancer, Parkinson’s disease, arteriosclerosis and aging [1, 114]. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are constantly generated and play important roles in a variety of normal biochemical functions as well as irregular or pathological processes. Furthermore, ROS can be produced by a family of mitochondrial membrane-bound enzymes, such as NAD(P)H oxidases, which appear to affect cell proliferation and apoptosis [115].
A broad definition of an antioxidant is “any substance which, present in low concentrations compared to that of the oxidizable substrate, effectively delays or inhibits the oxidation of that substrate”. EOs are important antioxidants able to prevent or minimize the development of degenerative diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases [1].
Many of the medicinal plants belonging to the Lamiaceae family have antioxidant potential. Studies carried out with medicinal plants suggest that their antioxidant activity is due to the redox reactions of phenolic compounds, which allow them to act as reducing agents, donating hydrogen atoms and capturing singlet oxygen [116].
Some studies carried out with species of the genus
EOs of
EOs are an important source of potentially useful antioxidants to prevent oxidative stress and promote human health [120]. According to the literature, the antioxidant activity of EOs is related to their high content of monoterpenes, namely limonene, 1,8-cineole, γ-terpinene, α-terpinene, linalool, 4-terpineol [60, 121, 122]. Additionally, the synergistic potential of minority constituents is often proposed to explain the differences between estimated and observed values for antioxidant capacities [123, 124]. Antioxidant properties of EOs also suggest their potential as anti-inflammatory agents, since the capture and elimination of free radicals is one of the mechanisms involved in the prevention of inflammation [125, 126]. Additionally, due to their high activity in protecting the lipid substrate, EOs have the potential to prevent neurodegenerative and cancerous diseases [35, 127].
The inflammatory response is one of the most important defense mechanisms of the body, responsible for removing and neutralizing invading microorganisms and/or repairing tissues, involving, in its processes, immune cells of the hematopoietic system, such as macrophages. Cyclooxygenases (COX) play an important role in mediating the body’s inflammatory response [128, 129, 130]. Cytokines released in the anti-inflammatory processes (IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF or tumor necrosis factor) are also associated with other body responses, including immune and anti-inflammatory responses or anti-tumoral and apoptosis processes [131, 132, 133, 134].
EOs of several plants promote anti-inflammatory activity due to the presence of bioactive compounds such as oxygen monoterpenes that mediate the capture of free radicals generated by neutrophils and macrophages as well as for their ability to inhibit the cyclooxygenase pathway, having an important role in the regulation of inflammatory mediators [126, 135]. There is evidence that the association of chronic inflammation and oxidative stress with the aging process, indicating a subclinical chronic response. Additionally, the presence of reactive species in inflammatory processes are present in the etiology of several pathologies, including those resulting from metabolic disorders, demonstrating the central role of the reciprocal interaction between oxidative stress and inflammation [136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141].
The anti-inflammatory activity of EOs can be attributed not only to their antioxidant properties but also to interactions with signaling cascades involving cytokines and transcriptional regulatory factors and in the expression of pro-inflammatory genes [126, 142]. Some studies carried out in animal models with terpenes present in EOs, such as linalool, limonene, myrcene, 1,8-cineole, demonstrated that these compounds showed analgesic activity [143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152]. The analgesic and anti-inflammatory potential of OEs are preferentially attributed to the high content of terpene compounds [143, 145, 146, 153, 154, 155, 156] as well as to the synergetic effect of minor components that can influence the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of compounds with pharmacological action [157].
The anti-inflammatory effects observed for the EOs of
Regarding the species of the genus
EOs are increasingly used as therapeutic agents, cosmetics and food additives, along with industrial synthesis products, with application in phytotherapy. However, several factors can affect the biological properties of OEs, such as genera and species, time and region of harvest, extraction method, as well as the polymorphisms of each species. Correlation study between the biological properties of EOs and their chemical composition allows to evaluate its phytopharmaceutical potential and, together with traditional knowledge and practices, scientifically validate it, to allow an adequate, effective and safe use.
The biological activities of EOs are often related with its high content of some monoterpenes, such as 1,8-cineole which is an oxygenated monoterpene frequently found as one of the major components in the EOs of some plants of genera
This work was supported by the UIDB/04449/2020 and UIDP/04449/2020 projects, funded by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The aim of the chapter is to give details on advance computational modelling and analytical methodologies, which can be used in order to design shallow and deep tunnels and to present real case studies from around the world, from very shallow tunnels in India with only 4.5 m overburden to a deep tunnel in Venezuela with extreme squeezing conditions under 1300 m overburden.",book:{id:"7690",slug:"tunnel-engineering-selected-topics",title:"Tunnel Engineering",fullTitle:"Tunnel Engineering - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Spiros Massinas",authors:[{id:"295762",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Massinas",slug:"spiros-massinas",fullName:"Spiros Massinas"}]},{id:"68157",title:"Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes",slug:"introductory-chapter-textile-manufacturing-processes",totalDownloads:4403,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:null,book:{id:"8892",slug:"textile-manufacturing-processes",title:"Textile Manufacturing Processes",fullTitle:"Textile Manufacturing Processes"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]},{id:"66828",title:"Breathing Monitoring and Pattern Recognition with Wearable Sensors",slug:"breathing-monitoring-and-pattern-recognition-with-wearable-sensors",totalDownloads:3046,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"This chapter introduces the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system, and the reasons for measuring breathing events, particularly, using wearable sensors. 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New technologies open the door to future methods of noninvasive breathing analysis using wearable sensors associated with machine learning techniques for pattern detection.",book:{id:"7654",slug:"wearable-devices-the-big-wave-of-innovation",title:"Wearable Devices",fullTitle:"Wearable Devices - the Big Wave of Innovation"},signatures:"Taisa Daiana da Costa, Maria de Fatima Fernandes Vara, Camila Santos Cristino, Tyene Zoraski Zanella, Guilherme Nunes Nogueira Neto and Percy Nohama",authors:[{id:"192464",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Percy",middleName:null,surname:"Nohama",slug:"percy-nohama",fullName:"Percy Nohama"},{id:"285706",title:"MSc.",name:"Taísa Daiana",middleName:null,surname:"Da Costa",slug:"taisa-daiana-da-costa",fullName:"Taísa Daiana Da Costa"},{id:"285707",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria de Fatima Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Vara",slug:"maria-de-fatima-fernandes-vara",fullName:"Maria de Fatima Fernandes Vara"},{id:"285708",title:"BSc.",name:"Camila Santos",middleName:null,surname:"Cristino",slug:"camila-santos-cristino",fullName:"Camila Santos Cristino"},{id:"285709",title:"Prof.",name:"Guilherme Nunes",middleName:null,surname:"Nogueira Neto",slug:"guilherme-nunes-nogueira-neto",fullName:"Guilherme Nunes Nogueira Neto"},{id:"293109",title:"BSc.",name:"Tyene",middleName:null,surname:"Zoraski Zanella",slug:"tyene-zoraski-zanella",fullName:"Tyene Zoraski Zanella"}]},{id:"41411",title:"Textile Dyes: Dyeing Process and Environmental Impact",slug:"textile-dyes-dyeing-process-and-environmental-impact",totalDownloads:20594,totalCrossrefCites:95,totalDimensionsCites:303,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues de Oliveira, Elisa Raquel Anastácio Ferraz, Juliano Carvalho Cardoso, Maria Valnice Boldrin Zanoni and Danielle Palma de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"49040",title:"Prof.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Palma De Oliveira",slug:"danielle-palma-de-oliveira",fullName:"Danielle Palma De Oliveira"},{id:"149074",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Valnice",middleName:null,surname:"Zanoni",slug:"maria-valnice-zanoni",fullName:"Maria Valnice Zanoni"},{id:"153502",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Chequer",slug:"farah-chequer",fullName:"Farah Chequer"},{id:"153504",title:"MSc.",name:"Gisele",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gisele-oliveira",fullName:"Gisele Oliveira"},{id:"163377",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliano",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",slug:"juliano-cardoso",fullName:"Juliano Cardoso"},{id:"163393",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraz",slug:"elisa-ferraz",fullName:"Elisa Ferraz"}]},{id:"70242",title:"Advancements in the Fenton Process for Wastewater Treatment",slug:"advancements-in-the-fenton-process-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:1919,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Fenton is considered to be one of the most effective advanced treatment processes in the removal of many hazardous organic pollutants from refractory/toxic wastewater. It has many advantages, but drawbacks are significant such as a strong acid environment, the cost of reagents consumption, and the large production of ferric sludge, which limits Fenton’s further application. The development of Fenton applications is mainly achieved by improving oxidation efficiency and reducing sludge production. This chapter presents a review on fundamentals and applications of conventional Fenton, leading advanced technologies in the Fenton process, and reuse methods of iron containing sludge to synthetic and real wastewaters are discussed. Finally, future trends and some guidelines for Fenton processes are given.",book:{id:"9415",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Min Xu, Changyong Wu and Yuexi Zhou",authors:[{id:"307479",title:"Dr.",name:"Changyong",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"changyong-wu",fullName:"Changyong Wu"},{id:"307546",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuexi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yuexi-zhou",fullName:"Yuexi Zhou"},{id:"311139",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"min-xu",fullName:"Min Xu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"24",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82089",title:"Breaking the Barriers: Additive Technologies (AX) for Integrated Process Chains and Integrated Devices (IDs) for Hybrid Product Architectures",slug:"breaking-the-barriers-additive-technologies-ax-for-integrated-process-chains-and-integrated-devices-",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104891",abstract:"Additive technology has evolved from rapid prototyping to rapid tooling and manufacturing of load-bearing parts for productive use. Application potential is limited by constituent strengths and weaknesses. To enfold its full potential, research, development, and industrial application have to facilitate combinations of additive and conventional technology. The concept of additive parts manufacturing has to be expanded to a mature technology contributing and facilitating hybrid products and integrated process chains. From a two-dimensional reference model, approaches to integration are derived, and their status is briefly outlined: Efforts to facilitate postprocessing by design for additive manufacturing (DfAM) and hybrid manufacturing have been raised to awareness and are being worked on. Yet, integration of pre-fabricated structures is hardly accounted for, although it bears the potential for a paradigmatic shift in manufacturing: With a wider concept of layer-based processes, Additive Technology could form the core technology for integration of components and functions to Integrated Devices, following the model of the Integrated Circuits and packaging technology in microelectronics and Microelectromechanical Systems. First developments are outlined, but research and development effort has to be dedicated to novel additive processes for this application. Finally, workflows for product developers need to be modified and trained to plan hybrid product architectures already in conceptual phases.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Matthias Dahlmeyer and Sebastian Noller"},{id:"81952",title:"Multi-Material in 3D Printing for Engineering Applications",slug:"multi-material-in-3d-printing-for-engineering-applications",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102564",abstract:"3D Printing or Additive Manufacturing is one of a novel method in manufacturing of materials with increased accuracy of manufacturing in terms of complexity in parts, design of aerospace and defense parts, light-weighting, etc., This manufacturing method involves layer-by-layer printing or deposition of materials or metals into the perfectly aligned especially in corners, edges and in most complex designs. The design process mostly involved software so that production cost could be estimated in the design stage itself. Additive Manufacturing is one of the most promising approach for small and low-volume productions. The filament used for the process is prominent to the designer, along with the various printing processes. Recent modern printing techniques involve multiple nozzles, whereas designers can use multiple materials on single printing. The use of multi-material in a single part enables the manufacturer to rapidly produce products which have specific applications. This chapter discusses about various multi-material with different mechanical properties that can be used for structural applications through different printing technologies on various precious applications. This technology is quickly adopted by even small-scale industries in recent times.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Rajkumar Velu, R. Sathishkumar and A. Saiyathibrahim"},{id:"80282",title:"Modeling of LPBF Scanning Strategy and its Correlation with the Metallic 316 L, 321, and Alnico Magnets Samples Structure",slug:"modeling-of-lpbf-scanning-strategy-and-its-correlation-with-the-metallic-316-l-321-and-alnico-magnet",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102073",abstract:"This chapter presents the influence of powder bed laser scanning strategy on the crystallographic structure of the fused specimens 316 L, 321 stainless steel, and Alnico magnets. The main parameters affecting structure are as follows—laser power, stripe width, number of repeated passes with different power, and type of scanning (circle, bidirectional or interlaced, etc.). Changes in the crystallographic structure are studied with regard to melt pool geometry, surface temperature, and surface heat transfer. The correlation is shown between stripe width and laser beam focal spot diameter. Depending on the ratio between stripe width and laser beam focal spot diameter one can see growth elongated and oriented grains or quasi-equiaxed non-oriented grains. The influence of the energy input on the melt pool size and the microstructure of the sample is studied. The influence of the scanning mode (bidirectional and circular) on the temperature distribution in the sample and the microstructure of the sample made of Alnico alloy is considered. All these experimental and model examples clearly demonstrate that it is possible to produce a controllable structure during LPBF process building for advanced additive manufacturing.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Pavel Kuznetsov, Anna Mozhayko, Ivan Shakirov, Vitaliy Bobyr, Mikhail Staritsyn and Anton Zhukov"},{id:"81649",title:"Pure Copper: Advanced Additive Manufacturing",slug:"pure-copper-advanced-additive-manufacturing",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103673",abstract:"This book chapter elaborates on different additive manufacturing (AM) processes of copper and copper alloys. The scope is to give the reader a basic understanding of the state-of-the-art of copper additive manufacturing by different AM technologies, such as laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), laser metal deposition (LMD), binder jetting (BJ), and metal-fused filament fabrication (M-FFF). Furthermore, we want the reader to be able to use this knowledge to find and assess potential use cases. Recently, with the commercial availability of green laser sources, the difficulties for laser processing of pure copper were overcome, which gave AM technologies, such as LPBF and LMD new momentum and increased interest. AM technologies involving a subsequent sintering step. They are relatively new and gained interest due to fast build-up rates (BJ) or ease of operation (M-FFF). We will cover important material-related properties of copper and its implications for manufacturing and application (e.g. absorption, sinterability, conductivity, and its dependency on impurities). Further, we address applications for AM copper, present the state-of-the-art for above mentioned AM technologies and share our own recent research in this field.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Lukas Stepien, Samira Gruber, Moritz Greifzu, Mirko Riede and Aljoscha Roch"},{id:"81624",title:"Functionally Modified Composites for FDM 3D Printing",slug:"functionally-modified-composites-for-fdm-3d-printing",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104637",abstract:"Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing is an additive manufacturing technique used to fabricate solid thermoplastic polymer objects directly from computer-modeled designs. The current uses for this technology are restricted due to a limited choice of materials, which offer minimal functionality to the printed 3D parts. To expand the application space for FDM-based 3D printing, this chapter is aimed to add functional attributes to printable polymers through the creation of thermoplastic composites. The work focuses on a simple fabrication method to create composite for FDM printing and analytical techniques to characterize dispersion, thermal, and mechanical properties of the nanocomposite. Lastly, the functional characteristics of the FDM printed nanocomposite including their conductivity, ferromagnetism, and radiation shielding properties were studied.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Smith Woosley and Shyam Aravamudhan"},{id:"81187",title:"Quality Control of Metal Additive Manufacturing",slug:"quality-control-of-metal-additive-manufacturing",totalDownloads:58,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103121",abstract:"Metal Additive Manufacturing (AM) is an emerging technology for rapid prototype manufacturing, and the structural integrity of printed structures is extremely important and should meet the specifications and high standards of the above industries. In several metal AM techniques, residual stresses and micro-cracks that occur during the manufacturing procedure can result in irreversible damage and structural failure of the object after its manufacturing. Thus effective quality control of AM is highly required. Most Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques (X-Ray, Computed Tomography, Thermography) are ineffective in detecting residual stresses. Bulk, cost, and resolution are limitations of such technologies. These methods are time consuming both for data acquisition and data analysis and have not yet been successfully integrated into AM technology. However two sets of NDT techniques: Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT) and Eddy Current (EC) Testing, can be applied for residual stress detection for AM techniques. Therefore a crucial and novel extension system incorporation of big data collection from sensors of the both techniques and analysis through machine learning (ML) can estimate the likelihood of the AM techniques to introduce anomalies into the printed structures, which can be used as an on-line monitoring and detection system to control the quality of AM.",book:{id:"10974",title:"Advanced Additive Manufacturing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10974.jpg"},signatures:"Bojie Sheng, Jamil Kanfoud and Tat-Hean Gan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/13.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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