Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1970",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Virtual Reality and Environments",title:"Virtual Reality and Environments",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Virtual Reality is clearly interdisciplinary research. 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She became a Teacher of Mathematics at the Berzsenyi Dániel Teacher Training College in 1988. Dr. Lányi obtained the Dr. Univ. degree at the University of Veszprém, Hungary in Physical-chemistry (1993), and the Ph.D. degree at the University of Veszprém, Hungary in Computer Science (2000). She has worked as a software engineer and as an associate professor for program languages at the University of Pannonia.\nCurrently, she is focused on virtual reality and its application, user interface design, computer graphics for informatics engineering students and using multimedia in the education for teacher training courses. Ph.D. and Masters’ supervision has an emphasis on multimedia/ virtual reality for the rehabilitation of children with disabilities and patients with mental health issues. She has supervised altogether 180 BSc and MSc thesis works from 1997. Her students received numerous awards.\nDr. Lányi received several awards, the most important ones are: “Master teacher” award of the Hungarian Ministry of Education (2001), the \\"Kalmar\\" award from the John von Neumann Computer Society (2016), the “Hungarian Higher Education Plague” of the Ministry of Human Capacities (2016), the “Diamond-Award from the Association for the Advancement of Assistive Technology in Europe (2015), which is a personal recognition, granted for outstanding work in advancing assistive technology in Europe and the “King Salman Award for Disability Research” of the King Salman Center for Disability Research (2018).\nShe was the secretariat manager of EDeAN in 2009 and the representative of Hungary in IFIP Technical Committee 13: Human-Computer Interaction (TC13) in the period of 2008-2018. 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1. Introduction
Death, the end of life, is one of the most real things in life. Therefore it has always been the major concern of people to meet with it. It is not the death but the process of dying worries people. Although the moment of death may be at any time, for some reason, it has been perceived as identical with the old age. Much research has indicated that almost in every country, particularly in the developed countries, aged population increases, which brings extra burden to the health care systems and social services. The diseases encountered in old age are mostly chronic and long lasting, which necessitate the provision of health care services in long and costly manner. This, inevitably, brings the problem of the distribution of limited sources into discussion (Aksoy, 1998). Every country has its own priorities in health services. Although most attention in the West has focused on the elderly as terminal patients, in some countries the major focus might be on younger adult AIDS patients or on children dying from malnutrition or infectious diseases. Another important category, although much smaller in number, are critically ill or extremely low birth weight babies. In each of these categories, the issues might be similar but the solutions differ significantly from country to country.
Before getting into detail on end of life decision-making, it is of benefit to give some basic information about the country. Turkey is a nation state with almost 68 million population comprising people from different ethnic backgrounds. The male and female populations are almost equal to each other. It has a young population with 55% under the age of 20 (Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry State Institute of Statistics, 2002). The major faith tradition in Turkey is Islam (95%). There are some Jews, Christians and others. Although Turkey is a secular state by its governmental system, since there is such a great majority of Muslims with a long tradition, religion plays a significant role in ethical reasoning in public mind, though not in official level. The rate of population over 65 is 8%, and the life expectancy at birth is 70.2. (Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry State Institute of Statistics, 2002) Turkey is a unique country in its region as a Muslim State officially committed to adapt western life style and tradition.
Decision-making is an important process, especially in terminal stages of the illnesses. The moral quality of a clinical decision is dependent on the process of that decision and not only on the outcome. We are accountable and responsible for the way in which our decisions are reached. Since our understanding of the patient\'s perspective will always be limited, good communication and acceptance of the patient\'s view is essential in reaching the desired goal of a consensus decision. (Randall and Downie, 1996) It is pretty easy to make the \'right decision\' if the patient can involve to the decision making process. Autonomous patients can choose the extent to which they wish to participate in decisions about these treatments; if they wish to be fully involved they are adequately informed. However, non-autonomous patients are unable to participate in deriving the balance of benefits to burdens and risk in the particular situation. Advance statements are offered as a solution in case of non-autonomous patients.
There is not a proper advance statement in Turkey. Even it is not legal to put Do-Not-Resuscitate (DNR) orders. However this does not mean that it is not practiced in clinics. Many doctors and nurses in anaesthesiology and reanimation departments reported to us that there are many voluntary and involuntary DNR orders are practiced in ICUs and the wards. Therefore there is no point to talk about the legal binding of advance statements and DNR orders. In recent years some Turkish bioethicists strongly suggested the necessity of advance statements and DNR orders. (Oguz, 2001) Oguz argues that a good application of DNR order, under the light of the concept of \'futility of treatment\', the number of euthanasia requests will decrease.
2. Information
Euthanasia is a terribly troubling word, meaning literally, according to some, “a good death,” but according to others a morally outrageous death. According to some researchers euthanasia is the act of taking the life, for reasons of mercy, of a person who is hopelessly ill. A basic distinction is made between two kinds of euthanasia, namely passive and active.
Active euthanasia is identical with mercy killing and involves taking direct action to end a life, for example, intentionally giving a person a lethal dose of a drug to end a painful and prolonged period of dying. Passive euthanasia is allowing a patient to die when he or she could have been kept alive by the appropriate medical procedures. Active euthanasia can be defined as any treatment initiated by a physician with the intent of hastening the death of another human being who is terminally ill and in severe pain or distress with the motive of relieving that person from great suffering.
Passive euthanasia can be defined or considered as discontinuing or not starting a treatment at the request of the patient. Further distinction is made between voluntary, involuntary, and non-voluntary euthanasia. According to this distinction, voluntary euthanasia occurs when the decision to terminate life by the physicians corresponds with the patient’s desire to do so and the patient willfully gives consent of its implementation. Involuntary euthanasia occurs when the decision to end life is implemented against the patient’s wishes. Non-voluntary euthanasia refers to cases where patients are unable to make their wishes known, for example a person who is brain dead and in a permanent or irreversible coma. According to another researchers active voluntary euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are often combined and mentioned in one breath. They defined active voluntary euthanasia as the deliberate termination of life, by someone other than the patient, at the patient’s request and physician-assisted suicide as intentionally helping a patient to end his or her life at his or her request. Euthanasia means ending a patient\'s life according to certain principles and under certain circumstances, where medicine can not cure or provide a life of acceptable quality. In two different ways based on physicians\' action and patients\' consent. It can be active or passive according to physicians\' actions, and it is important to separate DNR orders and physician-assisted suicide from them; especially in countries like Turkey that are debating the level of technological development and their values. According to patients\' consent, it is necessary to emphasize voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary types of euthanasia (Aksoy 2000, Aksoy 1998, Ozkara et al 2001).
3. Attitudes towards euthanasia in Turkey
Euthanasia has deep historical roots. Before Hippocrates, euthanasia was a routine procedure and physicians assumed that they had the authority to kill patients for whom they gave up the hope of recovery, without asking for their permission (Ney 1997). They accepted this as a part of their medical practice. Hippocrates regarded this procedure as a hindrance to the establishment of confidentiality between physicians and patients. Probably this is the reason for the words in The Hippocratic Oath, "I will give no deadly medicine to anyone if asked, nor suggest any such counsel." This guarantee which Hippocrates provided by his oath, established the basis of the confidence between physicians and patients for 2500 years.
The effects of the Hippocratic Oath were noticed in Anatolia in the 19th century after modern medical schools had been established. Written sources (Lequenne 1991) show that euthanasia continued to be widely used after Hippocrates and was a socially exalted procedure among Galatians who settled in Anatolia in 287 BC and some other civilizations followed them. During this period suicide was also exalted by the society, and had some similarities with the harakiri tradition in Japan. Islamic domination put an end to both the euthanasia practice and its high regard in society in Anatolia. Euthanasia was wiped out of the society\'s living conscience during the period when Anatolia used to be a part of Islamic civilization. But it has continued to be a part of the social subconscience. The contemporary situation of the concepts of death and euthanasia in Anatolia, which entered a new period after the establishment of modern Turkey, was determined by its culture which was considerably affected by this social subconscience and Islamic belief.
Euthanasia is another ethical issue related to end of life decision making. The concept of euthanasia entered the agenda in Turkey in 1975. At the beginning, it was thought to be the problem of the countries where medicine was highly developed. The medical technology in Turkey was not very well-developed to make the euthanasia debate necessary at that time. Life sustaining systems rarely existed, intensive care and health care facilities were in poor conditions and hardly accessible. It has become an important problem in Turkey in the last decade, as the result of technological and medical developments. There are still some problems about the attainment and purchasing of health care facilities, and also about the level of medical care. But especially the developments in life sustaining systems and their efficient usage in daily practice made euthanasia an important subject for society. As physicians, patients, patients\' relatives, insurance companies and jurists met the dilemma routinely, and as the mass media began to put it on the agenda more, a lot of discussions have taken place. This is an important pressure which forces the State to form some attitude about euthanasia.
The first euthanasia discussions had started in 1990s in Turkey. Official religious authorities and medical associations declared euthanasia as unacceptable. In those days there were very few people who have supported euthanasia in Turkey (Oguz, 1996). However, during the course of the time the research conducted in different centers have indicated that health care professionals, especially nurses support the assisted suicide and euthanasia (Bahcecik et al, 1998; Akcil et al, 1998; Ersoy and Altun, 2001). Despite these findings both passive and active euthanasia remain unlawful in Turkish Criminal Law. While passive euthanasia is considered as unintentional killing by law (Turkish Criminal Law. Article: 455), active euthanasia is punishable as intentional killing (Turkish Criminal Law. Article: 448) (Artuk, 2001) Like in all divinely revealed religions euthanasia is absolutely forbidden in Islamic understanding. (Rispler-Chaim, 1993)
In Turkey there is a great difference between the level of medical technology and the physician-patient relationship regarding the contemporary norms. Paternalistic attitudes are common and this also suits the expectations of society. Physicians rarely inform their patients about their diagnosis and treatment, even when it is not a fatal or hopeless situation. The primary reasons which physicians put forward about this fact are that they had to attend to too many patients and patients\' educational level was not adequate (Hayran, 1994). Undoubtedly these are important factors, but there are evidences which indicate that they can not be the main ones. Even in private clinics where the number of patients per physician is very low, physicians\' preferences regarding the relationship are quite similar to those of their colleagues in general hospitals. I think the main reason is the physicians\' identity which is determined by medical education and social status. The physician-patient relationship in Turkey totally leans on the belief that a physician always does the best for their patient and always protects life. This belief established the myth of the "little god" physician. This view began to change and be corrupted dramatically in the last few years. The most appropriate word which describes the contemporary situation is chaos.
Today, many social institutions especially the mass media severely criticize physicians\' attitudes in Turkey. Sometimes these criticisms turn out to be unfair attacks on medicine. This is the result of corruption in the myth of "little god" physician, and social disappointment about that. The associations of medical professionals try very hard to avoid any harm to medicine as a social institution while passing through this chaotic period. They try to re-establish confidentiality in physician-patient relationships on a stronger basis like the "informed consent doctrine". The foundation of the associations for specialized doctors of medicine is one of the main positive steps in realizing this purpose.
One of the most important factors which determines society\'s attitude towards euthanasia is religion. 90% of the Turkish population are Muslims. As there are various sects and tariqas that cause significant differences, it is important to begin with an overall review of Islamic approach to euthanasia. There are important differences between Islamic countries. The first group contains the countries which are governed by Islamic rules. These countries accept sheria as their legal and administrative code, like Iran and Saudi Arabia. In Iran Shia Muslims and in Saudi Arabia Sunni Muslims as sects of Islam, rule the State. The second group consists of countries which have secularly governed states, but their laws are based on sheria, like Egypt and Algeria. Actually this is the largest group. Turkey differs from these countries. Although the majority of the population is Muslim, the State is totally secular. Secularism in Turkey includes both the administrative, legislative and all other social systems. Despite a radical Islamic movement, which takes Turkey as its main target, cultural characteristics and historical background in 20th century led to a strong resistance in the society. Islam\'s approach to death is quite clear. Allah is the master of life and death. A Muslim is expected to know and accept that there are divine purposes in life\'s turning to be a painful one and in the delay of desired death. Ending life personally or asking somebody to do it instead, is regarded as an attempt to share Allah\'s power, so this is assumed to be an unforgivable sin. According to the Koran the wish for death is forbidden (Sahih-i Buhari, 1982; Nisâ sura of Koran). Suicide is the biggest sin (Sahih-i Buhari, 1982). No funeral prayer is made for such people, this means they can never be recipients of Allah\'s forgiveness. This situation affects the family as well, and causes isolation in society. Murder is a lighter sin. Even if there is no adequate reason found for tolerance, there is a chance for Allah\'s final forgiveness, because there is no rule which hinders his last prayer. When Islam\'s approach to death is examined with regards to the results of euthanasia, it is clear that in countries where sheria is in operation either totally or only legally, practicing euthanasia is impossible. Since Imam-i Gazali, an Islamic commentator (Karaman, 1971), Islamic rules have been assumed to have reached perfection, so there could be no additional rules except the interpretation of the existing ones. In Islam, rules about death are very clear that there is no place for interpretation. Islamic rules put every aspect of life in an order and health care issues are one of these aspects. Because of this, medicine in Islamic countries has developed according to these rules. This development has not reached the level of modern medicine yet, so euthanasia is not considered a real problem yet.
4. Turkish heath professionals’ attitudes towards euthanasia
The concept of euthanasia and heath professional’s attitudes towards euthanasia have been discussed in many research in Turkey. Mayda et al (2005) in their study reported that 43.8% of the oncologists did not object to euthanasia. Some 33.7% had been asked to perform euthanasia and 41.5% believed that euthanasia was performed secretly although it is against the law in Turkey. Forty-two doctors (50.6%) noted that they had withdrawn treatment in patients. The most frequently cited reasons for objecting to euthanasia were its unethical nature and the possibility of abuse. Although the overwhelming majority of the population in Turkey is Muslim, religious rules are not seen as the leading cause of objection to euthanasia. In fact, secularism and education may have influenced people’s attitudes toward euthanasia. This is clearly ref lected in the questionnaire completed by doctors, who have a high level of education. Doctors who encounter terminally ill patients with cancer should update their knowledge about patients’ rights and euthanasia. Doctors, who are often asked to perform euthanasia, especially in the cancer setting, can help to illuminate the debates about euthanasia.
In Turkey several studies have shown the following to be the most frequently given reasons for objecting to euthanasia: the possibility of its abuse (41.6%–72.8%) and conf lict with ethical values (24.9% and %32.9) or with religious beliefs (18.7% and %21.7) (Ozkara et al 2001,2002,2003,2004a,2004b). In another study from Turkey have been administrated by Turla et al (2006). The study paticipants 43.5 % were medical doctor and 45.5% auxiliary health professionals. Of all participants, 33.6% did not object to euthanasia and 7.9% were asked to perform euthanasia. Eighty point seven percent of the participants noted that euthanasia could be abused even if a euthanasia law were passed. Only 7.9% of the health professionals were requested to perform euthanasia. This can be explained by that fact that the study included not only physicians but also other health professionals. It can be concluded that the health professionals should have a chance to discuss euthanasia and that their attitude toward and their expectations and worries about euthanasia should be taken into account when a euthanasia law is drafted.
The one of cross-sectional study was evaluated health professional’s attitudes towards euthanasia in Manisa and Erciyes in Turkey (Karadeniz et al. 2008). Participants were doctors, nurses, and midwives in this study. Whereas 38.4% of the health personnel utterly agree to the definition of euthanasia as an act or practice of painlessly putting to death a person suffering from an incurable disease at his or her will, 11.2% of them express their absolute objection to the definition. While 46.7% of them fully support the idea that religious beliefs affect the decision to undergo euthanasia, 28% support the idea simply, and 4.3% of them don’t support the idea at all. The idea that life support to a patient should be decreased if he or she expresses his wish to undergo euthanasia is rejected by 35.4% of them, but welcomed by 28.2%. However, 18.7% of them were undecided; 40.7% of them completely disagreed to the idea that a patient should not be fed if he or she expresses his wish to undergo euthanasia; 33.9% simply disagreed the idea; and 15% were undecided. The patient’s wish to undergo euthanasia if he or she cannot live without a life support is rejected by 27.9% of them, whereas 25% of them are undecided. The view that euthanasia should be a legal procedure in all countries is supported by 16.5% and rejected by 29.3%. However, 24.4% of them are undecided. Those who say they will not perform euthanasia at all even if it becomes a legal procedure comprise 43.4% of them; while 5.7% say they can; and 23.9% of them are undecided. That the decision to undergo euthanasia should be given by the patient himself or herself is completely rejected by 21.7%; supported by 24.8%; and 19.9% are undecided. The percentages of health personnel who utterly disagree and who simply disagree to the opinion that the life of a patient should be terminated if he or she is in the vegetative state are the same: 26.6%. Those who are undecided are 28.2%; 42.4% of them say that they themselves would undergo euthanasia, while 17.9% of them say they would not; 5.7% of them were undecided. In Turkey, the approach of the health professional groups related closely with the subject and patients is being researched in many studies.
Another research investigates thoroughly the psychologists\' approach to euthanasia practices in Turkey which is considered illegal in Turkey. The research participants were psychologists (n=100) who were working in Izmir (West Anatolia) and Ankara (Middle Anatolia). The participants were found to believe that euthanasia is being secretly practiced in Turkey despite being illegal and 85% view euthanasia as a legal right for patients with certain diseases (Ozkara 2004c).
Other study has been carried out to determine the opinions of nurses working in intensive care units (ICU) of the several hospitals in Adana (South Anatolia). This descriptive study was performed on 186 nurses working in the ICUs. The mean age of the nurses who 26.9 ±3.9, 73.7% of them had graduated from vocationals schools, and themean duration of professional experience was 6.6 ±5.1. Of all the nurses, 50.0% were married, 44.6% working at the ICU of internal medicine; 55.9% thought that euthanasia was the right of a patient as a human being, and 24.8% of them would ask for euthanasia if they were bedridden. Legal euthanasia in Turkey was not supported by 39.8% of the nurses, and there were more nurses supporting the legality of euthanasia (both active and passive). In case it becomes legal, 63.4% of the nurses think that euthanasia should be practiced by a team that determined by law, 81.7% would not want to take part in an euthanasia practice, 81.2% think that it could be exploited by people.of all the nurses 44.1% believe that euthanasia is being practiced in some conditions in our country. It was seen that nurses working in at ICU\'s support passive euthanasia rather than active euthanasia (Kumas 2005).
Tepehan, et al (2009) have evaluated doctors\' and nurses\' attitudes to euthanasia in intensive care units and surgical, internal medicine and paediatric units in Turkey. A total of 205 doctors and 206 nurses working in several hospitals in Istanbul participated. Significantly higher percentages of doctors (35.3%) and nurses (26.6%) working in intensive care units encountered euthanasia requests than those working in other units. Doctors and nurses caring for terminally ill patients in intensive care units differed considerably in their attitudes to euthanasia and patient rights from other health care staff. Recently, physician assisted suicide has been the topic of much controversy. Some nurses may see assisted suicide as an ethical dilemma; other nurses assisted suicide is still illegal.
A descriptive study investigated the current status of ethics instruction in Turkish nursing education programs. The sample for this study comprised 39 nursing schools, which represented 51% of all nursing schools in Turkey. The results revealed that 18 of these nursing schools incorporated an ethics course into undergraduate and three into graduate level programs. Most of the educators focused on the basic concepts of ethics, deontological theory, ethical principles, ethical problems in health care, patient rights and codes of ethics for nurses. More than half of the educators believed that students\' theoretical knowledge of ethics is applied to their clinical experiences. The teaching methods used included discussion in class, lectures, case studies, small group discussion, dramatization and demonstration. Assessment was carried out by means of written essays and written examinations (Gorgulu & Dinc 2007).
Another study were to give Turkish university students on attitudes to euthanasia, and to assess the impact of type of education on attitudes towards euthanasia and to determine the influence of socio-demographics on attitudes of the students towards euthanasia. In total, 878 volunteered undergraduate registered students with the mean age of 21.13±1.92 year from six universities were surveyed. The students were divided into two groups according to education program as follows: Health Science students (HS) and Liberal Arts and Business students (LAB).Two students major groups-Health Science (n = 421) and Liberal Arts and Business (n = 457), were compared. 48.4% of the students were positive to euthanasia. The socio-demographic factors, including mother`s education level, family`s socio-economic background, religious belief and religiosity were seen to be influenced on attitudes towards euthanasia among the overall students. No significant difference regarding the acceptance of euthanasia between the Health Science majors and the Liberal Arts and Business majors. Mainly, 40% of the Muslim students are opposed to euthanasia, whereas 86.7% of the atheist students are the most in favour of euthanasia. The religion was selected as the most important reason for being negative to euthanasia. The results showed that resistance to euthanasia is apparently associated with demographics and non-scientific reasoning among Turkish undergraduate students (Bas Aslan & Cavlak 2007).
While a topic long debated in Western nations at a public level, euthanasia (Physician-assisted suicide) in Turkey has been a subject relegated to debate among a small group of subject experts. For the first time, as a component of Turkey’s First Gerontology Atlas (GeroAtlas) research project, euthanasia has been investigated from the perspective of the elderly. Based on the analysis of gender specific data acquired in the project, a number of observations have been presented. The purpose of this research is not solely to present the perspectives of the elderly concerning euthanasia, but to call attention to the need to bring deliberation on this topic into the realm of public opinion, to go deeper and bring new perspectives to light, and emphasize the need for people from all segments of society to enter this debate (Tufan 2009).
In other interventional study was undertaken to assess the impact of physiotherapy education on the knowledge and attitudes of physiotherapists (PTs) and physiotherapy students (PSs) toward euthanasia. The study, which included a total of 494 participants (311 PTs; 183 PSs) aged 18 to 52 y from the western and central portions of Turkey. Results indicated that PTs (48.9%) were more likely to approve of euthanasia than PSs (38.3%) (P<.05). The legalization of euthanasia was favored by 43.7% of PTs, compared with 29.5% of PSs (P<.05). On the other hand, PTs and PSs expressed similar views regarding euthanasia, including reasons for accepting or opposing euthanasia and acceptable conditions for its use (P>.05). Overall results showed that sex and age had no effect on whether euthanasia was accepted (P>.05); religiousness was found to have the greatest effect on attitudes toward euthanasia (P<.05). The findings of the current study suggest that (1) the attitudes of PTs are different from those of PSs, and (2) the Islamic point of view has a negative impact on the attitudes of PTs and PSs toward euthanasia (Cavlak, et al 2007).
Kok, et al (2003) in their study to determine the approach and expectation of physicians at Erzurum (East Anatolia) on the subject of euthanasia. In this cross-sectional study, a questionnaire was applied to 69 physicians working at Erzurum. Out of 69 physicians that replied the questionnaire 55% was male, 63% of physicians declared that theyare against euthanasia practice to be legalised. 68 % of participants said that euthanasia discussion in our country is beneficial. In other study 87 physicians working at Duzce, an important city of Black Sea region. 72% of participants were male and the mean age is 33.147.29 years, and 54% of participants were specialist. 48% of physicians declared that they are against euthanasia practice to be legalised. While only 12% of the doctors attending our study declared that they had come across formal request of euthanasia 42% said that they believed that euthanasia in our country has been practiced secretly although it is forbidden. 84 % of participants said that euthanasia discussion in our country is beneficial (Ozkara, et al 2004d).
Bilgen, et al (2009) in their study was to assess the attitudes and practices of doctors and nurses about end-of-life decisions and compare our results with those observed in different European countries. The data was collected from nurses and doctors, using a standardized questionnaire adapted from the EURONIC study. A total of 250 structured questionnaires were delivered, and 135 (77%) of them were accepted for analysis. The end-of-life decision was taken in 39.4% of the hospitals and personal involvement was 40%. Although an ethical committee was present in the hospitals of 61.5% of responders, a written policy was present in only 3.1% of the units. The mean attitude score was 6.5. Seventy-five percent of the contributors agreed that everything possible should be done to ensure a neonate’s survival regardless of the prognosis and 65.2% of responders believed that costs of health care should not affect nontreatment decisions. Most of the responders (65.2%) agreed that severe mental disability as an outcome was equal to or worse than death. In patients in whom medical intervention would be futile, or would not offer sufficient benefit to justify the burdens imposed, hospitals should set up a functional ethical committee in order to decide in matters of withholding or withdrawing intervention.
Another study was to reveal what pneumologists who worked in oncology clinics thought about euthanasia. The mean age of the pneumologists included in the study (n=110) was 32.90±7.01 years. Of the pneumologists, 40.8% were against euthanasia and 46.7% believed that euthanasia was performed in Turkey although it was illegal. Thirty-one point five percent of the pneumologists working in oncology clinics and 14.3% of the pneumologists working in clinics other than oncology clinics faced euthanasia requests. The opinions of health professionals taking care of terminally ill patients on euthanasia and patient rights are very important. Frequent requests for euthanasia and the health professionals\' belief that euthanasia is performed secretly in Turkey demonstrate that euthanasia should be discussed openly and attitude and approach towards euthanasia should be investigated (Yalniz, et al 2010).
In many European countries, the last decade has been marked by an increasing debate about the acceptability and regulation of euthanasia and other end-of-life decisions in medical practice. Growing public sensibility to a \'right to die\' for terminally ill patients has been one of the main constituents of these debates. Cohen, et al (2006) have described and compared acceptance of euthanasia among the general public in 33 European countries. Results showed that the acceptance of euthanasia tended to be high in some countries (e.g. the Netherlands, Denmark, France, Sweden), while a markedly low acceptance was found in others (e.g. Romania, Malta and Turkey). A multivariate ordinal regression showed that weaker religious belief was the most important factor associated with a higher acceptance; however, there were also socio-demographic differences: younger cohorts, people from non-manual social classes, and people with a higher educational level tended to have a higher acceptance of euthanasia. While religious belief, socio-demographic factors, and also moral values (i.e. the belief in the right to self-determination) could largely explain the differences between countries, our findings suggest that perceptions regarding euthanasia are probably also influenced by national traditions and history (e.g. Germany).
5. Factors of affecting attitudes towards euthanasia
According to several study of result have described various factors which have a great influence on most individuals’ view of euthanasia. These factors include cultural and religious beliefs, age, gender and socio-demographic factors.
5.1. Age
Age has a very strong impact on people’s attitudes towards euthanasia. An elderly person with a terminal illness is vulnerable. They may lack the knowledge and skills to alleviate their symptoms, and may well suffer from fear about the future and anxiety about the effect of the illness on others. The elderly person’s decision making about euthanasia may be affected by confusion, dementia, depression or other related symptoms, which could be relieved with appropriate treatment and social support. Great pressure is experienced by elderly people to request euthanasia because many of them already feel a burden to their families and caregivers. Another study in India to determine the elderly’s attitude towards death, the majority were not afraid of death, due to their strong faith in God. About 61.5% of the elderly supported euthanasia, but expressed concern that euthanasia might be misused as a means of getting rid of invalid elderly persons and avoiding the responsibility of caring for them. In the study conducted by one researcher a significant association between age and the choice for euthanasia was found. It was also reported another study that support for voluntary euthanasia is even stronger among the elderly.
5.2. Race
Life-prolonging techniques became increasingly available and there were possibly generational and cultural changes in patients’ attitudes. According to several researchers attitudes towards the dying patient and the appropriate treatment approach are based on cultural and emotional factors. A cross-cultural perspective on any aspect of the attitude process could enrich our understanding in that it could provide insights that reach to the very core of societal stability. The first process is the way we express our attitudes toward other people and secondly is attitude change.
5.3. Religion
It is simply assumed that most Christians are united in their opposition to assisted suicide and voluntary euthanasia. Although many regular churchgoers apparently agree with legalizing some forms of active euthanasia, most theologians and church leaders remained opposed. Some church leaders suggest that to accept that one is not going to get well and therefore to request help to die is an act of faithless misery, a decree of hopelessness, and as such an offence against two of the central theological qualities, faith and hope. In the study conducted by another researcher, it was reported that Buddhists ideas in relation to euthanasia converge with Christian views.
In South Africa Muslims made a declaration that active euthanasia where patients may end their lives by lethal injection is impermissible under any circumstances and that passive euthanasia where patients may withhold treatment or artificial life-support is only permissible if a trustworthy, reliable opinion and specialist feels that there is no hope of survival. In the study to determine American attitudes toward the physician’s role were found that various religious groups have strong effects on attitudes toward many social, political and moral issues.
Protestants have been found to hold different attitudes concerning active euthanasia than Catholics. Among Protestant clergy, 73.2% accepted active euthanasia as a viable option, as opposed to 63.1% of the Catholic clergy. Protestants tended to favour active euthanasia more often than Catholics.
5.4. Gender
Patients’ choices for care in the event of terminal illness relate to a complicated set of demographic, educational and cultural factors. One of study found that women wanted life-sustaining treatments less often than did men. In a study that was conducted by another researcher about euthanasia and women, when mercy killings occur they are usually administered by men for women, with two-thirds of those being female. She also reported that women are over represented in assisted suicide and euthanasia reports. In addition, women will be affected most by euthanasia simply because they live longer and have fewer resources than men.
5.5. Socio-demographic factors
Researchers found that social changes, such as circumstantial changes, have an effect on people’s attitudes towards euthanasia in South Africa. Another study was shown that economic factors play a role in the individuals’ request for euthanasia. They mentioned that as medical treatment at the end of life becomes more than ever expensive, health insurance above all in the USA are beginning to question the economic soundness of providing long-term treatment to terminally ill patients. According to many researchers highly educated, politically liberal people with a less religious self-perception are most likely to accept active euthanasia in the case of a terminally ill patient (Ramabele 2004).
Many countries display their approach towards euthanasia according to their own conditions. Euthanasia is legal only in Holland and Belgium. Legal status of euthanasia varies from country to country. In contrast, euthanasia is stil illegal in many countrys. It was defined as “murder on request” in criminal laws of some countries such as Germany and Austria and it was not clearly defined but prohibited in some other countries such as Japan and Turkey.
In Japan, people who perform euthanasia are sentenced to six months to seven years imprisonment. In Turkey, active euthanasia is not clearly defined in the criminal law, but it is considered “murder.” There is not an agreement about passive euthanasia, but it is not thought to deserve strict punishment. Assisted suicide is considered a kind of help to commit suicide.
6. Conclusions
In this book chapter we want to discuss Turkish health professional’s attitudes towards euthanasia. Under these conditions, it is important to keep the discussion healthy and alive. Any effort which tends to reach a consensus on this subject will help us in finding a way towards a rational solution for the euthanasia debate in Turkey.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Information",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Attitudes towards euthanasia in Turkey",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Turkish heath professionals’ attitudes towards euthanasia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Factors of affecting attitudes towards euthanasia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1. Age",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2. Race",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3. Religion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4. Gender",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.5. Socio-demographic factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AksoyS.1998Saglik Kaynaklarinin Dagitiminda ve Tedavi Kararinin Verilmesinde Kullanilan Kriterlerin Etik Tartismasi’ (Ethical Discussion of Criteria Used in the Distribution of Health Care Resources), (eds.) Pelin, S., Arda, B., Ozcelikay, G., Ozgur, A. ve Senler, F. 3. 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U.GursoS.YagciN.YeldanI.2007Attitudes of physiotherapists and physiotherapy students toward euthanasia: A comparative study.Advances in Therapy24113545\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B34",body:'KokN. A.OzkaraE.DakgicM.SenerM.2003The opinions of physicians working at Erzurum about euthanasia. Turk J Emerg Med. 3(2): 41-46 (In Turkish).'},{id:"B35",body:'OzkaraE.BukanB.DalgicM.MaydaS. A.2004dOpinions of physicians working at düzce about euthanasia. Adli Psikiyatri Dergisi 1(1):9-13 (In Turkish).'},{id:"B36",body:'BilgenH.TopuzogluA.KuscuK.et al.2009End-of-life decisions in the newborn period: attitudes and practices of doctors and nurses The Turkish Journal of Pediatrics 5124856'},{id:"B37",body:'YalnizE.OzkaraE.KomurcuogluB.et al.2010Pneumologısts’ approach towards euthanasıa Turkish Journal Geriatrics 13421924'},{id:"B38",body:'CohenJ.MarcouxI.BilsenJ.et al.2006European public acceptance of euthanasia: Socio-demographic and cultural factors associated with the acceptance of euthanasia in 33 European countries Social Science & Medicine 63374356'},{id:"B39",body:'RamabeleT.2004Attitudes of the elderly towards euthanasia:A cross cultural study.Master Thesis). Faculty of Humanities Departmant of Psychology University of Free State.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Gulten Kaptan",address:"",affiliation:'
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"242",title:"Euthanasia",subtitle:'The "Good Death" Controversy in Humans and Animals',fullTitle:'Euthanasia - The "Good Death" Controversy in Humans and Animals',slug:"euthanasia-the-good-death-controversy-in-humans-and-animals",publishedDate:"September 15th 2011",bookSignature:"Josef Kuře",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-260-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6484-5",editors:[{id:"30926",title:"Prof.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Kuře",slug:"josef-kure",fullName:"Josef Kuře"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"19609",title:"Good Death Within Its Historical Context and as a Contemporary Challenge: A Philosophical Clarification of the Concept of “Euthanasia”",slug:"good-death-within-its-historical-context-and-as-a-contemporary-challenge-a-philosophical-clarificati",totalDownloads:3588,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Josef Kuře",authors:[{id:"30926",title:"Prof.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Kuře",fullName:"Josef Kuře",slug:"josef-kure"}]},{id:"19610",title:"Euthanasia: A Confounding and Intricate Issue",slug:"euthanasia-a-confounding-and-intricate-issue",totalDownloads:2354,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Isabelle Marcoux",authors:[{id:"37725",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Marcoux",fullName:"Isabelle Marcoux",slug:"isabelle-marcoux"}]},{id:"19611",title:"Voluntary Active Euthanasia: The Debate",slug:"voluntary-active-euthanasia-the-debate",totalDownloads:11073,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Louis-Jacques van Bogaert",authors:[{id:"33347",title:"Prof.",name:"Louis-Jacques",middleName:null,surname:"van Bogaert",fullName:"Louis-Jacques van Bogaert",slug:"louis-jacques-van-bogaert"}]},{id:"19612",title:"Euthanasia: Between Personal Moral and Civic Ethics",slug:"euthanasia-between-personal-moral-and-civic-ethics",totalDownloads:2799,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Begoña Román",authors:[{id:"35721",title:"Prof.",name:"Begoña",middleName:null,surname:"Román",fullName:"Begoña Román",slug:"begona-roman"}]},{id:"19613",title:"Handling End-of-Life Care in Medical Decision Making: On a Bioethical View",slug:"handling-end-of-life-care-in-medical-decision-making-on-a-bioethical-view",totalDownloads:2007,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Maribel Bont-Paredes, Carmen Malpica-Gracian and Carlos Rojas-Malpica",authors:[{id:"32832",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Bont-Paredes",fullName:"Maribel Bont-Paredes",slug:"maribel-bont-paredes"},{id:"48687",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas",fullName:"Carlos Rojas",slug:"carlos-rojas"},{id:"48688",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Malpica",fullName:"Carmen Malpica",slug:"carmen-malpica"}]},{id:"19614",title:"Euthanasia, Dignity, Autonomy - A Reflection on Medicine",slug:"euthanasia-dignity-autonomy-a-reflection-on-medicine",totalDownloads:4289,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Dominique A. 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\n
1. Introduction
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Voltage source converter (VSC) is widely used in industrial, commercial and renewable power generation applications. Out of many possible configurations, the three-phase and three-wire is widely used. During the last decade, the penetration of renewable energy sources has increased around the world. This is due to the increased concern worldwide about the carbon emission [1, 2]. The utilisation of energy from uncertain and variable sources has become possible with the use of these converters only.
\n
For the purpose of this study, the analysis of VSCs is carried out assuming the ideal operating conditions of grid. But VSCs are never operating under such conditions in practical. In a relatively weak system, VSCs are subject to various power quality disturbances, such as unbalance voltage, voltage swell and swag, notches, etc. [3]. The occurrence of such disturbances causes various problems like ripple in torque of generator and motor, increased losses, abnormal tripping of protective devices, malfunction of sophisticated control system, reduction in the expected lifetime of equipment, etc. [4].
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There are two types of harmonics generated by VSCs. One is characteristics harmonics, which are related with the switching operations of the IGBTs inside the VSC. And second is non-characteristics harmonics. The voltage ripple on DC side of VSC generates harmonics on its AC side current. According to [5], the non-characteristics harmonics are generated by the unbalanced voltage in the AC side. However the quantification of magnitude of such harmonics is not simple and cannot be done with deterministic method. The non-characteristics harmonics are considered as the steady-state low-frequency components which would not appear if the grid voltage is balanced. The unbalance grid voltage has fundamental frequency negative sequence component and third-order positive sequence component.
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Though it is possible to eliminate zero sequence third harmonic component using transformer of proper vector group, the non-characteristics third-order positive sequence harmonics cannot eliminate transformers with delta-connected winding.
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In [6], the author has proposed DC voltage control to eliminate DC oscillating voltage when AC side is unbalanced. To achieve this, VSC has to operate with constant AC power control. However, the effect of control on AC current is not discussed. It is important to analyse the distorted and unbalanced AC side current, when such control is implemented. In this case, the currents of AC side of converter contain non-characteristics low-frequency component such as fundamental negative sequence and third harmonic components of positive and negative sequence.
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\n
\n
2. Modelling of the voltage source converter
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The total DC current Idc is flowing to the DC side of VSC. Vdc is the instantaneous voltage across the capacitor, and id is the instantaneous DC current. The quality factor of DC capacitor is assumed to be high, so the series resistance is neglected. The instantaneous power is supplied by the renewable energy source, i.e. wind turbine. The instantaneous current Is is supplied by the external source. It is equal to zero when VSC operates as a reactive power compensator.
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The block diagram of VSC control structure is depicted in Figure 1. The control system consists of (i) voltage control, (ii) a phase lock loop (PLL), (iii) current reference calculation block and (iv) current control. The real power reference is calculated by the PI controller, which considers the DC voltage and desired active power through the VSC to the grid. The instantaneous reactive power is calculated by the separate loop, which may consider either the desired power factor or the reference voltage. The dq frame is synchronised with the positive sequence fundamental voltage of the grid at PCC with the help of PLL. It converts three phase voltages Va, Vb and Vc into Vd+ and Vq+, which are converted in the alpha-beta reference frame voltages Vα and Vβ. Then current reference is obtained by the α-β to abc transformation. These reference currents are compared with actual current, and modulating signals md and mq are generated. These signals are finally transformed into ma, mb and mc to generate pulse width modulated (PWM) signal.
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Figure 1.
Control structure of grid-connected wind converters.
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Both switching frequency and grid voltage distortion can cause poor power quality. A filter design is a subject that requires trade-off between filter performance and the control bandwidth. Filters are required to meet power quality standard, avoid parallel resonance and improve power quality.
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Inverter for grid interfacing will need to incorporate interface filters to attenuate the injection of current harmonics.
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\n
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3. Impedance-based stability analysis
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This method was proposed in [7]. The system impedance is partitioned into source and grid impedance. The source impedance is either represented by Thevenin’s equivalent circuit or Norton equivalent circuit (Figures 2 and 3). Thevenin’s equivalent circuit consists of ideal voltage source in series with the series impedance (Zs), whereas the load impedance is modelled by series impedance (Zl). Since the converter circuit is non-linear, it is represented by the small signal circuit. This linear representation of circuit is valid only for the small perturbation of signal. With this assumption, the current (I) flowing from source to load is given by
System stability analysis is based on the assumption that the source voltage and load impedance remain stable. So, V(s) and 1/Z(s) are stable. So, the stability depends on the extreme right-hand side of Eq. (2). It is given by
The close observation of Eq. (3) reveals the important characteristics. It is a transfer function with unity gain and feedback equal to Zs(s)/Zl(s). According to the linear control theory, the H(s) is stable, if and if only, when ration Zs(s)/Zl(s) meets the requirement of Nyquist stability criterion [7].
\n
In the above analysis for stability, it is assumed that the source is ideal voltage source and it remains stable under unloaded condition. However, the grid-connected inverters are usually current controlled. Hence above analysis is not much useful. So, the source should be represented as current source. To arrive at the equivalent current source, the same small signal voltage source is modified. The voltage across load is given by
Similar to the above analysis, the current source is assumed to be stable under unloaded condition. The load is stable when connected to ideal current source. Under this condition, I(s) and 1/Yl(s) are stable. Under this condition, stability of V(s) depends on stability of second term of Eq. (5). This again resembles the closed-loop transfer function with negative feedback. The gain is unity and the feedback factor is Ys(s)/Yl(s). Therefore the system is stable, if, along with above conditions, it meets the Nyquist criterion. In Eq. (5) admittances are used instead of impedance, though the analysis still can be carried out in terms of the impedances. In this case, Eq. (5) becomes
It is important to note the requirement of stability. In the voltage source model, the output impedance of source should be as low as possible (ideally zero); whereas in the current source model, the output impedance should be as high as possible (ideally infinite).
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\n
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4. Grid-connected inverters
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The modelling of impedance of grid-connected VSC has very important use in analysis of stability and resonance phenomena when converter is integrated into the grid [5]. The grid-connected converter used in renewable sources is modelled as a current source in parallel with an impedance, i.e. Norton’s equivalent circuit [6]. The stability of grid-connected inverter can be determined by Nyquist criterion [8]. The control structure of most of the VSCs is developed in the rotating dq reference frame [7]. The phase lock loop is used to synchronise converter with grid [9]. The use of complex multiple-loop control structure introduces non-linearities. These are generally overlooked in the simplified low-order modelling [10]. On the flip side, the detailed model introduces complexity and cross-couplings between various terms, which makes the determination of output impedance cumbersome. The trade-off way suggested in some literatures is to linearise the model by small signal analysis technique.
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The impedance of converter-interconnected generator is affected by various factors such as control parameters, PLL, switching delays and converter harmonic filters. The converter is basically controlled by output current signal. In Figure 4, i1 is the converter current and i2 is the grid current. The converter is controlled either by i1 or i2. If the grid current is the control variable, then the current control loop is
where Y21 is the forward trans-admittance of the filter, \n\n\nG\nPI\n\n\ns\n\n\n is the proportional-integral-type current controller and \n\n\nG\nD\n\n\ns\n\n\n is the switching delay. Here, the converter output voltage is considered as pure sinusoidal; if there is a noise in the voltage, then it needs to be considered as a disturbance signal. If, the converter is controlled by taking converter current i1, then Y21 is replaced by output conductance Y11. The forward transconductance Y21 is given by
Higher-order controller also can be used for current control, but here simple PI controller is considered for the sake of simplicity. The delay, estimated by Pade’s approximation technique, is given by
The frequency response of output impedance is plotted here with the line impedance. The phase at the intersection of two curves gives the phase margin (PM).
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\n
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5. Phase lock loop
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\n
\n\n\nG\nPLL\n\n\ns\n\n=\nf\n\ns\nw\nk\n\n\nE11
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The phase lock loop is required for PI-based controller. So, the structure of PLL should be thoroughly assessed for stability. Proper structure of PLL and control scheme helps to mitigate adverse impact on the system. The purpose of PLL is to synchronise converter with grid. Harmonics in the grid may penetrate to the converter through the PI controller. If control parameters are not properly chosen, this may produce harmonics through circular effect. Figure 5 shows the block diagram of PLL. The detail block diagram is given in Figure 6.
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Figure 5.
Phase lock loop.
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Figure 6.
Block diagram of simple phase lock loop.
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Figure 6 is the traditional second-order generalised integrator–quadrature signal generator (SOGI-QSG) PLL. It can filter out higher-order harmonics, where ui is the input signal; ui′ and qui′ are two output signals, which are in quadrature; k is the damping coefficient; and ω′ is the output angular frequency of PLL. Eqs. (14) and (15) show the transfer function of PLL.
In traditional SOGI-QSG PLL, the DC component in the input signal is not suppressed by the PLL. To overcome this problem, a minor modification is made in above PLL. The modified PLL is shown in Figure 7.
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Figure 7.
Block diagram of modified phase lock loop.
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Transfer functions of modified PLL are given in Eqs. (16)–(18). This structure reduces the tracking error of PLL.
The bode plot of one of the PLL used in [12] is given here. The bandwidth of the PLL is 33 Hz. It attenuates harmonics of 1 kHz to −30 dB. However, the effect of PLL with other controllers and output filter needs to be investigated for crucial stability analysis (Figure 8).
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Figure 8.
Frequency response of simple phase lock loop.
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\n
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6. Damped passive filter topologies
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Different types of passive filters are used in converter-based renewable generation sources. The effectiveness of filter, particularly passive type, primarily depends on the grid strength and variation of grid impedance with time. LCL is the common type of filter used widely. The variation in grid impedance affects the performance of LCL filter. Hence, the design of LCL filter is a trade-off between robustness and damping of resonance. The effective impedance with simple PI controller is explained here with RL filter topology.
Equation (25) shows that there are two zeros and one pole. First, the output impedance decreases at −20 dB per decade up to first zero at α. At α, the impedance response becomes flat, and at β the impedance starts increasing at 20 dB per decade (Figure 9). So, the response of integrated filter becomes similar to that of series resonance filter. The selection of α and β depends on the parameter selection of Lfc, Rfc, kP and ki. Bode plot for RL filter without and with PI current controller is given in Figures 10 and 11, respectively.
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Figure 9.
Grid-connected inverter with filter.
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Figure 10.
Frequency response of impedance with RL filter without PI controller.
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Figure 11.
Frequency response of impedance with RL filter with PI controller.
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6.2 L-C filter
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LC filter is used in converters for industrial applications like variable frequency drive (VFD) and uninterrupted power supply (UPS). It is simple in construction and relatively less costly. The analysis of LC filter with PI controller is given here (Figure 12).
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Figure 12.
L-C filter.
\n
As per the standard practice, the value of L is selected such that its impedance at fundamental frequency should not drop by more than 3% of rated voltage. The capacitive reactance offers 1/5th of the fundamental inductive reactance at switching frequency of converter (around 3–4 kHz) to absorb harmonics effectively. Based on these criteria, LC filter is widely designed. The frequency response of LC filter with and without PI controller is given in Figures 13 and 14, respectively. It is clear from the difference in bode plot that PI controller changes the frequency response.
\n
Figure 13.
Frequency response of LC filter without PI controller.
\n
Figure 14.
Frequency response of LC filter with PI controller.
\n
\n
\n
6.3 L-C-L filter
\n
Initially LC filter was used for converter applications, but grid-connected inverter has unique requirements that LC filter may not provide. Properly designed LCL filter may overcome the drawbacks of LC filter (Figure 15).
Figure 16 shows the frequency response of LCL filter together with PI controller. It is clear from Eq. (29) and from Figure 16 that the PI controller increases the order of filter, so the frequency response of passive filter gets changed by the controller action.
\n
Figure 16.
Frequency response of LCL filter with PI controller.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Optimised filter design
\n
The design criterion for filter design should comply with the regulatory requirement. As per IEEE 519-1992 standard, the current harmonics for weak grid condition (Isc/IL) should be less than 0.3%. The ripple is caused by pulse width modulated signal. Output voltage varies from zero level to DC voltage level (Vdc). The modulated wave causes ripple in the current, which can be reduced by proper selection of output filter parameters. Typical L-C-L filter is used in most of the inverter. The L1-C-L2 filter has three unknowns. The selection of these parameters depends on various factors. Grid condition is one of them. The strength of the grid decides the effectiveness of filters. Typical grid impedance varies from 5 to 8% with X/R ratio in the range of 7–10 [13].
\n
The switching frequency decides the ripple level and ripple frequency. Generally, inverter switching frequency remains in the range of 3–5 kHz. The ripple current is reduced either by increasing switching frequency or by using passive filter at the inverter/converter output. Higher switching frequency is selected to reduce the ripple current at the generation point, but it adversely affects the converter (IGBT) losses [14]. The second option is to use large inductor at the output of converter, but this not only incurs high cost but also increases the core losses. Typically 20% ripple current is expected in the output current. Keeping this in consideration, the inductor L1 is given by [7]
The capacitor rating is selected such that the reactive power of capacitor is neither too high nor too low. Higher reactive power demands more power from converter, which causes more loss in reactor L1 and also more loss in converter switches. A lower value of capacitor will increase the inductor size. So, the capacitor is selected so that the reactive power should be in the range of 15–20% of the rated power.
In LCL filter, the damping can be achieved by simply adding series resistance in series with capacitor C. It is obvious that large value of damping resistance (Rd) gives large damping. But damping is effective around the resonance point only [15]. Above the resonance point, damping weakens. Also, the large value of resistance causes higher losses (Figure 17).
\n
Figure 17.
Type I LCL filter.
\n
Impedance of Type I LCL filter with damping resistance is given by
Frequency response of LCL filter with damping resistor is given in Figure 18. The grid parameters are Lg = 0.212 mH and Rg = 0.0095 Ohm, whereas the filter parameters are L1 = 0.450 mH, L2 = 0.300 mH and C = 270 uF. The damping resistance is varied from 0.05 to 0.8 Ohm. It is clear from the plot that the response of impedance is similar to inductive impedance. The notch is observed at the resonant frequency, which can be dampened by resistor in series with capacitor. The gain margin is −40 dB and phase margin is around 120°. So, as per the Nyquist criterion, the filter response is very stable.
\n
Figure 18.
Nyquist plot of Type I LCL filter.
\n
\n
\n
7.1.2 Type II filter
\n
In Type II LCL filter (Figure 19), the damping can be achieved by simply adding a parallel combination of resistor and inductor in series with capacitor C. The effect of inductor is investigated using Nyquist plot. The value of Rf = 10 Ohm and Lf is varied from 50 to 500 μH. The effect of increase in Lf observed using Nyquist plot is given in Figure 20.
\n
Figure 19.
Type II LCL filter.
\n
Figure 20.
Nyquist plot of Type II LCL filter.
\n
Impedance of Type II LCL filter with damping inductor and resistance is given by
From the bode graph, it is observed that the gain margin is 70–100 dB for various values of Lf. Similarly, the phase margin is 270°. As the value of Lf is increased, there will be reduction in the gain margin.
\n
\n
\n
7.1.3 Type III filter
\n
In Type III LCL filter, the damping can be achieved by simply adding a parallel combination of resistor and inductor in series with capacitor C. The effect of inductor is investigated using Nyquist plot (Figure 21).
\n
Figure 21.
Type III LCL filter.
\n
Impedance of Type III LCL filter with damping inductor and resistance is given by
Impedance shows two resonance points: first is parallel resonance and second is series resonance (Figure 22). At first resonance point, the output impedance increases, and at series resistance it is at the minimum value. The phase margin of filter is around 210°. This ensures the stability of filter. The resonant frequency will shift with change in grid resistance, so the damping effect is difficult to predict.
\n
Figure 22.
Nyquist plot of Type III LCL filter.
\n
\n
\n
7.1.4 Type IV filter
\n
In Type IV LCL filter, the damping can be achieved by simply adding a parallel combination of resistor and capacitor Cf. The effect of resistor value is investigated using Nyquist plot (Figure 23).
\n
Figure 23.
Type IV LCL filter.
\n
Impedance of Type IV LCL filter with damping resistor Rf in series with capacitor Cf is given by
The response of Type IV filter is similar to the tuned filter. The notch in frequency response of impedance is observed at the resonant frequency (Figure 24). This notch can be damped by putting higher value of resistor in series with the capacitor Cf. The phase of impedance sharply changes from −90 to 90°, which means the nature of impedance turns from capacitive to inductive. The ratio of Cf/C decides the damping effectiveness. The larger the Cf/C ratio, the larger will be the damping. Also, with increasing value of Cf/C ratio, the loss in resistor Rf is also increases as more and more current tends to flow in it [16, 17, 18].
\n
Figure 24.
Nyquist plot of Type IV LCL filter.
\n
\n
\n
7.1.5 Type V filter
\n
In Type V LCL filter, the damping can be achieved by simply adding a parallel combination of resistor and inductor with capacitor C. The effect of inductor is investigated using Nyquist plot (Figure 25).
Type V filter response shows two resonance frequency (Figure 26). The first resonance creates high voltage distortion, while the second resonance point gives rise to current distortion. If converter generates harmonics equal to this resonance, then there will be high voltage distortion and current distortion. However, with lower value of resistance, damping can be achieved. An additional inductor Lf can reduce the resistive loss.
\n
Figure 26.
Nyquist plot of Type V LCL filter.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7.2 Active damping of filter
\n
Grid-connected converters may not function stably under the harmonic resonance condition. Harmonic resonance occurs when the converter impedance and grid impedance becomes equal in magnitude and 180° out of phase. The converter is generally connected to grid through filters, which is mostly LCL type. So, the parameters of LCL filters play an important role in keeping the successful functioning of converter. Also, the control structure of the converter shapes its output impedance. So, the control parameter should be selected such that it keeps the converter in the safe zone at all frequency. This is explained further here with analysis.
\n
The inverter output characteristics depend on several factors like parameter of LCL filter, grid impedance, type of controller and control parameters. By selecting the appropriate parameter, the inverter can be operated with resistive output impedance, inductive output impedance and capacitive output impedance. Most of the inverters are operated with inductive (L-type) output impedance. This inverter is known as the L-type inverter. Here it is explained how an inverter impedance can be made capacitive (C-type inverter) with selection of virtual current control loop.
\n
The output impedance of inverter is controlled by the virtual impedance. The single-line diagram of inverter with control loop is shown in Figures 27 and 28. The control is implemented with current loop and voltage loop, which gives good tracking behaviour and good output voltage. The feedback of current is taken from branch between the two capacitors. The first capacitor has a value of βC, and the second capacitor has a value of (1-β)C. Thus, the overall value of capacitor is C. The output impedance of system after adding virtual branch GV is given by
With the above value of GV, the output impedance becomes capacitive. So, by selection of proper control loop and control parameter, the shaping of inverter output impedance can be effectively done. Also, the desired value of damping can be achieved. This method is known as active damping method. Like this, the inverter can be made either L-type or R-type.
\n
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusion
\n
The characteristics and response of impedance of grid-connected inverter depend on various factors like selection of output filter and its parameter, controller type and its parameters, structure of PLL, the delay in switching of converter, etc. In this chapter, using first-order PI controller and different controller types, it is explained in a simple way. The complexity of impedance increases with the order of the controller and its structure. Also, the reshaping of inverter impedance can be done by selection of suitable control structure. By adding virtual impedance, the output impedance can be made inductive, capacitive or reactive without adding any additional hardware. In this work different variants of passive filter are explained, and how their output impedance behaves at different frequency is also explained with the use of Nyquist plot. The active damping method is explained, whereby damping is achieved without using resistor in the filter, which is considered as a very energy-efficient method of achieving damping. The output impedance can be reshaped either by external hardware in the form of filter or by adding virtual control loop in the controller. The stability of converter depends on how converter output impedance interacts with the grid impedance. Numerous efforts have been made and can be found in literatures to achieve the stability only by reshaping the impedance. However, the stability region can be expanded by reshaping of impedance up to a certain extent only. Only reshaping of impedance does not guarantee the converter stability with changing grid condition. Also, the converter is more likely to fall in an unstable region with weak grid condition, but reshaping of impedance helps to prevent converter-based generation from going unstable. By analysing the output impedance in the frequency domain, the controller parameters can be adjusted to reshape the output impedance. By increasing the proportional gain of the PI controller, the magnitude of the output impedance can be increased and can enhance the ability of harmonic rejection. By increasing the integral gain of the PI controller, the phase of the output impedance can be increased to improve the stability of the system [19, 20] (Table 1).
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Switching frequency
\n
4 kHz
\n
\n
\n
Switching delay
\n
20 μS
\n
\n
\n
Lc
\n
4 mH
\n
\n
\n
Lg
\n
0.4 mH
\n
\n
\n
Cf
\n
5 μF
\n
\n
\n
kp
\n
1.2
\n
\n
\n
ki
\n
11.6
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Converter parameter.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"voltage source converter (VSC), pulse width modulation (PWM), grid-connected converter, filter, harmonic resonance, doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), Nyquist criteria, damped filter",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69157.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69157.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69157",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69157",totalDownloads:239,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 8th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 13th 2019",datePrePublished:"November 27th 2019",datePublished:"February 26th 2020",dateFinished:"September 20th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"As the contribution of renewable energy sources is increasing year over year, the effect of harmonics on power system becomes important, and it requires special attention. In conventional power sources, the harmonics is not generated at the source side; only load side is contributing in the harmonics. But renewable energy sources, particularly wind and solar, are based on power electronic devices, so it generates harmonics. This harmonics may have an adverse effect on the system. Harmonic resonance is one of the phenomena, due to which the harmonics are amplified and give rise to several trivial issues. Various methods are used to control the harmonics in the system. Harmonic filter is one of the simple ways to absorb the harmonics generated at load and generation side. Various filter designs have been found in literature as well as in the field. The filters are classified according to their design, construction and operation method. There are two main categories, active filters and passive filters. The passive filters are widely used due to its simplicity and lesser cost. However, to achieve the better performance, it is also used with active filters, and this combination is known as hybrid filter. The response of filters is modified as per the system requirement using various techniques. In this work, the impedance characteristics of various filters are discussed and analysed. Also, how the control structure of power electronic devices affects or modifies the output impedance of converter is also discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69157",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69157",signatures:"Jignesh Pravinbhai Patel and Satish Kantilal Joshi",book:{id:"7636",title:"Wind Solar Hybrid Renewable Energy System",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Wind Solar Hybrid Renewable Energy System",slug:"wind-solar-hybrid-renewable-energy-system",publishedDate:"February 26th 2020",bookSignature:"Kenneth Eloghene Okedu, Ahmed Tahour and Abdel Ghani Aissaou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7636.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-591-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-590-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-372-8",editors:[{id:"172580",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenneth Eloghene",middleName:null,surname:"Okedu",slug:"kenneth-eloghene-okedu",fullName:"Kenneth Eloghene Okedu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"304472",title:"Mr.",name:"Jignesh Pravinbhai",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",fullName:"Jignesh Pravinbhai Patel",slug:"jignesh-pravinbhai-patel",email:"jignesh.pravinbhai@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"309509",title:"Dr.",name:"Satish Kantilal",middleName:null,surname:"Joshi",fullName:"Satish Kantilal Joshi",slug:"satish-kantilal-joshi",email:"skjoshi@ieee.org",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Modelling of the voltage source converter",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Impedance-based stability analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Grid-connected inverters",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Phase lock loop",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Damped passive filter topologies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1 R-L filter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"6.2 L-C filter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.3 L-C-L filter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Optimised filter design",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"7.1 Passive damping of filter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"7.1.1 Type I filter",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"7.1.2 Type II filter",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"7.1.3 Type III filter",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"7.1.4 Type IV filter",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"7.1.5 Type V filter",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"7.2 Active damping of filter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Blaabjerg F, Zhe C, Kjaer SB. Power electronics as efficient interface in dispersed power generation systems. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 2004;19(5):1184-1194\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Ali MH, Wu B, Dougal RA. An overview of SMES applications in power and energy systems. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy. 2010;1(1):38-47\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Flourentzou N, Agelidis VG, Demetriades GD. VSC-based HVDC power transmission systems: An overview. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 2009;24(3):592-602\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Xia J, Fang X, Chow JH, Edris A, Uzunovic E, Parisi M, et al. A novel approach for modeling voltage-sourced converter-based FACTS controllers. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. 2008;23(4):2591-2598\n'},{id:"B5",body:'He J, Li YW. Generalized closed-loop control schemes with embedded virtual impedances for voltage source converters with LC or LCL filters. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 2012;27(4):1850-1861\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Sun J. Impedance-based stability criterion for grid-connected inverters. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 2011;26(11):3075-3078\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Blaabjerg F, Teodorescu R, Liserre M, Timbus AV. Overview of control and grid synchronization for distributed power generation systems. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. 2006;53(5):1398-1409\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Middlebrook RD. Input filter considerations in design and application of switching regulators. In: Proceedings of the IEEE-IAS Annual Meeting; 1976. pp. 366-382\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Freijedo FD, Yepes AG, Lopez O, Vidal A, Doval-Gandoy J. Three-phase PLLs with fast postfault retracking and steady-state rejection of voltage unbalance and harmonics by means of lead compensation. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 2011;26(1):85-97\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Wang F, Duarte JL, Hendrix MAM, Ribeiro PF. Modeling and analysis of grid harmonic distortion impact of aggregated DG inverters. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 2011;26(3):786-797\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Beres RN, Wang X, Blaabjerg F, Liserre M, Bak CL. Optimal design of high-order passive-damped filters for grid-connected applications. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 2016. DOI: 10.1109/TPEL.2015.2441299\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Sun J. Small-signal methods for AC distributed power systems—A review. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 2009;24(11):2545-2554\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Li X-Q, Wu X-J, Geng Y-W, Zhang Q. Stability analysis of grid-connected inverters with an LCL filter considering grid impedance. Journal of Power Electronics. 2013;13(5)\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Jiao J, Nelms RM. Regulating output impedance using a PI controller to improve the stability of a single phase inverter under weak grid. In: 2016 IEEE 16th International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering (EEEIC); 2016\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Yang W, Wang M. Impedance modeling and output impedance coupling analysis of three-phase grid-connected inverters. In: 2018 IEEE International Power Electronics and Application Conference and Exposition (PEAC); 2018\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Zhong Q-C, Zeng Y. Control of inverters via a virtual capacitor to achieve capacitive output impedance. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics;29(10):5568-5578. DOI: 10.1109/tpel.2013.2294425\n'},{id:"B17",body:'He Y, Lai C-t, Chung S-h, Zhang X, Wu W. Use of series negative impedance to cancel the effect of equivalent grid impedance on the grid connected inverter in the DPGS. In: 2018 IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC); 2018\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Zhong Q-C, Zeng Y. Universal droop control of inverters with different types of output impedance. IEEE Open Access. 2016. DOI: 10.1109/ACCESS.2016.2526616\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Messo T, Luhtala R, Aapro A, Roinila T. Accurate impedance model of grid connected inverter for small signal stability assessment in high-impedance grid. In: 2018 International Power Electronics Conference (IPEC-Niigata 2018 -ECCE Asia); 2018\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Ling P, Peng Z, Chao G. An impedance reshaping control strategy to enhance adaptability to grid for grid-connected inverters. In: 2018 China International Conference on Electricity Distribution (CICED); 2018\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jignesh Pravinbhai Patel",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Electrical Engineering, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
Department of Electrical Engineering, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
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We asked human resource managers to analyze some attributes of graduated employees. We also requested them to compare some features between in-classroom education and distance education. According to the results, both undergraduate courses lack practical application of knowledge learned, since many of the graduates come to the market too naïve. This situation is more easily bypassed by graduates from distance courses, because they normally belong to an older age group. Regarding training of new cadres, many organizations highlighted the democratic role of distance education for continuous development of work force. It is because distance education is the main enabler of formal education for people with families and those without the availability of time to attend formal courses. These managers pointed out that responsibility is one of the most important characteristic of the employees graduated at distance courses. They are also better to associate theory and practice and to deal with modern technology. Moreover, the possibility of developing other complementary experiences to the course seems to be an interesting opportunity.",signatures:"Ana Alice Vilas Boas and Gustavo Henrique Nogueira de Andrade",authors:[{id:"175373",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Alice",surname:"Vilas Boas",fullName:"Ana Alice Vilas Boas",slug:"ana-alice-vilas-boas",email:"ana.alice2006@yahoo.com"},{id:"175383",title:"MSc.",name:"Gustavo Henrique",surname:"Nogueira De Andrade",fullName:"Gustavo Henrique Nogueira De Andrade",slug:"gustavo-henrique-nogueira-de-andrade",email:"nogueiradeandrade@yahoo.com.br"}],book:{title:"E-Learning",slug:"e-learning-instructional-design-organizational-strategy-and-management",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"80248",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",surname:"Hamburg",slug:"ileana-hamburg",fullName:"Ileana Hamburg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"86020",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoleta",surname:"Gudanescu Nicolau",slug:"nicoleta-gudanescu-nicolau",fullName:"Nicoleta Gudanescu Nicolau",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitatea Hyperion din Bucureşti",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"174960",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Martin",surname:"Lesage",slug:"martin-lesage",fullName:"Martin Lesage",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/174960/images/4176_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Quebec at Montreal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"175173",title:"Prof.",name:"Gilles",surname:"Raîche",slug:"gilles-raiche",fullName:"Gilles Raîche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"175174",title:"Prof.",name:"Martin",surname:"Riopel",slug:"martin-riopel",fullName:"Martin Riopel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"175175",title:"Mrs.",name:"Dalila",surname:"Sebkhi",slug:"dalila-sebkhi",fullName:"Dalila Sebkhi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"175176",title:"Mr.",name:"Frédérick",surname:"Fortin",slug:"frederick-fortin",fullName:"Frédérick Fortin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"175290",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Rafi",slug:"ahmad-rafi",fullName:"Ahmad Rafi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175290/images/4268_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ahmad Rafi is an architect and a Professor in the Faculty of Creative Multimedia at Multimedia University (MMU), Malaysia. He is currently the Vice President (Academic), MMU. He is also the Deputy Chairman 2, Creative Content Industry Guild (CCIG), Malaysia and certified Multimedia Professional by CCIG. He was the Dean of Institute for Postgraduate Studies, MMU (2013 – 2014). He was the Deputy Rector of Academic Affairs at the National Academy of Arts, Culture and Heritage (ASWARA), a university under the Ministry of Information, Communication and Culture, Malaysia (2010 – 2012). He obtained a Bachelor degree in Architecture (BArch., Honours), Master of Science in Computer-Aided Building Design (MSc. in CABD) and Ph.D. in the area of architectural animation and virtual reality from the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland, UK in 1998. He was the Dean of Faculty of Creative Multimedia, Chairman of Centre for Interpretation and Expression (CIE) (2000 – 2006) and Director of Research and Development (R&D) Collaborations (2008 – 2009), MMU. He is also the chairman of Creative Content Industry Recognition Framework (CCIRF), CCIG. His research includes virtual reality, virtual heritage, 3D animation, architectural visualisation, educational technology, and multimedia. He has published more than 100 internationally multi-disciplinary refereed conference papers, journal articles and books.\n\nHe also contributes in several local and international reviewing committees including guest editor and reviewer for Automation in Construction International Research Journal, Open House International Journal, International Journal of Educational Technology and Society, International Journal of Computer Games Technology, International Journal of Engineering Education, CAADRIA (Asia & Australasia), CAAD Futures, eCAADe (Europe), G-CAD (USA), CyberGames International Conference (Australia), international research panel for King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (Saudi Arabia), e‐Content Fund, e-Science Fund, Techno Fund, InnoFund and Creative Industry Life-long Learning (CILL) Programme (Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation - MOSTI, Malaysia), Multimedia Grant Scheme (MGS) (Malaysia), Bumiputera Content Industry Initiative Fund (BCi2) Fund (Malaysia), Fundamental and Exploratory Research Grants (FRGS and ERGS), and Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HiCOE) (Ministry of Education – MoE, Malaysia), Malaysian Examinations Council (Chair for ICT) and to name a few. 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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 128,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\\n\\n
OAPF Publishing Options
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\\n\\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\\n\\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\\n\\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n
\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
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\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\\n
\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+5,200 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 128,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,200 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
\n
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