Types of major economic instruments.
\r\n\tIn this book, the authors will present the highlights of basic research of biomechanical and biochemical pathways of bone homeostasis and the developing clinical methods for treatment of bone loss, either following trauma or systemic disease.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a67783226e0c4e1343d82c3a811ba1b3",bookSignature:"Dr. Nahum Rosenberg",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8442.jpg",keywords:"Bone Homeostasis, Osteoblast, Bone Matrix, Inorganic Component, Organic Componet, Bone Resorption, Cellular Mechanotransduction, Hormonal Regulation, Autografts, Allografts, Distraction Osteogenesis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 11th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 20th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 19th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 7th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 7th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"68911",title:"Dr.",name:"Nahum",middleName:null,surname:"Rosenberg",slug:"nahum-rosenberg",fullName:"Nahum Rosenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68911/images/system/68911.png",biography:"Nahum Rosenberg MD, MOrthop (magna cum laude), FRCS\n(England), MBA is an orthopedic surgeon with an MD degree\nfrom Technion – ITT in 1990. He completed his residency in Orthopedic Surgery at the Rambam Medical Center, Haifa between\n1990-97. He received his MOrthop with honors from the Tel Aviv\nUniversity in 1996 and was a Nuffield Fellow (Orthopedic Surgery) in Oxford University in 1998-9. Dr. Nahum was a Fellow\nin Orthopedic Surgery at the University of Nottingham in 2002. He completed his\nMBA from the College of Management Academic Studies, Israel in 2018. Dr. Nahum\nis a senior orthopedic surgeon at the Rambam Health Care Campus since 2003. He\nhas been an Assistant Clinical Professor in the Faculty of Medicine, Technion -ITT,\nHaifa since 2007. He is also a Professor in the Department of Traumatology, Orthopedic Surgery and Disaster Medicine in IM Sechenov First Moscow State Medical\nUniversity 2018-19. Dr. Nahum is a member of the editorial boards in 8 scientific\njournals, as well as a member of the Shoulder Committee of ISAKOS (International Society of Arthroscopy, Knee Surgery and Orthopedic Sports Medicine). He is\nthe author of 80 peer review scientific publications, and the editor of 7 books. His\nresearch interests include: shoulder surgery, the outcome of orthopedic procedures,\nbone biology, bone regeneration, human biomechanics.",institutionString:"Israel Institute of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194667",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Francetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194667/images/4752_n.jpg",email:"marijana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8676",title:"Hip Surgeries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"35280afd3082f1a6b3c10bdc0ae447f6",slug:"hip-surgeries",bookSignature:"Nahum Rosenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68911",title:"Dr.",name:"Nahum",surname:"Rosenberg",slug:"nahum-rosenberg",fullName:"Nahum Rosenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"16390",title:"Field Emission from Nanowires",doi:"10.5772/21589",slug:"field-emission-from-nanowires",body:'Nanowires of a variety of materials have gained importance in the past decade owing to their potential for reliable integration into electronic devices. In particular, this importance is due to their application in flat panel display technology as well as in the cold cathode technology for electron tube devices such as microwave tubes. This is because the conventional thermionic emission devices are accompanied with high power dissipation due to high cathode temperature. With the emergence of nanomaterials, there has been an upsurge in the research publications reporting on their field emission behaviour. This is because of the advantage of nanometric dimensions, making them suitable for field emission. Several metallic and semiconducting nanomaterials are found to operate delivering high current density at a lower applied potential as compared to the conventional field emitter counterparts. The nanowire form of various materials is suitable for the observed field emission properties. Additionally, the materials to be investigated must possess vacuum compatibility (low vapour pressure), high mechanical strength (should be able to withstand mechanical stress due to high electric field), and resistance to ion bombardment (due to residual gases in the vacuum chamber) and low work function. The emission current density is usually in the range of 10-100 mA/cm2 for the applied field of 1-20 V/µm. It should be possible to deposit the nanomaterials on the flat substrate such as Si, with uniform density and with relative ease, to be used as a field emitter cathode.
The materials of interest from field emission point of view can be classified into the following broad classes: Carbon nanotubes, graphene, carbon fibre; Nanoforms of wide band gap materials such as SiC, GaN, AlN, BN, ZnO; other semiconductors such as Si, CdTe, CdS; and nanostructures and nanowires of established electron emitters such as LaB6. In this chapter, emphasis will be given on the field emission phenomenon, an account of development in theory of field emission, basic methodology; and a brief review of the field emission work carried out on nanowires.
Field electron emission from metals and semiconductors has attracted the attention of researchers for the past more than sixty years. In the phenomenon called field emission, electrons tunnel out from metal or semiconductor surface into vacuum under the action of high electrostatic field ~ 106-107 V/cm. A systematic study of field emission under ultrahigh vacuum conditions has led to the development of the technique Field Emission Microscopy (FEM), the detailed treatment of which can be found in the literature (Gomer, 1961). The quantum mechanical tunneling emission current – field strength relation was derived by Fowler and Nordheim in the year 1928 (Fowler & Nordheim, 1928). A refined account of field emission and field emission spectroscopy has also been taken (Modinos, 1984).
The traditional and most useful application of field emission to surface science is in the study of surface diffusion of adsorbates over clean metal surfaces. In this application of the original FEM technique, an emitter is uniformly covered with an adsorbate and the current emanating from a very small region of the surface of the emitter is measured. This technique is called the probe hole technique (Oostrom, 1966), in which various single crystal planes of an emitter can be accessed in a single experiment.
Apart from the usefulness of field emission in surface science, there are technological applications. Field emission sources are routinely used in scanning electron microscopy and e- beam lithography because of their small optical size. In fact, a high density two dimensional array of emitters can be fabricated by a variety of techniques resulting into emitters suitable for flat panel displays and even for electron tube devices (Spindt, 1991). Early work on field emission devices consisted of micro-fabricated metallic tip array (commonly from Mo), but these devices suffer from several factors degrading the operating performance. One of the crucial factors limiting the operational stability and lifetime of these metallic emitters is tip degradation due to Joule heating at high emission currents and ion bombardment causing erosion and blunting of the tips. These Spindt cathodes currently find use in ion sources, mass spectrometers. Huge efforts have been invested in developing displays based on Spindt cathodes with some success (Chalamala, 1998). Obtaining sharp and robust materials capable of delivering high emission current densities at lower operating voltages is an ongoing effort.
The basic formulation of quantum mechanical tunneling of conduction electrons from a plane metal surface into vacuum was conceived by Fowler and Nordheim (Fowler &
Potential energy of an electron as a function of its distance x to the surface (schematic).
(Nordheim, 1928) resulting into the Fowler-Nordheim (F-N) equation. The equation representing tunneling from an exact triangular barrier (Fig. 1) without any correction factors is given by
for all energies expressed in electron volts and the electric field E in volts per centimetre. Here,
The above derivation is based on the exact triangular surface potential barrier. However, the electronic charge density at the surface does not end abruptly at the terminating metal surface and the barrier, therefore, cannot be expected to be straight up. Also, the image force potential reduces the surface potential barrier by a corresponding image term Vx.
where e is the electronic charge and x is the distance from the metal surface. With this correction in the potential, the F-N equation acquires the form
α is the image correction term
and
In the above, the zero point of the potential energy is taken to be at
In case of the semiconductors, the field electron emission theory is complex. Various aspects such as the contribution of the effective electron mass, field penetration, surface states, doping with n type or p type impurities and band structure have to be taken into account. Field emission from semiconductors has been dealt with by Stratton (Stratton, 1962) who considered the effect of the field penetration and surface states on electron emission. He pointed out that the field emission characteristic dominated by the surface states should be strongly temperature dependent while that dominated by field penetration is not. Baskin et al (Baskin, 1971) have analysed field electron emission behaviour of an n-type semiconductor based on the field emission from conduction band. A detailed account of the theory field emission from semiconductors is available (Modinos, 1984).
Recently, there have been attempts to revisit the theory of Fowler-Nordheim tunneling. The standard theory has been reformulated by Forbes and Deane (Forbes & Deane, 2007) leading to an insight into linearity of F-N plot. A revised mathematical form for empirical field emission current –voltage characteristics has also been obtained by Forbes (Forbes, 2008).
The F-N theory primarily considers tunneling of electrons from flat planar surface of metals. The image potential corrected F-N equation (Eq.3) can be written as
Where Pfis the prefactor given by
µ is the Fermi energy and φ is the work function. Pf is of the order of unity and can be set as equal to unity.
Thus,
Here, a and b are constant (a= 1.54 x 10-6A eV V-2, b = 6.83 V-3/2 Vnm-1)
The electric field E is the local electric field (surface field).
In case of the nanoparticles deposited on the flat cathode surface in the diode geometry, the electric field (applied or macroscopic field) between the cathode and the anode separated by a distance d with a potential difference V is given by,
E = V/d
However, local electric field E at the surface of a nanoparticle can be much higher than E by a factor β,
E = β E
Here, β is the field enhancement factor.
E= β (V/d) = (β/d) V
The factor (β/d) is the voltage to local field conversion factor.
In terms of the macroscopic field E, the F-N equation (8) becomes,
I = S x J,
where I is the emission current (A) and S the emitting area, β is the field enhancement factor. The factor β is related to the emitter geometry. In certain cases, the field enhancement factor β can be expressed as β = h/r where h is the height and r is the radius of curvature of the tip of the emitting structure. The local electric field at the tip surface depends upon actual tip geometry (shape). For the elongated, cylindrical emitters the height to diameter (thickness) ratio is called the ‘aspect ratio’. The emission performance of an emitter can be enhanced by increasing the ‘aspect ratio’. Usually calculation of the factor β is complex. There exist several models for the calculation of β. These models are not uniformly applicable and may vary for different types of materials as well as geometry. The value of β can be calculated from the slope of the F-N plot, but the value obtained may be physically unrealistic.
Many of the field emission studies on nanomaterials have been motivated from the electron sources point of view. Therefore, the current stability for a long duration operation, the effect of residual gas pressure, effect of adsorption and desorption causing local work function variations become important parameters.
The areal density of emitters on a cathode surface plays an important role in controlling the local electric field at the surface of an emitter. Higher density leads to a screening effect and lower density reduces this screening and causes rise in the local field at each emitter.
As seen from the literature Eq. (9) has been widely used to fit the experimental data and calculate from the slope of the ln (J/E2) versus 1/E (F-N) Plot, the field enhancement factor β (dimensionless) even for multiple emitters. Strictly, the F-N theory is valid for a single, metallic, planar emitter. Even for semiconducting emitters, the same equation is seen to be assumed. For semiconductors, the effect of band structure, surface states and field penetration have to be accounted for, and the theory is not simple to apply to practical emitters. The theory of field electron emission from carbon based emitters has been recently addressed to. An excellent account of early work on carbon based film emitters and other nanostructured heterogeneous materials and also hypotheses about emission mechanism have been reported by Forbes (Forbes, 2001). The F-N equation (Eq.12) has also been used by researchers to describe field emission from carbon nanotubes (CNT’s) against many theoretical difficulties (Forbes, 2010). Recently a detailed analytical treatment of field emission from nanowall emitter has been attempted by Qin et. al. (Qin, 2011). The theory is very complex. The authors have shown that the F-N equation will not describe the electron emission from a nanowall of very small width (less than ≈ 2nm).
The F-N behaviour of nanomaterials is important from the basic point of view. However, field emission from nanomaterials has been very attractive field of research due to its technological importance. The current density obtainable for lower and lower turn-on voltage, stability of the current, and life are the main considerations of the study. Ease of synthesis, size and shape, electrical conductivity are also important consideration for a material to be a candidate as an emitter. Finally, ease of fabrication of array of emitters on lithographically patterned substrate decides the applicability of such sources in electronic devices.
Nanowires of different materials are of immense interest due to their one dimensional structures. Such structures are known to show quantum confinement effects. Nanowires also possess high surface to volume ratio. In particular, nanowires with low threshold and low operating voltage have become potential candidates for field emission display (FED) application. Aligned nanowires with a high packing density can significantly enhance the field emission behaviour. Nanowires possess axial geometry and such nanorods like structures can be grown vertically on flat substrate with desirable density of wires per unit area. Final aim is to form regular array of nanowires with a good uniformity in their aspect ratio (length to radius). This is usually done by growing nanowires on a lithographically patterned substrate. Field emission investigations are carried out on the nanowires grown on the substrate.
Most of the nanostructured materials are deposited/coated on flat substrate (nominally 1 cm2) forming broad area electron emitter. The substrate is an electrical conductor/semiconductor. The method of deposition depends on the properties of the material to be deposited. Various methods such as chemical vapour deposition, Arc plasma deposition, pulsed Laser Deposition, electrodeposition, electrochemical deposition, spin coating etc. have been used by researchers. Amongst the various substrates Si is most common as it is suitable for integrating with electronic device technology. This forms the cathode. The anode is indium tin oxide (ITO) coated conducting glass plate with or without phosphor coating. The anode-cathode separation is in the range ~ usually a few microns to a few mm. The anode and the cathode are held separated with the quartz or alumina spacer. This is called the diode configuration. A typical anode cathode system is shown in Fig.2. A holder carrying the anode and the cathode is then mounted in an ultra high vacuum chamber which is subsequently evacuated to a pressure ~ 10-7-10-8 mbar. The high voltage (0-10 kV) from stable DC supply is applied across the anode and the cathode. The current is measured by an electrometer amplifier (10-9-10-3A). The current voltage characteristics are measured over a wide range of voltages. Current stability studies are performed by recording the field emission current (at the pre-set value) at regular time intervals. The field emission pattern is observed on the anode screen and recorded if necessary.
Schematic of the planar diode configuration arrangement in a vacuum chamber.
Traditional, Spindt type cathodes consisted of metallic emitters such as W, Mo, and also Si etc but will not be discussed here. Metallic nanowires of Mo, Cu, Co have been used as nanotips for field emission application (Hwang, 2005; Laurent, 2005; Liao, 2005). Field emission characteristics of electrochemically synthesized nickel nanowires on alumina nanoporous template, with oxygen plasma post treatment, have been reported (Joo, 2006). Nickel nanorods arrays have been vertically grown on a Ta-coated Si substrate by electrochemical process (Banerjee, 2011). The authors have reported the experimentally obtained geometrical field enhancement factor from F-N plot to be 4000, agreeing with existing models.
Wide bandgap semiconductors such as SiC, GaN, ZnO, AlN have attractive physico chemical properties suitable to operate as efficient field emitters in their nanoforms. Field emission characteristics of SiC nanowires and nanorods (Wong, 1999) and GaN nanorods (Kim, 2003) have been investigated. Field emission from SnO2 nanowhiskers, nanograss has been studied (Luo, 2004; Wang, 2005). The 1D SnO2 structures are potentially important in application such as optoelectronics devices and sensors. ZnO is fore-runner amongst the wide band gap materials, so far as the field emission studies are concerned.
The field emission properties of ZnO nanowires were first studied by Lee\'s group in 2002 (Lee, 2002). In their work, well aligned ZnO nanowires were grown on Si substrate using a metal vapour deposition method. Before growth, nanoscale Co particles (average diameter ~ 6–8 nm) were distributed onto Si substrate as the catalyst. The average length and typical diameter of the ZnO nanowires grown at 550 C were 13 μm and 50 nm, respectively. The turn-on voltage for the ZnO nanowires was found to be about ~ 6.0 V/μm at a current density of ~ 0.1mA/cm2. The emission current density from the ZnO nanowires reached 1 mA/cm2 at a bias field of 11.0 V/µm.
The ZnO nanoneedle arrays with sharp tips show improved field emission performance (Zhu, 2003). The nanoneedles were grown via selenium-assisted vapour phase deposition. The height and diameter of the nanoneedles were about 3 μm and 100 nm, respectively. The turn-on field was found to be ~ 2.4 V/μm. The emission current density can reach ~ 2.4 mA/cm2 at an applied electric field of ~ 7.0 V/μm. The field emission property of single nanowire was also reported (Dong, 2003). The ZnO nanowires were formed on tungsten substrates using a vapour transport method. In this synthesis gold served as the catalyst during the growth. The lengths of the nanowires were several tens of microns, and their diameters ranging from 25 to 200 nm. Measurement of the I-V current for an individual ZnO nanowire was carried out using a movable Faraday cup. In this research the emission current fluctuations have been studied at different temperatures. ZnO films, nanowires array and nanosheets via seed-layer assisted electrochemical deposition route have been fabricated (Cao, 2007). They found that the ordered ZnO nanowire arrays with high density only show the field emission property a little better than that of the ZnO film because of the local electric field screening effect. The hierarchical ZnO nanowire arrays show good field emission properties due to their high aspect ratio, small radius of curvature, and proper density. Field emission characteristics of ZnO nanowires grown on carbon cloth have been reported (Jo, 2004). ZnO nanowires were synthesized on carbon cloth by vaporization and condensation method. Aligned nanowires carry a lot of importance in their functioning as field emitters. Jamali Sheini et al. (Sheini, 2010) have synthesized aligned ZnO nanowires by annealing gold deposited zinc foil in air at 400oC.Fig. 3 a shows the SEM image of the aligned nanowires. From the field emission studies, the value of the turn-on field corresponding to an emission current density of ~ 0.1 µA/cm2 is found to be ~ 2.4 V/µm and a current density of 100 µA/cm2 is obtained at an applied field of ~ 3.4 V/µm. The field emission current stability investigated over a period of 3 hours at the preset value of 1 µA is found to be good. Attempt has been made to synthesize ZnO nanowires by cathodic electrodeposition of nanostructured ZnO thin films on zinc substrate, followed by annealing in air (Sheini, 2009). The field emission studies showed the value of 1.36 V/µm for drawing the emission current density of ~ 1 µA/cm2 for the best specimen. The field emission was measured in a planar diode configuration. The photoenhanced field emission from Sn doped ZnO nanowires has also been reported by Jamali Sheini et al. (Sheini, 2010).
a) An SEM image of aligned ZnO nanowires grown on Au coated Zn Substrate and annealed at 4000 C for 4 hours. Reproduced from Materials Chemistry and Physics (Jamali Sheini, 2010) Copyright © 2010, Elsevier. (b) An SEM image of as-synthesized ZnO nanowires grown on Zn substrate. Reproduced from Ultramicroscopy(Jamali sheini, 2009) Copyright © 2009. Elsevier. (c) A field emission current density-applied field (J–E) plot of the ZnO nanowires and inset showing the corresponding Fowler-Nordheim (F-N) plot. Reproduced from Ultramicroscopy(Jamali sheini, 2009) Copyright © 2009. Elsevier. (d) Current versus time (I–t) plot of the ZnO nanowires and inset showing the field emission image. Reproduced from Ultramicroscopy(Jamali sheini, 2009) Copyright © 2009. Elsevier.
Fig. 3 b shows the scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of ZnO nanowires grown on Zn foil by electrodeposition followed by annealing at 400oC for 4 h. The field emission J-E plot and F-N plot are depicted in Fig 3 c and the inset, respectively. Fig. 3 d shows the I-t stability plot and the field emission pattern.
The non-linearity of the F-N plot has been attributed to the semiconducting properties of ZnO. Excellent current stability has been observed with fluctuations within ± 5% of the average value. A good account of electrochemical deposition of ZnO nanowires array has been taken by Zeng et al. (Zeng, 2010). These authors have discussed the effect of doping on the field emission properties. The narrow band gap semiconductors and other semiconducting nanomaterials such as copper sulfide (Cu2S) nanowires arrays have been studied (Chen, 2002). The CuO nanobelts, nanorods, and nanofibres have also been studied by Hsieh et al. (Hsieh, 2003). The MoO3 nanowires and nanobelt structures have been studied by Zhou et al. (Zhou, 2003).
One dimensional chalcogenides nanowires have proved to be significant for their novel physical properties and in particular, field emission properties (Datta, 2009). Fig. 4a shows the SEM image of the CdS nanowires synthesized by simple thermal evaporation route on Si substrate.
a) An SEM image of as-synthesized CdS nanowires grown on Si substrate by simple thermal evaporation technique. (b) Photo-switching properties of the CdS nanowires in current – time (I-t) mode. (c) J–E plots of CdS nanowires with and without light illumination.
The turn on field for the emission current density of 0.1 µA/cm2 is found to be 1.4 V/µm, lower than the reported value for CdS nanostructures. A current density of 27 µA/cm2 was drawn at an applied field of ~ 2.4 V/µm. Upon illumination with visible light, the CdS nanowires switch to the enhanced emission state and return to the original field emission current after the light source is turned off. Thus it is demonstrated that the CdS nanowires act as photo-field emitter switch. A sequence of current pulses generated due to repetitively switching the light source, on and off, is shown in Fig 4b. The effect has been attributed to the photoconductive property of CdS (band gap 2.4 eV) (Chavan, 2011). Fig. 4c shows the J-E characteristics without and with illumination. Fig 5 shows field emission current stability continuously recorded for 24 hrs at the preset current of 1 µA. The current is seen to be highly stable. The inset shows field emission image showing the emission spots due to nanowires.
The high sensitivity and fast response of CdS nanowires points towards possible application of the CdS nanowire field emitters in devices and in pulsed electron beam technology.
Current versus time (I–t) plot of the CdS nanowires and inset showing the field emission image.
The number of research articles in the area of the field emission from nanowires and nanomaterials in general is too large to review here. A good account of inorganic nanostructures and their field emission applications has been taken by Fang et al (Fang, 2008). Lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6) is a very well known thermionic electron emitter. Its potential as a field emitter has been recognised by researchers world over. LaB6 nanowires are ideal for applications as electron sources due to their inherent characteristics such as low work function (2.6 eV). Recently it is reported that excellent field electron emission is obtained from single LaB6 nanowire emitter with stability better than the LaB6 needle type emitter or tungsten field emitter (Zhang, 2010). Extremely high emission current density from LaB6 arrays is achieved by Qi et al (Qi, 2008). Field emitter arrays of LaB6 have been fabricated by employing the transfer mold technique (Nakamoto, 2002). LaB6 nanowires have been synthesized using arc plasma synthesis (Late, 2010). More efforts are required to fabricate LaB6 nanowires arrays in a reliable and efficient manner.
Nanowire field emitter arrays of various materials will be the area of research interests for some more time. More efforts are required to deliver improved field emitter nanowire arrays as sources in electron tube devices and electron beam accelerators.
The authors thank Padmakar G. Chavan for discussion and help in preparing this manuscript. DSJ wishes to thank CSIR New Delhi for Emeritus Scientist scheme.
Solid waste is the byproducts of human activities such as production, consumption and distribution of various goods in the society. There are a number research has been investigated in the various aspects such as technology, innovation, recycling of solid waste management in the developing and developed countries. There are a lack of studies on economic analysis of solid waste management particularly in the developing countries, for example cost and revenue aspects [1, 2]. Most of the municipal corporation has not been maintained proper data on solid waste generation, collection, transportation and final disposal. Therefore economists are confused economic estimation of solid waste management [3]. Moreover, economic analysis of solid waste management is the most helpful to local policy makers on various aspects for instance, designing waste management tax/charges or subsidies at the municipal level [4]; cost and benefits of waste to energy [5] and determining of urban property through the better environmental amenities [6, 7]. There are various economics estimation of per ton of solid waste management in India, For example, National Institute of Urban Affairs [8] had estimated at Rs 135 for per ton of solid waste collection and disposal and another study by National Solid Waste Association [9] had calculated at Rs 417 per ton of solid waste management [3, 10]. Therefore, this chapter has discussed the economics of solid waste management and public policy at the municipal level in various developing and developed countries.
Harisch [11] was the first author who had made an important methodology contribution to study the methods of Solid Waste Management. Attention had then been shifted to the second generation of research, particularly to the work of Stevens [12] who had made substantial improvements in the Model of Hirsch [11] and those of Dubin and Navarro [13] whose papers had included some methodological innovations also. Don Fullerton and Thomas Kinnaman [14] and Beede and Bloom [15] had made generation reforms and had introduced new methods of making an econometric analysis of Solid Waste Management. Finally, a few Indian studies had made use of new methodological approaches and innovations which had used more of the statistical methods. So, more recent studies had been considered in greater detail in this section.
The First empirical study to use econometric analysis for determining, among other things, as to which form of service delivery (public or private) had an effect on the municipal cost, was that of Hirsch [11], who had studied a sample of 24 Municipalities in St. Louis country (Missouri). However, this study had used econometric model in terms of the explanatory variables were limited to the data that was an available in 1960s, the year for which he had collected the information. Therefore, the variables that were finally used to explain cost (the average costs per service) were the number of waste collection locations, the weekly collection frequency, whether the collection point was an alone or a collective agencies, the residential area, sources of finance and the form of service management, and the distinction between the municipal and the private delivery. The Article had concluded that there were significant differences in the service cost between the municipal and the private delivery. This study did not find any economies of scale with respect to the output in the service. Hardy and Greission [16] had analysed the possibility of saving costs through cooperative efforts in the collection and the disposal of the solid waste material. Heuristic algorithms had been used to determine the best locations for landfills and the best routes for the collection trucks to follow in the study area in five countries. They had discussed about the rural public service delivery problems, and had designed a method to determine the least cost solid waste management system for the selected areas. According to them the economies of scale to be realised in the disposal phase of a solid waste management system and the costs of collection were dependent on the population density and the size of the service area. The combined collection and disposal costs had indicated that the regional system could be justified for the selected study areas. The least cost system for the five countries have two regional landfills. The annual costs associated with this system of $ 447.275, was found to be substantially lesser than the amount of $ 519,815 estimated for the system with each county operating the system independently. The results of the economic analysis had indicated that a regional system for the solid waste collection and disposal could be justified from the standpoint of view of costs.
Kumar et al. [17] had applied the fuzzy regression approached of forecasting for the years 2007 to 2024. The Study had emphasised the importance of forecasting the waste composition and the significance of the waste segregation for the efficient operation of the various reuse-recycle treatment and for producing efficient disposal facilities. The fuzzy regression coefficient was estimated based on the historical data of socioeconomic conditions (in this study, per capita income, GDP, persons per household, Total Population and Density) and the respective solid waste compositions (in this study; paper waste, plastics, food items, metals, glass pieces and other wastes). The fuzzy regression analysis had estimated the variations in the composition of the wastes: the percentages of wastes paper and food wastes were expected to decrease from 29.50 to 24.58 per cent and from 36.37 to 27.55 per cent, respectively, between the years 2007 and 2024. On the other hand, the waste of plastic contents was expected to increase from 2.74 to 3.55 per cent. The most significant changes were expected in respect of the percentage changes in the case of metals and glass, which had been estimated to increase by three times and two times, respectively, as compared to the present percentage levels. Maria Eugenia Ibarraran Viniegra [18] had attempted to examine the people’s willingness to pay for making improvements in the quality of the environment that could be brought about by a proper garbage collection system. The Study had carried out an econometric estimation of the determinants of Willingness to pay for environmental quality in San Pedro Cholula and was focused on the Municipality of San Pedro Cholula, located to the North of the city of Atlixco and to the West of the city of Pueble. Its area was 712 square kilometres and its population was approximately 150,000 inhabitants. The majority (36.5 per cent) of them was agricultural engaged in activities, and next in important were people engaged in arts and crafts and workers (14.5 per cent); and businessmen (8.3 per cent). An average Willingness to pay for the Project was $ 1.85 dollar her month per household. Age was a factor of significance and it was having an inverse relationship with to Willingness to Pay. The relationship between environmental ethics and that of Willingness to pay had shown a contradiction between people’s willingness to pay and their interest for environmental quality. This might be due to the fact that they did not express their true Willingness to pay because they feared that the garbage collection fees might increase. Finally, they had suggested a step towards valuation of the environmental quality and had allowed for making investment decisions with more and better information in Developing Countries.
Sarkhel and Banerjee [19] had calculated the economic value of municipal solid waste management in West Bengal. This study had interviewed 570 individual households and the mean Willingness to pay from the responses to the open-ended questions was calculated to be Rs. 12. with a median at Rs. 5.00 and a 75 per cent of the respondents expressing their willingness to pay at less than Rs.10.00, the distribution appeared to be skewed to the left with a very few extreme observations in the right-tail, pulling the mean substantially to a higher had level than that of the median. The Authors had also estimated the benefits that could derive by adopting the improved system of municipal waste management in Bally the Municipality in West Bengal. Altaf and Deshazp [20] had studied about the problem of the “Household Demand for Improved Solid Waste Management in: Pakistan” and the objectives of the study focused on integrating the demand side information into the planning process. Most of the attempts at improving the performance had been focused on the supply-side issues such as the collection, disposal and the capacity but had not yielded significant results. The sampling frame was provided by the Federal Bureau of Statistics (FBS). This census sampling frame work divided Gujranwala into 436 enumeration Blocks which represented the neighbor hoods containing 200 to 250 households. The Blocks were stratified according to income by the FBS. This stratification was retained for the study as the municipal solid waste services were provided at the block level and not at the household level. This study had followed stratified random sampling method for 1000 households. The distribution of the wastes from both the houses and the streets were tabulated at the disposal sites. About 20 per cent of the households had reported that their wastes were collected directly by the municipal disposal collectors using handcarts. The remaining households had disposed of the wastes outside their in houses with only 2 per cent of them doing so in bins provided by the municipal corporation. The most common disposal site, reported by 30 per cent of households, was an empty plot in the neighbourhood.
Economic instruments are the major role in the effective solid waste management sectors of many developed and developing countries. There are a number of instruments available in the literature. The economic instruments have been used for the different aspects, for instance, reducing waste generation, improving environmental quality and human well-being [21]. Economic instruments are listed revenue generating instruments, revenue providing instruments and non-revenue instruments. First, Revenue generating instruments such as Charges taxes and subsides. Second, revenue providing instruments are includes charges and tax reductions, fiscal incentives, development rights, funds. Finally, non-revenue instruments are trade off arrangements, deposit refund system, and take back systems. Table 1 highlights various type of economic instruments of solid waste management have adapted many developing and developed countries. Economic instruments have also help for cost-effectiveness, economic efficiency of solid waste management sector Nahman and Godfry [22]. However, the implementations of the economic instruments are especially in the developing countries very difficult due to involvement of institution and governance. For instance, in India has been generated more tones of solid waste from several years, therefore, economists they want to estimate cost of waste disposal, but there is lack of economic analysis of solid waste management [3].
Revenue generation | Revenue provide | Non-revenue |
---|---|---|
Disposal Taxes | Tax credits | Deposit refund system |
Pollution Taxes | Environmental improvement fund | Tradable permit |
Eco-taxes | Development rights | Eco-labeling |
Pollution charges | Research grants | Product stewardship |
Waste generation taxes | Host community compensation | Liability insurance |
Producer charges | Tax rebates | Take-back system |
Waste tipping charges | Charge reduction | Disclosure requirements |
Product charges | Carbon sequestration fund | Bonds and sureties |
Callan and Thomas [23] in their study on “Adopting a Unit Pricing System for Municipal Solid Waste: Policy and Socio-Economic Determinants” had carried out a detailed analysis by adopting a unit pricing system for municipal solid waste in USA. 351 Towns are included in the estimation, with 79 of these communities employing the MSW unit pricing approach and they had used the logistic regression equation for their estimation. The estimated parameters and their asymptotic standard error and each parameter gave the estimated change in the log of the odds of adopting unit pricing associated with a unit change in the corresponding independent variable. This study had empirically estimated the influence of the various theorised determinants of unit pricing adoption. From a broad perspective, this study had found that certain socio-economic and demographic characteristics appeared to have influenced the adoption decision. Although such factors were not controllable by the policy makers, an awareness of these determinants could correct false expectations and hence diminish the risk of costly failure. This Study had suggested that a community’s decision to adopt unit pricing was explainable and therefore predictable to some extent. In certain instances, the decision may be directly or indirectly controllable through policy initiatives. The relevance of these findings to MSW policy initiatives development should motivate further empirical investigations of unit pricing adaptation and the associated implications for policy makers and for the society at large.
Kinnaman [24] had used a skeletal model to develop and to frame a discussion of optimal policy design. This Model employed the virgin and the recycled materials so that the ratio of input prices was equal to that the ratio of marginal products. The Households might choose between the garbage and the recycling in a similar manner. Since agents in this simple model internalized all of the costs and benefits of their choices, resources were allocated efficiently and the optimal quantities of garbage and recycling were produced. The household utility would have an impact due to by these effects. So assume now that u = u (c,g), where ug < 0. Under this assumption, households failed to internalise the fuel social costs of their disposal decisions. Too much garbage and too little recycling could be adopted by a decentralized economy. The majority of the households are paid traditional ways such as garbage removal fee or local property tax to the municipalities. Miranda [25] in the study on “Unit based Pricing in The United States: A Tally of Communities” had highlighted 21 communities with unit-pricing programmes and had compared the quantity of garbage and that of recycling over the year preceding the implementation of the unit-pricing system with the year following it. Results had indicated that these towns had reduced garbage by 17 per cent and had increased recycling by 128 per cent. These large estimates could not be attributed directly to pricing garbage, since in every programme curbside recycling programsme were implemented during the same year as that of the adoption of the unit-pricing programme. Callan and Thomas [26] had predicted that the implementation of a user fee had increased the portion of the wastes recycled by 6.6 percentage points. This impact increased to the level of percentage 12.1 points when the user fee was accompanied by a curbside recycling program.
Kinnaman and Fullerton [27] had demonstrated that the disposals of household wastes were constrained by two disposals an option that is garbage disposal at landfill and recycling, and then marginal cost pricing which would tend to substitute recycling for garbage disposal. But if illegal disposal or burning features was a third alternative in the household disposal choice set, then unit pricing would encourage illicit dumping. If marginal cost pricing resulted in an increase in illegal dumping, and if the externality costs are high, the efficiency losses from under- pricing services might be smaller to bear with. In fact, the initial introduction of the unit pricing system resulted only in a modest reduction in waste disposal through dumping [28]. Fullerton and Kinnaman [29] had estimated that 28 per cent of the reduction in garbage resulting from pricing garbage disposal at the curb might be due to of illegal dumping. Jenkins [30], Blume [31] and Miranda and Aldy [32] had also come out with similar findings. The unit pricing model was used in a household production framework Morris and Holthausen [33] had shown that a price increase on the conventional disposal method did not affect recycling. In the system of unit pricing, the households found it more convenient to increase the total waste reduction efforts. The resources like Time and the prices of the purchased inputs devoted to the recycling process were high but they became less effective because of the reduction of wastes. Maraco Runkel [34] had attempted to develop a partial equilibrium vintage model of a durable good in which the producers determined the output and the product durability either under perfect or under imperfect competition. The Model differed from the previous durable goods Models in explicitly accounting for the consumption waste and for the disposal costs. This Paper had investigated as to how the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) in waste management had influenced the product durability and welfare. At the end of the products’ life the households had to pay a unit-based waste tax that coved the marginal disposal costs also. When purchasing consumption goods, rational households anticipate the tax, adjust their demand such that less waste was generated and rendered the resource allocation very efficient. The analysis derived the first-best and the second-best regulatory schemes and, on the basis of these schemes and had, investigated as to how EPR had influenced durability and welfare. All considered EPR instruments had exerted a positive effect on durability. Under perfect competition, the first-best outcome was attained provided the EPR had assigned a few marginal disposal costs to producers at the end of the products’ life; for example, through a take-back requirement combined with a regulated private disposal by the firms.
Marcello Basili et al. [35] had analysed and evaluated the costs and benefits of the New Garbage Plan (NGP), and had used hypothesis that Willingness To Pay (WTP) should reflect the value of the community of having a better environmental quality according to the contingent valuation literature. The study sample was divided into two subsets: firms and households, through the information gathered with the help of a detailed questionnaire and the, parametric and the non-parametric estimates were elaborated to analyse the willingness to pay of the population for the benefits flowing from increased SWC, increased incineration and through the cutting down of the landfills. The non-parametric from (using the double-bounded format) had produced an estimation of the minimum willingness to pay for the households and the firms, without the need to make any assumption about the true probability distribution of the values in the population. The mean willingness to pay for an increasing SWC was € 15.89 for households and € 20.89 for firms. The mean willingness to pay was easy to calculate but did not convey enough information for the policy makers. This was because of the fact that it was not possible to know the possibility of the willingness to pay to the socio-economic characteristics which could be obtained through parametric estimation producers. The Non – parametric estimates were robust, whereas the parametric estimates gave more information, and the authors had combined the non-parametric with the parametric estimates.
There are some recent literature have focused on economics of solid waste management at the national level. For example, cost and revenue aspects of municipal solid waste management, Al-Salem et al. (2014) had estimated the cost and revenue aspects of municipal solid waste management in the Great London. This study had found material resource recovery is more favorable in the context of economic in the city. Another study, Nahman [4] estimated the external cost of solid waste landfill in Cape Town, South Africa. The external costs are includes environmental as well as social cost in the estimation methodology. This study had estimated at the US$ 16 per tons of waste which has energy generation process from the municipal solid waste in the Cape Town. Aleluia and Ferrão [1] calculated the costs of solid waste management in the Asian Countries. The cost have included such as capital and operational expenditure for the municipal solid waste management. This study had estimated the average capital expenditure cost per ton US$ 21,493 for the Asian cities. Casado et al. [6] had calculated that the cost of municipal waste incineration through the Hedonic Pricing Method in England. This study had found that the impact of effective incineration the house prices range between 0.4 % to 1.3% in the study area. Sun et al. [7] had estimated the value of real estate price due to municipal solid waste landfill in Shenzhen, China through the hedonic price method. This study has found that the property value has been increased by 1.30% if the landfill away from houses.
There is lack of primary investigation on economics of solid waste management at the various municipalities in the many developing countries. The present chapter has discussed the various aspects on economics of solid waste management such as economic instrument, policy issues etc. However, the implementations of economic instruments are the major problems. Therefore, need to strengthen local institution and governance. In many developing countries like India, economists are facing many difficulties for estimating economics of solid waste management due to lack of data on waste generation, disposal and recycling [3, 36, 37, 38]. Economic estimate of solid waste is better understanding for local policy makers for designing healthy urban planning towards achieving sustainable cities. Most of the developing countries are in lack of finance and technology for effective solid waste management. Economics of solid waste management could provide a good framework for solid waste management especially cost and benefit aspects at the local and regional level [39]. Further, economics estimation of solid waste is more helpful to decision makers for designing tax/charges or other economic instrument for efficient allocation of financial and technological resources at the city level [24]. A number of Asian countries are difficult to design better solid waste management due to lack of studies on economic estimation in terms of cost of collection, transportation, segregation and final disposal [1]. Although, there are other economic problems raised due to lack of economic estimation of solid waste, for example negative externality [2]. Therefore, need to support economics of solid waste related studies at the regional, local and national level through the grants, support and guidance for better solid waste management for achieving environmental sustainability.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
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