Patient acuity level definitions.
\r\n\tApplied and basic studies - Field studies and lab assays of fungicides can be discussed. We also look for examples of application methods, which may include timing of application, tools for application, fungicide compatibility, phytotoxicity, etc. Field trials have to have at least two years of data;
\r\n\tAdaptation of Integrated Plant Disease Management - How the IPM practice has been adapted in the field. Application of disease risk models, or use of fungicide application aids, which can be hardware or software. The introduction of a new tool for growers can also be included;
\r\n\tNovel fungicides - In addition to the traditional chemical approach, alternative materials (enzymes, oils, extracts, etc.), biological control agents, or plant defense activators can be discussed;
\r\n\tAdaptation of new technologies - Examples will be the use of unmanned vehicles, sensor technologies, advanced sprayers, or disease forecast systems for precision agriculture;
\r\n\tFungicide resistance - Unfortunately, we cannot ignore the fact that fungicide-resistant strains are widespread. Documentation of fungicide-resistant strains, the introduction of new technologies and methods can be discussed.
A young male patient is involved in a head-on motor vehicle collision resulting in heavy vehicle damage with steering wheel deformity. After prolonged extrication, the patient is evaluated by emergency medical services (EMS) personnel, who determine that he is stable for ground transfer and subsequently bring him to a nearby community hospital. Upon further evaluation, the patient is found to have blunt cardiac injury, multiple rib fractures, and bilateral pulmonary contusions. At this point, the treating physician at the community hospital determines that transfer to a higher level of care is required. He promptly contacts a nearby trauma center that has the required expertise to effectively manage this patient’s injuries. A dialog between the community physician and the trauma surgeon from the destination facility is initiated. The receiving trauma surgeon approves the transfer but is in the midst of an acute trauma evaluation and cannot receive a full report on the patient’s condition or injuries. The community physician, having received approval for transport, begins the process of moving the patient to the trauma center without any further discussions with the receiving surgeon. Because the patient was hemodynamically stable throughout his evaluation, basic life support (BLS) was determined to be sufficient to transport the patient to the receiving facility, approximately 40 minutes away by ground. The patient is then placed on a BLS ambulance, and the transfer commences. En route, the patient starts to deteriorate with clinical signs of cardiogenic shock, most likely secondary to blunt cardiac injury. Within their scope of practice, BLS personnel attempt to provide care for the patient, but eventually he becomes pulseless, requiring cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). After 10 minutes of CPR, the patient arrives at the trauma center. At this time, the surprised receiving trauma team begins large-scale resuscitative efforts. Because the patient was transported with only a handful of printed pages from the medical record, the receiving team frantically scrambles to accumulate relevant clinical information from the sending hospital. After approximately 20 additional minutes of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, the patient dies. What were the contributing factors to this tragic outcome? How could similar occurrences be prevented in the future?
Interhospital patient transfer (IPT), a special case within the transitions of care (TOC) domain, is one of the most complicated and high-risk procedures in terms of coordination and patient safety (PS) [1–3]. Interhospital transfer is a type of interfacility transfer (IFT) defined as a transfer following assessment and stabilization at one healthcare facility with movement of the patient to another facility (e.g., clinic to hospital, hospital to inpatient rehabilitation, hospital to long-term care, or hospital to hospital, etc.) [4–6]. In this chapter we will focus primarily on hospital-to-hospital transfers. As in many other areas of PS, communication plays a critical role in ensuring effective and uneventful IPT [3]. Teamwork and attention to detail are important components of each and every IPT, regardless of how simple or “routine” the process may appear to be [7, 8].
The hypothetical case presented in this chapter’s clinical vignette describes, and exemplifies, common failure modes encountered in the current system of IPT, with focus on inadequate communication and incomplete understanding of patient condition(s) leading to inappropriate transport-level triage, ultimately resulting in preventable loss of life. The communication between the transferring and accepting physician was deficient, characterized by an unstructured handoff, lack of follow-up, and errors in clinical judgment that led to decreased awareness of risk. Again, the consequence of the above events was the patient’s death. More specifically, the lack of planning and incomplete understanding of the circumstances by the community hospital physician, coupled with lack of effective communication from the receiving trauma surgeon, contributed to the request for inadequate resources (both in terms of equipment and trained personnel) during patient transport. The choice of ground transportation may have been satisfactory for short-distance transfers (e.g., <10–15 miles), but in the case of a projected 40-minute travel time, the choice of air transportation may have been more optimal [9]. Regardless of the modality chosen, the level of crew training (e.g., BLS versus advanced life support or ALS) was equally critical to the current patient’s condition.
The capacity for IPTs within our healthcare system will likely grow with the progressive regionalization of care and the associated concentration of specialty medical and surgical expertise at regional referral centers [10–12]. The subsequent discussion will touch upon the many potential interventions that should be considered to reduce the overall risk associated with IPT. The authors will discuss checklist use, handoffs, medication safety, provider-to-provider communication, nursing communication, timely transfer of medical record and imaging information, crew training, team collaboration, critical supplies, as well as safety of the vehicles or aircraft involved in the transfer process.
Each year, >500,000 IPTs take place in the United States [13]. One of the main indications for an IPT is the requirement for additional resources not available at the referring hospital in order to provide an adequate level of patient care and expertise [2, 14, 15]. Specific reasons may include the need for medical subspecialty (e.g., neurosurgery or transplantation) coverage, lack of the required level of nursing care (e.g., intensive care, trauma care, or epilepsy monitoring), or lack of equipment necessary to provide acceptable standard-of-care management (e.g., imaging or interventional capability) [16–20].
For instance, a patient presenting to a small community hospital with signs of an acute myocardial infarction may require an emergent percutaneous coronary intervention which likely will be unavailable at this particular facility [21]. As a result, based on acuity, this patient would then need to be urgently transferred to a tertiary hospital that can provide the required interventional procedure and any subsequent definitive care. While the transfer to such tertiary facility would allow this patient to undergo the optimal therapeutic management, the very presence of a myocardial infarction, even if successfully temporized, may increase the risk of IPT. Hypothetically, the patient’s condition could deteriorate, and he or she could develop a cardiac arrhythmia and become unstable en route to the receiving facility, or the much needed intervention could be delayed because of the transfer [22]. In both circumstances, any risk(s) associated with transferring the patient should be carefully considered in the context of potential benefits of percutaneous coronary revascularization [23]. In the end, each IPT must be well justified, with the patient standing to gain from the presence of procedural, technical, or knowledge assets that are unavailable at the original hospital [2, 23]. Accurate assessment of the current patient condition (Table 1) is the most important initial step when determining both the need for transfer and the level of care required during IPT.
Patient acuity level | Patient characteristics |
---|---|
Stable, with no risk of deterioration | Routine vital signs, IV line placement, supplemental oxygen administration [level 1] |
Stable, with low risk of decline | Level 1 + need for active IV infusion and/or IV medications, pulse oximetry monitoring, personalized care with advanced assessment skills [level 2] |
Stable, with moderate risk of decline | Level 2 + EKG/telemetry, cardiac and/or other life-sustaining medications and measures [level 3] |
Stable, with high risk of decline | Level 3 + advanced airway or intubation, mechanical ventilatory support/management, vasoactive drips [level 4] |
Unstable, with clinical deterioration | Level 4 + unable to achieve sustained hemodynamic stability; actively deteriorating clinical picture; ongoing requirement for invasive monitoring and/or procedures [level 5] |
Patient acuity level definitions.
EKG, electrocardiography; IV, intravenous.
As stated previously, each and every IPT needs to be assessed carefully from the standpoint of potential risks, benefits, and alternatives. Physicians at both the transferring and receiving hospitals must be aware of the patient’s up-to-date clinical status and any specific management requirements [2]. The logistics of medical direction should be determined prior to the initiation of the transfer process [24]. In brief, the responsibility for ongoing care of the patient being transferred rests with the designated “medical director” for the duration of the IPT. This supervising provider may be the transferring physician, the medical director of the transporting service, or the accepting physician. At times, a shared responsibility model that has been agreed upon by all supervising parties can be employed [24].
Given the complexities involved (Figures 1 and 2), great care must go into choosing which patients need to be transferred and how they should be transported [2]. Significant amount of customization may be required, with patient safety and hemodynamic stability being among top priorities throughout the entire process. Each patient should be transported under the care of specially trained healthcare professionals, which can include physicians, nurses, advanced life support (ALS)-trained or basic life support (BLS)-trained personnel, respiratory therapists, and others as required, in order to ensure that the transfer is safe and that continuity of care occurs seamlessly both during the IPT and after the arrival at the destination facility [25, 26].
Clinical assessment of the patient in the context of interfacility transfer. The overall process begins with the assessment of patient stability, with subsequent determinations of the transportation modality (ground versus air transport). At all times, communication lines should be open between the referring and receiving facilities; *The ultimate choice of air versus ground transfer should be made after considering patient acuity and weather conditions.
Simplified decision-making algorithm outlining the process of determining whether to use basic (BLS) or advanced (ALS) life support. Post-transfer debriefings and continuous quality assurance are critical to ensuring that safe and effective transfer services continue to operate; *When patient condition is not known, over-triage is preferred to under-triage.
The situation becomes more complicated when various practical aspects of the patient transfer process come into play, both in terms of IPT appropriateness and safety. As stated earlier in this chapter, patients should be transferred only when the facility where they are currently being treated does not have the expertise, equipment, or other accommodations necessary for the patient to receive the appropriate-level care [27–30]. Regardless of the exact scenario, the goal should always be to stabilize the patient prior to transport in an effort to maximize the likelihood of uneventful interfacility transit, timely arrival, and smooth care transition at the receiving institution [18, 31]. During the transfer, constant communication between the medical command and the transporting vehicle/aircraft should be taking place [32], especially given the evolving capabilities for continued remote patient monitoring [33]. Consistent with the above principles, if a patient is sufficiently stable to undergo IPT, the sooner the transport process begins, the sooner the necessary (e.g., definitive) interventions can take place. If the patient’s baseline status is stable, and the need for transfer is triggered by the requirement for specialty treatment or the higher level of care, then they can be transported within a reasonable time frame that is convenient for both the transferring and receiving facilities. In such cases, multivariable consideration should include the assessment of need, the overall urgency, current bed capacity at the receiving institution, and the availability of transportation resources.
The role of the “medical director” is complex and requires detailed knowledge of IPT-related regulations, which can differ from state to state or region to region. The most important legal framework pertaining to interfacility transfers is the Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act (EMTALA) of 1986. It is a federal law whose primary purpose is to ensure that patients with emergency medical conditions are appropriately screened and treated at U.S. Medicare-participating facilities, regardless of a patient’s financial or insurance status and/or their national origin, race, creed, or color [34, 35].
EMTALA automatically applies when an individual presents to a department that is specifically equipped and staffed for the initial evaluation and treatment of outpatients with emergency medical conditions, such as emergency departments. EMTALA also governs how these patients are transferred from one hospital to another and applies specifically to unstable patients. An unstable patient cannot be transferred unless (1) a physician certifies that the medical benefits of transfer outweigh any associated risks or (2) a patient makes a transfer request in writing after being informed of EMTALA and the risks of transfer [34, 35].
EMTALA dictates that the referring physician is the responsible individual for the care of the patient during transfer, although the accepting physician may provide direction/advice [2, 36, 37]. The transferring hospital is obligated to treat and stabilize the patient within its capabilities until the IPT process commences. This mandate serves to minimize interfacility transit risks by optimizing patient condition prior to transfer. The referring facility must also provide copies of medical records, confirm that the receiving institution has space and qualified personnel to treat the condition and has accepted the transfer, and ensure that the IPT can be safely facilitated using qualified personnel and appropriate medical equipment. Conversely, the receiving hospital is obliged under EMTALA to accept an appropriate transfer of a patient who requires specialized care if the hospital has the capacity and corresponding capabilities and facilities to treat the individual. It is critically important for providers to clearly understand the EMTALA framework, not only from the standpoint of patient safety but also from the perspective of level of care and health coverage considerations. All EMTALA violations are considered to be very serious and may lead to substantial penalties, up to and including large civil fines (e.g., for both physicians and hospitals), lawsuits, and potential exclusion from federal and state medical reimbursement programs including Medicare and Medicaid [34, 38].
Consequently, medical direction is of utmost importance throughout the entire IPT process [2]. Logistically, this form of patient oversight can take a number of different forms. Most commonly utilized is the model where the referring physician provides online/on-scene direction. While a patient is in transport, medical oversight can be maintained by the referring or accepting physician as well as the medical director of the transporting agency or the medical director’s specialty care proxy. The latter may require that the medical director consults specialist providers with highly specific area(s) of expertise. Due to the broad range of tasks and responsibilities, the selection process for medical transport program director should ensure that suitable candidates demonstrate sufficient knowledge and skills across numerous domains, as outlined by the National Association of EMS Physicians [39].
In addition to direct oversight of patient transports, the responsibilities of EMS medical director also include activities such as personnel training and education as well as the development of pertinent protocols and procedures. Finally, medical directors are also tasked with reviewing IPT documentation records to determine the appropriateness of care and to verify that sufficient quality of services is being maintained. Regularly scheduled reviews of EMS performance, including quality improvement and compliance oversight, ensure that operations can continue at desired levels of safety and efficiency [40]. Formal education consisting of structured curricula offered at local/regional levels should be encouraged and supported, with the goal of disseminating and reinforcing fundamental knowledge and skills related to the provision of high-quality, safe, and effective emergency medical services. Less formal education often takes place as well, focusing on practical aspects of daily EMS operations, especially at the individual/team level. As outlined elsewhere throughout the
The first step in the process of IPT is the initiation of proper communication channel(s) between the two institutions involved. The transferring physician should gather clinical information necessary for an orderly handoff and then initiate the transfer request by contacting the hospital department tasked with such procedures. This organizational functionality is often termed “patient transfer center,” “patient placement center,” or “patient referral center” and will reach out to an analogous department at the receiving institution. The staff at each institution’s “transfer center” then contacts key stakeholders (e.g., referring and accepting physician, bedside nurses, etc.) so that the receiving physician is fully aware of the patient’s condition and any other information pertinent to the situation in order to determine the appropriateness of the proposed transfer, assess patient suitability for transfer in the context of available clinical data, allocate appropriate level-of-care resources (e.g., ICU bed, operating room), and finalize the decision on transfer modality (e.g., ground versus air transport) [41, 42]. Not only is it necessary for the referring and accepting physicians to be in close contact and discuss the transfer and any potential challenges, but it is also critical for the nurses from the receiving and transferring facilities to communicate details of care pertaining to the patient [43, 44]. This helps facilitate a smooth transition and minimizes any ITP-related disruptions. Lack of communication is a major, preventable source of medical error and is especially prevalent when the care teams are from two different facilities [41, 44]. While distance, distractions, incongruent treatment goals/plans, uncertainty of timing, and contrasting information sources are all barriers to continuity of care, standardized medical handoffs can help reduce situational and informational confusion, reduce medical errors, and hopefully result in better and safer patient care [2]. Although the authors of this chapter do not advocate for any specific approach to transfer-related communication, the reader is encouraged to consistently employ one of the many previously described systems of handover (Table 2).
|
In addition, patients should be transferred with readily available medical records, laboratory results, radiologic studies, and any other important documents needed to make optimal treatment decisions [41]. Whenever electronic access to patient record is feasible, the referring facility should enable appropriate viewing rights for authorized provider(s) at the receiving facility. Otherwise, all available records should either be copied or printed and sent with the patient to avoid critical information gaps at the receiving institution [2]. If laboratory results or other critical documents are not available when a patient is ready for transfer, then the referring facility must alert the receiving facility of any outstanding documentation and ensure timely and accurate transmission (including direct communication) of required information.
It is critical to emphasize the importance of family communication that should occur in parallel to the interfacility dialog. Not infrequently, this important task becomes lost among the plethora of clinical information exchanged during IPTs. The healthcare team must manage expectations of the family, including the real possibility—despite all safety measures—of patient clinical decompensation during the transfer process. An important component of the dialog involving the patient’s loved ones is to establish good rapport and an open conversation between the receiving facility and the family who may not be familiar with the staff and/or capabilities of the destination hospital. It also allows both the transferring and receiving facility to better understand family expectations (e.g., goals of care) and to establish an effective platform for any follow-up inquiries [45]. The additional allocation of time and effort that is devoted to informing the patient’s loved ones far outweighs the risk of any associated delays [46].
Finally, providers from each facility should consider discussing the necessity of obtaining additional imaging and/or laboratory tests prior to and while awaiting transfer to another hospital. However, it is important to keep in mind that while these results may help facilitate treatment management at the receiving facility, delaying transfer because of additional diagnostic studies may inadvertently result in increased morbidity and mortality.
There has been a great deal of research and discussion surrounding the benefits and limitations of utilizing ground emergency medical transport (GEMT) versus helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS) during IPTs [47, 48]. Some studies have suggested that there is little difference between GEMT and HEMS during optimal conditions and that there is no measurable benefit in outcomes such as disability, health status, or healthcare utilization [48–50].
For GEMT, the estimated number of annual dispatches in the United States exceeds 10–20 million, giving a glimpse of the enormity and the complexity of the EMS system [51]. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), the mean estimated number of motor vehicle crashes involving an ambulance stands at approximately 4,500 per year [52]. For HEMS, it is estimated that more than 400,000 patients are transported each year by aeromedical means [53, 54]. While HEMS accidents have decreased in recent years, there is still an incident rate between 0.56 and 0.73 per 10,000 missions, with fatal accidents occurring at a rate of 0.04–0.23 per 10,000 missions [9, 55]. Factors that may contribute to HEMS flight safety include weather conditions, crew training and experience, technical equipment maintenance, as well as the time of day during the conduct of the mission [9, 56, 57]. For both GEMT and HEMS agencies, it is critical to ensure the safety of patients being transported, to reduce the risk of injury or death to occupants of the medical transport platform (e.g., ambulance or aircraft), and to avoid any injuries/casualties or losses involving other vehicles, aircraft, people, or property.
In terms of modality selection, ground transport is generally faster when travel distances are less than 10 miles using simultaneous dispatch as the reference point, or the cutoff mark of 45 miles in the setting of nonsimultaneous dispatch [9, 58]. Generally speaking, GEMT vehicles are more readily available than air transport platforms (e.g., helicopter or fixed-wing aircraft). For IPTs involving longer distances (and greater amount of ground travel time), aeromedical transportation may be faster and more effective [49]. Others suggested that air transportation should be considered when the expected duration of ground travel exceeds 30 minutes [59, 60].
When determining which type of transport to utilize and under which circumstances, it is imperative to consider each patient’s unique situation, as well as any limitations of the facilities involved. In addition to patient stability, travel distance, and time-based considerations outlined in the previous paragraphs, it is also important to account for weather conditions, time of day, as well as the availability and distance of landing facilities from both the referring and receiving facilities [61, 62]. For example, if a receiving hospital utilizes a local airport as a waypoint for HEMS transfers, the additional transit time from the airport to the destination should be examined and compared to a GEMT alternative that may take the patient “from door to door” in equal or lesser amount of time. Additional factors to be considered should include transport priority/acuity, relative cost, resource availability, and the clinical justification (e.g., the determination of medical necessity of the transport) [63, 64]. If a patient is clinically stable, does not require any time-critical interventions, and is expected to remain stable, the more precious resource of air transport may be unnecessary and should be reserved for scenarios involving greater acuity of illness that better justify more expedient transfer [61, 62, 64].
Ensuring appropriate match between EMT personnel skills, knowledge, and the available equipment and infrastructure is the cornerstone of safe and effective IPT. It should be noted, in accordance with the NHTSA EMS guidelines, that the transferring provider should “err on the side of caution” and secure resources for transport that may ultimately exceed needs while at the same time anticipating a patient’s possible deterioration [65].
In addition to ensuring that appropriate safety protocols (including vehicle-related, equipment-related, and provider-related considerations) are in place [25], IPTs demand a unique set of provider skills compared to other types of healthcare settings. The aforementioned guidelines organize patient need levels into three tiers: (a) basic life support (BLS, Table 3), (b) advanced life support (ALS, Table 4), and (c) critical care transport (CCT, Table 5) [66–69]. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) defines yet another level of care known as the specialty care transport (SCT), which involves the transfer of a critically ill or injured patient that requires knowledge and skill beyond that of the EMT and paramedic [70]. It is applicable when a patient’s condition is such that it requires a provider in a specific specialty area (e.g., critical care nurse, emergency physician, orthopedic surgeon) to safely and adequately transport the patient.
Basic life support (BLS): minimal transportation requirement which includes equipment, basic medical knowledge base, and personnel skill set that will be necessary to safely transport a patient who is stable.
Advances life support (ALS): basic life support PLUS more advanced equipment, greater depth of medical/pharmacy/resuscitation knowledge, and broader technical personnel skill set in order to safely transport a patient who may be stable, but is at risk of clinical deterioration. ECG, electrocardiogram; DOT EMT, Department of Transportation Emergency Medical Technician.
Critical care transport (CCT): basic and advances life support PLUS specialized skills in the areas of medical/pharmacy/resuscitation, including familiarity with advanced critical care devices (e.g., extracorporeal support, various intravenous devices) to safely transport a patient who may be in stable of guarded condition, but may face imminent life-threatening decline. DOT EMT, Department of Transportation Emergency Medical Technician; IV, intravenous.
The next and very important question to be answered is when to use ALS versus BLS. As outlined previously, triaging patients to the appropriate level of transport requires accurate matching of provider skills, ambulance crew composition (e.g., paramedics, EMTs, nurses, physicians, and respiratory therapists), equipment availability, and the implementation of pertinent patient care protocols. In addition to the general principles and fundamental considerations, the level of care and crew training must also be in compliance with local and state laws and guidelines [71–74].
The main difference between ALS and BLS transports is the ability to provide care at increasing levels of patient acuity [75]. Therefore, the key triage decision that drives the use of ALS over BLS is the status of the patient. If the patient is considered to be more acutely ill and might require advanced interventions (e.g., ACLS protocol) during the transfer, then ALS is recommended. If, however, a patient is stable and is expected to remain stable, and the acuity is such that he or she will likely not require additional support while in transit, then BLS would be most appropriate option. No matter the level of training of the transport team, it is recommended that the transferring physician be available to communicate with them (see the previous section on medical command). This serves to ensure that any complications which may arise during the IPT can be identified and addressed immediately, thus optimizing the overall patient safety equation during transport. Figure 3 demonstrates major possible risks associated with IPTs, and Figure 4 summarizes the IPT risk assessment process, highlighting the multitude of interdependent factors that may contribute (alone or in various combinations) to the occurrence of adverse events during interfacility patient transport [4, 76, 77].
Potential risks associated with interfacility transfers, listed by category.
Estimation of IPT risk and the level of care required for the corresponding physiologic acuity. The overall risk level is calculated by adding patient acuity and monitoring intensity as main co-factors. The risk score (level) dictates staffing and expertise required for the IPT in question. *Group I support includes inotropes, vasodilators, antiarrhythmics, bicarbonate, analgesics, antiepileptic agents, steroids, mannitol, thrombolytics, naloxone, suction equipment, or chest tube(s). *Group II support includes inotropes and vasodilators together, military antishock trousers, general anesthetics, or uterine relaxants. The authors also propose extracorporeal life support in this category. Legend: aMI, acute myocardial infarction; EKG, electrocardiogram. Modified and compiled from Droogh et al. [
In certain uncommon cases, a physician may be asked or required to travel with the patient to the receiving facility. Special care must be taken that a physician in this situation be compliant with any and all regulations regarding out-of-hospital privileges, medical command, and liability coverage, as these may all vary from state to state. Although some institutions may routinely use physicians as part of the transport team, most do note. Consequently, care must be taken to avoid any medicolegal pitfalls.
Interhospital patient transport (IPT) represents a critical process that involves multiple providers, intersecting communication lines, and large volume of exchanged information. Because of its complexity, IPT is inherently associated with significant risks to the patient being transported, from the potential for clinical deterioration to the possibility of a medication error. The decision to transport the patient is just as important as the determination of the level of care (e.g., ALS, BLS, CCT) during the transfer process. Patients should only be transferred when the clinical benefit(s) outweigh any risk(s), resulting in the patient being able to receive procedural, technical, or cognitive assets that are unavailable at the referring hospital. Appropriate oversight during IPT is critical and is provided through the use of medical command protocols. Lastly, HEMS versus GEMT should be decided carefully based on patient acuity, the distance between facilities, weather conditions, and a number of other important considerations. As with any healthcare endeavor, the most vital considerations during IPT should be the safety and well-being of the patient.
Wheat is the second most important cereal crops of the world occupying about 220 million hectares area (mha) with a production of 716 million tons of food grain with a productivity of 3.2 tons per hectare [1]. It is extensively grown in Asia particularly in China and India. In India its production is enhances after the green revolution of late 1960s followed by another green evolution during 1980s. During these two green revolutions, the rate of annual growth in wheat production globally was ~3%, but in recent years it is declined to <0.9% due to appearance of new biotic and abiotic stresses. Although currently, the global wheat production has been able to meet the current demand and consumption, but we will have to enhance production and achieve the targets of at least ~858 Mt to meet the demand in 2050, as against current global production of 763 Mt. It comprises amounts to at least ~15% desired increase in global wheat production (1.5% annual increase) during the next three decades to feed the global human population, which is estimated to reach ~9.7 billion in 2050 (https://population.un.org/wpp/). It is quite challenging to achieve this target production despite of shrinkage in arable land due to urbanization, and the probable negative impact of climate change. Due to its significant contribution to global food security, it is very much essential to improve its production and productivity to feed the ever increasing population on limited cultivated land. However, the most remarkable environmental concern in agriculture is the increase of global temperature. With regard to global climate models, the mean ambient temperature is predicted to increase by 1–6°C by the end of twenty-first century [2]. Such increase of global temperature may have a significant influence on agricultural productivity in accordance with the severity of the high temperature, drought, salinity, water logging, and mineral toxicity stresses (Figure 1).
Abiotic stress adaptive mechanism and their associated traits in plants heat stress tolerance.
High temperature-induced heat stress is expressed as the rise in air temperature beyond a threshold level for a particular period which is sufficient to cause injury or irremediable damage of crop plants in general [3]. The heat stress situation is become more intense when soil temperature increases due to increase in air temperature associated with decline in soil moisture. It negatively affects the yield attributing traits and ultimately results in reduction in wheat productivity. Some indicators of heat stress effects in wheat are illustrated in Figure 2. Wheat is very sensitive to heat stress particularly in some physiological growth stages. It has been estimated that reduction in global wheat yield falls by 6% for each 1°C of further temperature rise [4]. The low latitudes showed a distinct increase in simulated yield variability with higher temperature than that observed at high latitudes. This greater relative yield decline was due to the higher reference temperature [5]. The effects of heat stress on plants are very complex resulting in alteration of growth and development, changes in physiological functions, and reduced grain formation and yield.
Major effects of heat stress on plants growth and development. Pn, Rs, and Ci indicate photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and intercellular CO2 concentration respectively.
Heat stress leads to changes in plant water relations, reduction of photosynthetic capacity, decreases of metabolic activities and changes of hormones, production of oxidative reactive species, promotion of ethylene production, reduction of pollen tube development, and increases of pollen mortality [1] in wheat. During the period from 1880 to 2012, the Earth’s system warmed by 0.85°C [6]. This warming period will be continue and is predicted to rise between the range of 1.5–4.0°C in the future [7]. The changes in climatic factors like temperature, precipitation, CO2, weather variability, and soil moisture deficit would have positive or negative effects on crop system which will appears in its production level. The deleterious impacts of climate change on crop production are challenging the food security of the world and it is predicted that sustaining wheat production will be impacted more by increasing temperature. High temperature affects crops in different ways including poor germination and plant establishment, reduced photosynthesis, leaf senescence, decreased pollen viability, and consequently production of less grain with smaller grain size. Degree of such effect varies depending on the crops, cultivars, phenological stages, sowing dates and management practices. Some other adaptation measures are related to surface cooling by irrigation, antioxidants defense [8] and osmoprotectants [3, 5] minimizes the effects of heat stress. However, development of heat-tolerant wheat varieties and generation of improved pre-breeding materials for any breeding program in future is crucial in meeting the food security [9]. Proteomic and transcriptomic data are important to identifying genes and proteins that respond to environment, and affects yield and quality of wheat.
Breeding is a strategy for genetic manipulation of crop and its adaptation response under changing environment. Therefore, it requires the evaluation of genetic diversity of existing germplasm for the selection and induction of stress inducible genes/QTLs of genetic resources for developing new varieties in the production systems.
Recent advances in molecular science play an important role to understand the complexity of stress response mechanisms under heat stress conditions and emphasized on the knowledge of molecular pathways and protective mechanisms to breed heat stress tolerant plants. Heat tolerance is obviously a polygenic trait, and the molecular techniques also help in analyzing the genetic basis of plant thermo tolerance. QTL mapping and subsequent marker-assisted selection made it possible to better understanding the heat tolerance in plants [10]. Recently several QTLs for different yield component traits have been identified which can be used for developing heat tolerance in wheat. For example, QTLs for heat tolerance has been identified for grain weight and grain-filling duration, senescence-related traits and canopy temperature. Besides others recognized QTLs present on chromosomes 2B, 5B and 4A in wheat under heat stress conditions [11]. The electrolyte leakage is an indication of reduced cell membrane thermo stability (CMT) which reflects the performance of wheat genotypes under heat shock. Genotypes generating heat shock proteins (HSPs) can withstand heat stress as they protect proteins from heat-induced damage. It has been also suggested that the abundance of small heat shock protein and superoxide dismutase during milky-dough stage plays a vital role in the biosynthesis of starch granule, and this will help to develop heat-tolerant wheat cultivars containing high grain quality. A large number major and stable QTLs were reported (Table 1), which included for agronomic traits and for physiological traits showing ≥20% phenotypic variances. These QTLs may prove useful for improvement of such traits using marker assisted selection (MAS).
Sl. no. | Traits/QTL | Phenotypic variance (%) | Linked marker (position in cM) | Physical position (Mbp)d | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
a. Q .Yld.aww-3B-2 | 22 | XWPT8021-Xgwm0114B (190.7) | 802.3 | — | |
a. Qtgw.iiwbr-2A | 23.7 | Xgwm12280.8 | (174.41) | — | |
b. QHthsitgw.bhu-7B | 20.3 | Xgwm1025–Xgwm745 (144.1) | ND | [12] | |
c. 2A (36.1)c | 224,948|F|0-9:T > A-9:T > A-kukri_c22235_1549 (21–24) | ND | [13, 14] | ||
a. Qtgws.iiwbr-2A | 28.9 | Xgwm497.1 (41.61) | 684 | — | |
b. Qgws.iiwbr-2A | 19.9 | Xgwm122 (171.41) | 80.8 | — | |
a. Qlgns.iiwbr-2A | 23.16 | Xgwm372 (149.01) | 203.3 | — | |
b. Qgns.iiwbr-2A | 20.04 | Xgwm448 (166.51) | 154.4 | — | |
a. QHknm.tam-2B | 21.6 | Xgwm111.2 (36.9) | 786.6 | [15] | |
a. QHkwm.tam-3B | 19 | Xwmc527 (89.8) 540.2 | [15] | ||
b. QHkwm.tam-3B | 21.2 | Xwmc326 (123.6) | 778.7 | [15] | |
a. QHskm.tam-1A | 22.6 | Xcfa2129 (43.2) | 513.7 | [15] | |
b. QHskm.tam-2A | 21 | Xgwm356 (129.5) | 670.6 | [15] | |
a. QHgfd.iiwbr-5A | 22 | X1079678|F|0 (107.5) | ND | [16] | |
b. QHthsigfd.bhu-2B | 20.2 | Xgwm935–Xgwm1273 (385.3) | ND | [12] | |
a. Q .Eet.aww-7A-2 | 39 | XPPDD1-XWPT0330 (35) | 63.5 | — | |
a. Q .Ctgf.aww-3B | 21 | XWPT-8021–Xgwm0114B (192.7) | 802.3 | — | |
a. QHtctd.bhu-7B | 19.8 | Xgwm1025–Xgwm745 (144.1) | ND | [12] |
List of major and stable QTL for heat tolerance-related traits in wheat.
Genetic engineering and transgenic approaches can diminish the adverse effects of heat stress by improving heat tolerance mechanisms [17]. It involves the incorporation of genes for heat tolerance into the desired plants [18]. However, the complexity of the genomic pattern makes it difficult to research for genetic modification in wheat. Prolong exposes to heat stress leads to increases in production of protein synthesis elongation factor (EF-Tu) in chloroplast which is associated with heat tolerance in wheat. The constitutive expression of EF-Tu in transgenic wheat protected leaf proteins against thermal aggregation, reduced thylakoid membranes disruption, enhanced photosynthetic capability, and resisted pathogenic microbes infection [19], hence the wheat genotypes having more EF-Tu showed better tolerance to heat stress as compared to genotypes with less EF-Tu [20]. Recently, it have been found that many transcription factors (TFs) involved in various abiotic stresses and engineered to improve stress tolerance in crops [21].
Drought stress can be simply defined as a scarcity of water which leads to dramatic changes in morphological, biochemical, physiological, and molecular features [22]. All of these changes hamper plant growth and crop production. Negative impact of drought stress appears at any growth stage and level of adverse effects depends on stage specific stresses and local environment. Therefore, genotypes may be tested for their drought tolerance at different particular growth stages. Severity of drought induced damage on plants depending on plant genotype and growth stage. Some genotypes may show tolerance to drought at germination or seedling stage, but these may be very sensitive to drought at the flowering stage or vice versa. Globally, more than 50% of the wheat cultivated land is exposed to periodic drought which causes losses up to 9–10% in production. Furthermore, decrease in precipitation and increasing evaporation as a consequence of global warming may expected to increase in frequency of drought and its severity in the future. Therefore, understanding the drought induced damages in wheat plants and approaches to improve drought tolerance is crucial to increase wheat productivity. Drought stress imposes damaging effects on several plants physiological processes occur in its different growth stages such as germination, vegetative growth, reproductive, and maturity. Under such stress conditions plant restricts the photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, uptake and transportation of water and nutrient and translocation of assimilates. Drought stress damages the cell membrane structure, disorganization of ultra-structural cellular components and disruption of its properties, enzyme activities and anion and cationic imbalance are some of the major reasons for disturbing plant physiological processes. Drought stress usually leads to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide (O2−), singlet oxygen (1O2), and hydroxyl radicals (OH−) are the most common species which are generated due to iron-catalyzed Fenton reaction due to the activities of lipoxygenases, peroxidases (POX), NADPH oxidase, and xanthine oxidase. The ROS in any form causes substantial damage to cell components and can cause cell death [23]. Plants have a very much evolved antioxidant defense system to rummage and keep up a reasonable degree of ROS to keep cells from oxidative harm. Under cell antioxidant defense system, it have some nonenzymatic antioxidants (ascorbic acid, AsA; glutathione, GSH; phenolic compounds; alkaloids; non protein amino acids; and α-tocopherols) and some antioxidant enzymes (super oxide dismutase, SOD; catalase, CAT; ascorbate peroxidase, APX; glutathione reductase, GR; monodehydroascorbate reductase, MDHAR; dehydroascorbate reductase, DHAR; glutathione peroxidase, GPX; and glutathione-S-transferase, GST) which work coordinately to eliminate ROS in an efficient way. Biotechnological approaches also helpful in enhancing the antioxidant system to confer oxidative as well as abiotic stress tolerance. Performances of drought-affected plants are remarkably improved by exogenous application of osmolytes, hormones, antioxidants and signaling molecules.
Drought stress tolerance is a complex trait influenced by genetic with many quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and environmental factors. Genetic analyses of drought tolerance have been studied through the development of molecular markers and genome sequencing in wheat. Such analyses include several approaches, e.g., QTL-mapping, association-mapping, genome-wide analyses and expression analysis aim to identify QTL or gene-related traits for drought stress tolerance. Revealing the genetic basis underlying the drought tolerance in wheat requires a phenotypic and genetic variation of relevant traits in large populations with dense genetic maps. The genetic basis of drought tolerance is due to polygenic inheritance, where each gene has small effect with high GXE interaction, hence low-heritability. Furthermore, the genetic independence of drought tolerance at different developmental stages makes the detected QTL less useful in crop improvement. Therefore, several QTLs have been discovered for drought tolerance-related traits, but a limited number of QTLs are genetically characterized or cloned and incorporated in breeding programs. Identifying stable QTL with large-effect that controls many drought tolerances-related traits at different developmental stages would be a great effort for crop improvement, but has not been found.
Quantitative trait loci (QTL) are location from where some genes influence a phenotype of quantitatively inherited trait. Genetic variations of a crop can be clarified through QTL mapping (polygenes). Mapping of QTL allows the estimation of the places, quantity, level of effects for the phenotype, gene activity pattern and important genomic regions. Multi-environmental field conditions are commonly used to evaluate the genotype performance [24, 25] using a different type of bi-parental population, e.g., recombinant inbred line (RIL) population, doubled haploid (DH) population [26, 27] or advanced backcross [28]. Different DNA molecular markers have been used to genotype the populations and identify QTL [26, 29]. Recently, a high-density genetic SNP map [28] (SNP array or genotyping by sequencing (GBS)) have been used to genotype the population [27]. Numerous QTLs have been identified for grain yield on chromosomes one, three and six, grain number per spike on chromosome two, three and six and spikelet number for each spike on two, five and six. Such major QTL controlling grain yield can be utilized in marker-helped determination rearing for yield improvement under dry spell pressure. QTL studies using a biparental mapping population have also discovered the genetic factors of other physiological and adaptive traits (Table 2), e.g., leaf chlorophyll content, leaf waxiness and leaf rolling in wheat, transpiration efficiency, water-use efficiency, biomass, leaf area, and growth rate-related traits in wheat. Meta-QTL (MQTL) analysis on drought tolerance in wheat has revealed QTLs for, photosynthesis, soluble carbohydrates, water status, carbon isotope discrimination, canopy temperature, coleoptiles vigor and stay-green.
Traits | Chromosome | Reference |
---|---|---|
Grain yield | 1B, 1D, 3B, 4A, 6D, 7D | [30] |
Grain weight per spike | 1B, 1D | [31] |
Thousand grain weight | 1B, 1D, 2A, 2B, 3A, 3B,4A, 4D, 6A, 6D, 7B, 7D | [32] |
Grain number (m−2) | 1B, 5A, 5B, 7D | [33] |
Grain number per spike | 1A, 2A, 2B, 3A, 6B | [33, 34] |
Harvest index | 1B, 2D, 4BS, 5A | [32] |
Spike number per plant | 1A, 2A, 2B, 2D, 4B, 5A,7B | [32] |
Spikelet compactness | 1A, 1B, 2B, 5A, 5B, 6A,6B, 7A | [32] |
Spikelet number per spike | 1B, 1D, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5A, 6B, 7D | [32] |
Sterile spikelet number per spike | 7A | [32] |
Fertile spikelet spike per spike | 2A | [32] |
Spike length | 2B, 7A, 7B | [32] |
Biomass | 1B | [32] |
Shoot biomass | 4B | [35] |
Spike length | 2B, 7A, 7B | [32] |
Leaf area, growth rate, transpiration efficiency, water-use efficiency | 2A, 2D, 3A, 4B, 6A | [36] |
Stomatal density, index, aperture area, length; guard cell area and length | 2B, 4AS, 5AS, 7AL, 7BL;1BL, 4BS, 5BS, 7AS | — |
Stomatal conductance, net photosynthetic rate | 5A, 6B | [33] |
Root length | 2D, 4B, 5D, 6B | [35] |
Root biomass | 2D, 4BS | [35] |
Abscisic acid (ABA) | 1B, 2A, 3A, 4D, 5A, 6D,7B | [37] |
Jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic acid (SA), ethylene | 6A | [38] |
The detected quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for agronomic, physiological and metabolite traits in wheat using bi-parental mapping populations.
QTL investigation is so basic to target characteristics and for doing this a couple of stages are required. Initially, phenotypic evaluation of reasonably huge population for markers which are polymorphic is required. Besides, genotyping of the population is noteworthy. Thirdly, there is a prerequisite for quantifiable examination to distinguish the loci that are influencing the target trait. Several studied has been done and recognized >1200 QTLs for various characteristics conveyed over every one of the 21 chromosomes engaged with dry season resilience. Most extreme number of QTLs has been accounted for agronomic attributes, trailed by physiological qualities and root characteristics. Among agronomic qualities, most extreme QTL are known for thousand grain weight (TGW) trailed by grain yield and different attributes recorded under dry season conditions just as should be expected conditions. Among physiological qualities, most extreme number of QTLs are accessible for SPAD/chlorophyll content (82 QTL) trailed by water-dissolvable starches (76 QTL), coleoptile length (68 QTL). Among the root characteristics, greatest number of QTL is known for root length. Just 70 of these detailed QTL are major (clarifying ~>20% PVE), and just 19 QTL (counting 14 QTL for agronomic qualities, 5 for physiological attributes) are steady QTL utilized for QTL examination. The root attributes display high QTL × environment interaction, which recommends non accessibility of stable QTL for these characteristics. Fourteen stable major QTL were accounted for five agronomic attributes, with phenotypic fluctuation for individual QTL extending from 19.60% (grain yield QTL qGYWD.3B.2) to 45.20% (1000-grain weight QTL on 3B). These QTL can be utilized for development of dry spell resistance utilizing marker assisted selection (MAS). Two of the five QTL for grain yield that respond to dry season/heat stress cover a specific Mega QTL; these two QTL are found one each on chromosomes 4A and 7A [39] in areas, which likewise harbor QTL for the accompanying 14 qualities, which add to seedling rise, grain yield and reception to dry spell conditions: (1) days to heading, (2) days to development, (3) remain green propensity, (4) biomass, (5) shelter temperature; (6) carbon isotope separation, (7) coleoptile energy, (8) grain filling, (9) plant stature, (10) portion number, (11) spike thickness, (12) 1000-bit weight, (13) water-solvent sugars and (14) grain yield. Two other QTL for kernel width/thickness proportion on chromosome 5A cover a MQTL on 5A which represent to QTL for plant stature, spike weight and TGW [39]. The four stable major QTL for dry spell resilience incorporate two QTL for grain yield and two QTL for kernel width/thickness proportion. In an ongoing report, after broad field tests directed under pressure conditions in India, Australia and Mexico, a fundamental impact yield QTL (QYld.aww-1B.2) was fine-mapped to 2.9-cM locale relating to 2.2-Mbp genomic area containing 39 predicted genes (Tura et al., 2020). This QTL could be exploited in wheat breeding. The QTL for TGW, which is a significant segment of grain yield and have high heritability as well as stability, can be exploited for development of grain yield under water stress. Four QTL for days to heading and days to maturity may likewise be exploited utilizing MAS. Five significant and stable QTL for three physiological characteristics (SPAD/chlorophyll content, stem save assembly and water-solvent starches) each clarified PV running from ~20 to ~60% (Table 3). These attributes add to grain filling/advancement and thus to grain yield. The markers related with QTL for these characteristics are additionally acceptable possibility for marker assisted selection (MAS).
Sl. no. | QTL/trait | PVE % | Linked marker (position in cM) | Physical position (Mbp) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Grain yield | |||||
a. qGYWD.3B.2 | 19.6 | Xgpw7774 (97.6) | 16.2 | — | |
b. 4A | 20 | Xwmc420 (90.4) | 538.2 | — | |
c. 4A-a | 23.9 | Xgwm397 (6) | 708.6 | [11] | |
d. Qyld.csdh.7AL | 20.0 | Xgwm332 (155.9) | 681.6 | [40] | |
e. 6D | 26.6 | 2,265,648|F|0-60:A>G-60:A>G-RAC875_c57371_238 (73) | ND | [14] | |
2. 1000 grain weight | |||||
a. 2A | 36.1 | 2,264,948|F|0-9:T > A-9:T > A-Kukri_c22235_1547 (21.0-24.0) | ND | [14] | |
b. 3B | 45.2 | Xbarc101 (86.1) | 34.3 | [41] | |
c. QTgw-7D-b | 21.9 | XC29-P13 (12.5) | ND | [42] | |
3. Days to heading | |||||
a. QDh-7D.b | 22.7 | XC29-P13 (12.5) | ND | [42] | |
b. QHd.idw-2A.2 | 32.2 | Xwmc177 (46.1) | 33.7 | [29] | |
c. 5D | 21.4 | 1,126,619|F|0-21:A > T-21:A > T-wsnp_Ex_c1278_2449191 (162) | ND | [43] | |
4. Kernel width/thickness ratio | |||||
a. qWTR-5A-1 | 33.09 | Xwmc74-Xgwm291 (61) | 702.5–698.1 | [44] | |
b. qWTR-5A-2 | 23.59 | Xgwm291-Xgwm410 (71) | 698.1 | — | |
5. Days to maturity | |||||
a. QDm-7D.b | 22.7 | X7D-acc/cat-10 (2.7) | ND | [29] | |
1. Stem reserve mobilization | |||||
a. QSrm.ipk-2D | 42.2 | Xgwm249a (142) | 141.1 | [45] | |
b. QSrm.ipk-5D | 37.5 | Xfbb238b (19) | ND | [45] | |
c. QSrm.ipk-7D | 21 | Xfbb189b (338) | ND | [45] | |
2. Water-soluble carbohydrates | |||||
a. QWsc-c.aww-3A | 19 | Xwmc0388A (64.9) | 208 | — | |
3. SPAD/chlorophyll content | |||||
a. Qchl.ksu-3B | 59.1 | Xbarc68 (67.2) | 76.1 | [46] |
A list of major and stable QTL (PVE ranging from 19 to 59%) for agronomic and physiological traits identified under drought/water stress.
PVE shows phenotypic variation explained; c means position of linked flanking marker was given if either the second marker or its sequence was not available; ND explain the physical position of QTL could not be determined due to lack of linked marker sequence information.
As of late, genome-wide investigations fuse genome-wide association study (GWAS) and genomic selection (GS) has been used to grasp the inherited multifaceted nature and breed for drought tolerance. GWAS approaches can be utilized with huge quantities of SNPs that produce a high-thick guide in an enormous and various assortments that give an elective way to deal with distinguish explicit qualities while the GS can be utilized in both bi-parental and different populaces. A predetermined number of studies have concentrated on physiological attributes, e.g., leaf green region, leaf water substance and water-soluble carbohydrates with around 12 MTAs have been distinguished. Chromosome 1A was found to contain a significant genomic region for physiological attributes, for example, water-dissolvable starches. Recently, utilized the most recent wheat genome sequences to physically map the most consistent and significant genomic regions that related with numerous agronomic and physiological attributes under drought stress in wheat. For example, the physical region of 1A was as a highly significant region for grain weight, flag leaf area and flag leaf width.
Globally, over 20% of the cultivable land is influenced by salinity. Because of environmental change and anthropogenic exercises, the salt influenced region is tended to increase day by day. A saline soil is commonly characterized as one in which the electrical conductivity (EC) of the saturation extract in the root zone surpasses 4 dS m−1 (roughly 40 mM NaCl) at 25°C and has a exchangeable sodium of 15%. It has been assessed that overall 20% of all out developed and 33% of irrigated agricultural lands are influenced by high salinity. Salt affected soils currently constitute 6.74 million ha in various agro ecological regions, the zone is probably going to increment to 16.2 million ha by 2050. Abiotic stresses (including salinity) are responsible for more than 50% yield reduction [47]. In opposite, because of fast increment of worldwide population, food production ought to be expanded by over 70% by 2050 [48]. Wheat (
In saline soil plant development is restrained by two reasons. To begin with, it decreases the plant’s capacity to take up water, and this prompts more slow development. This is the osmotic stress or water-deficiency impact of salinity. Second, it might enter the transpiration stream and in the end harm cells of leaves includes in the transpiration prompts further reducing development. This is the salt-specific or ion-excess effect of salinity. The two impacts give rise to a two-stage development response to salinity (Figure 3). The outline shows the development reaction to salt that is included step by step.
Schematic outline of the two-stage development reaction to salinity for genotypes that differ in the rate at which salt arrives at harmful levels in leaves. For annual species, the time scale is d or wk., depending upon species and salinity level. For perennial species, the timescale is months or yr. During stage 1, development of the two genotypes is decreased in light of the osmotic stress of the saline solution outside the roots. During stage 2, leaves in the more sensitive genotype die and decrease the photosynthetic limit of the plant. This applies an extra impact on development [
Salt tolerant is a polygenic trait directed by multiple factors/genes. There are various systems for salt resilience helps in decreasing Na+ gathering in the cytoplasm by restricting Na+ section into the cell, effectively moving Na+ out of the cell, and compartmentalizing Na+ into the vacuole. High-affinity potassium transporters (HKTs) are most active at level of plasma membrane and act as Na+/K+ symporters as well as Na+ particular uniporter. Significant two subfamilies of HKTs: HKT1 and HKT2 are being investigated phylogentically [53]. HKT1 are only permeable to Na+ but HKT2 are penetrable to both Na+ and K+. The group of HKTs having a place HKT/Trk/Ktr-type K+ transporter superfamily are found generally in microorganisms and plants. In numerous plants, Na+ and Cl− are avoided by roots and water is taken up from the soil. This avoidance at higher salinities is kept up by halophytes. For example, sea grain grass,
Thereby it maintains concentration of ROS in normal range and prevent oxidative burst in plants. Phenolic compounds also show important role in neutralizing the free radicals, quenching singlet oxygen and decomposing peroxides. Different approaches have been adopted to improve plant performance under salt stress; introduction of genes, screening of better performing genotypes, and crop improvement through conventional breeding methods which are often not so successful and not suitable due to time consuming or reduction of plant vigor with the succession of time. Uses of exogenous phytoprotectants, seed priming, nutrient management, and application of plant hormones are convenient for improving plant performances. These approaches are being also popular for stress management practices including the salt stress.
In this manner it keeps up concentration of ROS in ordinary range and prevent oxidative burst in plants. Phenolic compounds additionally show significant job in neutralizing the free radicals, extinguishing singlet oxygen and breaking down peroxides. Various methodologies have been adopted to improve plant performance under salt stress; introduction of genes, screening of better performing genotypes and crop improvement through traditional breeding techniques which are frequently not all that fruitful and not reasonable because of tedious or decrease of plant vigor with the progression of time. Uses of exogenous phytoprotectants, seed priming, supplement management, and utilization of plant hormones are advantageous for improving plant exhibitions. These methodologies are being also popular for stress management practices including the salt stress.
Class 1HKT genes are involved in regulating transport of Na+ in higher plants. Several HKT1 genes including HKT1; 1/2-like, HKT1; 3-like, HKT1; 4-like, and HKT1; 5-like, have been identified and mapped to wheat homologous chromosome groups 2, 6, 2 and 4 respectively. Among these, Nax1 in chromosome 2AL co-segregated with sodium transporter gene HKT1; 4-A2, which was shown to control Na+ unloading from xylem in roots and sheaths. Nax2 was mapped to the distal region of chromosome 5AL that is homologous to a region on chromosome 4DL containing Kna1 [54]. Based on synteny and phylogeny analysis with Nax2, TmHKT1; 5-A significantly reduced leaf sodium content and increased durum wheat grain yield by 25% compared to lines without the Nax2 locus. Furthermore, decreased expression of TaHKT1; 5-D, which is homoeologous to TmHKT1; 5-A and underlies Kna1 locus in bread wheat, caused by target-specific RNA interference-induced silencing (RNAi) led to an accumulation of Na+ in leaves, strongly suggesting that TaHKT1; 5-D should be the candidate gene of Kna1.
Class 1HKT genes are engaged with managing transport of Na+ in higher plants. A few HKT1 genes including HKT1; 1/2-like, HKT1; 3-like, HKT1; 4-like, and HKT1; 5-like, have been recognized and mapped to wheat homologous chromosome groups 2, 6, 2 and 4 respectively. Among these, Nax1 in chromosome 2AL co-segregated with sodium transporter gene HKT1; 4-A2, which was appeared to control Na+ emptying from xylem in roots and sheaths. Nax2 was mapped to the distal region of chromosome 5AL that is homologous to an region on chromosome 4DL containing Kna1 [54]. In view of synteny and phylogeny investigation with Nax2, TmHKT1; 5-An altogether decreased leaf sodium content and expanded durum wheat grain yield by 25% contrasted with lines without the Nax2 locus. Besides, diminished articulation of TaHKT1; 5-D, which is homoeologous to TmHKT1; 5-An and underlies Kna1 locus in bread wheat, brought about by target-explicit RNA obstruction actuated hushing (RNAi) prompted a collection of Na+ in leaves, firmly proposing that TaHKT1; 5-D ought to be the applicant quality of Kna1. A major mechanism in salinity tolerance of wheat is Na+ exclusion mediated by HKT genes. AtHKT1 is regulated by small RNA and DNA methylation. Moreover, DNA methylation also participates in the response of TaHKT1; Transcription factors such as AtAB14 and OsMYBc were shown to regulate HKT genes in plants, offering more candidate targets for enhancing salinity tolerance.
When there is high concentration of salt in plant system, the activation of complex physiological responses such as phytohormone signaling pathways and developmental signals starts to adapt the stress; therefore it is essential to identify the environmental and developmental signals. First of all an attempt was performed by looking at phytohormones, as most phytohormones are regulatory factors of both developmental process and stress response. For example, the wheat gene TaAOC1, encoding cyclase involved in jasmonic acid synthesis, was induced by high salinity. Constitutive expression of TaAOC1 in both wheat and Arabidopsis restricted root growth, but enhanced salt tolerance and Jasmonic acid content. It indicates the different branches of metabolic pathway participate in a single process but controlled by different mechanisms. Light is an essential factor that positively affects the development and growth of plants. TaGBF1, a blue light specific responsive G-box binding factor, was prompted after exposure to salt. TaGBF1 caused salt affectability and advanced light blue interceded photomorphogenesis, indicating that it was a typical segment of the blue light and salt stress responsive signaling pathways. Curiously hereditary examination recommended that the job of TaGBF1 because of salt depended on AB15, a key part of ABA signaling pathway. The extensive studied has been done for the identification of salt tolerant QTLs. The available studies led to identification of ~500 QTL (excluding those involved in digenic epistatic interactions and QTL × treatment interactions); these QTL are spread over all the 21 wheat chromosomes and could prove useful resource for MAS intended at improving salt tolerance in wheat. The phenotypic variance (PV) explained by individual QTL ranged from 8.4% to 38.0%, and only a dozen major QTL have been reported (Table 4). The traits used for QTL analysis included Na+ exclusion/content, K+ content and K+/Na+ ratio, etc., both at the seedling and adult plant stages. Since several studies in different plant systems including wheat have demonstrated that Na+ concentration is not necessarily associated with salinity tolerance, other additional mechanisms (tissue tolerance and osmotic adjustment) may also be examined in future in order to breed for salinity tolerance in bread wheat. It has been studied that bread wheat exhibit low rates of Na+ transport, which leads to high K+/Na+ ratio in leaves. A high K+/Na+ discrimination provides tolerance to salinity stress. The extensive studied has been accomplished for the ID of salt open minded QTLs. The accessible examinations prompted identification of ~500 QTL (barring those associated with digenic epistatic collaborations and QTL × treatment communications); these QTL are spread over all the 21 wheat chromosomes and could demonstrate valuable asset for MAS expected at improving salt resilience in wheat. The phenotypic difference (PV) clarified by individual QTL extended from 8.4% to 38.0%, and just 12 significant QTL have been accounted (Table 4). The qualities utilized for QTL investigation included Na+ rejection/content, K+ substance and K+/Na+ proportion, and so forth., both at the seedling and grown-up plant stages. Since a few investigations in various plant frameworks including wheat have exhibited that Na+ fixation is not really connected with saltiness resilience, other extra components (tissue resistance and osmotic alteration) may likewise be analyzed in future so as to raise for saltiness resistance in bread wheat. It has been contemplated that bread wheat show low paces of Na+ transport, which prompts high K+/Na+ proportion in leaves. A high K+/Na+ segregation gives resilience to saltiness stress.
Sl. no. | Traits | QTL/locus | PVE % | Linked marker | Physical position (Mbp)a | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Na+ exclusion | Kna1 | — | Xwg199, Xabc305, Xbcd.402, Xpsr567, Xpsr375 | 390.2 | [55] | |
Na+ exclusion | Nax1 | 38 | Xgwm312, Xwmc170 | 709.0–711.5 | [56] | |
Dry weight of plumule at germination | Qpdwg-4D.1 | 19.8 | Xfbb226–Xfba177 | ND | [57] | |
Na+ exclusion | QNax.aww-7AS | 41 | Xwmc083–Xcdo595 | 89.9 | [58] | |
Booting | QB.uabcs-2D | 23.6 | Xcdo1379 | [59] | ||
Ear emergence time | QEet.uabcs-2D | 27.1 | Xcdo1379 | ND | ||
Flowering | QFl.uabc-2D | 26.7 | Xbcd102a | ND | ||
Maturity | QM.uabc-2D | 28.9 | Xcdo137 | ND | ||
Ear length | QEl.uabc-2D | 21.5 | Xbcd102a | ND | ||
Seedling shoot fresh weight | 3B-1 | 19.2 | wPt-798,970-wPt-8303 | ND | ||
Na+ exclusion value | qSNAX.7 A.3 | 18.79 | AX-95248570–AX-95002995 | 700.6 | [60] | |
3rd leaf Na+ and K+ concentration and K+/Na+ ratio | 4B | 18, 20, 27 | Xm564 | 657.1 | [61] | |
3rd leaf Na+ concentration | 3B | 18 | Xm551 | 701.9 | ||
K+ μmol/g dry weight | QK.asl-5A | 28.2 | Vrn-A1 | 587.4 | [62] |
A list of major QTL/loci (PVE of ~>20%) for plant traits under salt stress condition in bread and durum wheat.
Position of one flanking marker was given if either the second marker or its sequence was not available.
PVE: phenotypic variation explained; “–“explain PVE% not available; ND shows physical position of QTL could not be determined due to lack of linked marker sequence information.
Germination of wheat inside the grain ear head before reap is called pre-gather sprouting (PHS). Exposure of prolonged precipitation and high humidity after the grain has matured and before it very well may be collected can prompts pre-harvest sprouting (PHS), which can be thought of as an premature germination. Germination can start as a wheat seed retains moisture and swells. A noticeable sign of PHS incorporates kernel swelling, germ discoloration, seed-coat parting, and the root and shoot emergence.
Pre-collect growing in bread wheat (
Pre-harvest sprouting is controlled by genetic factors, environmental conditions and their interactions. The protection from germination is fundamentally connected with an adequate level of kernel dormancy. Pre-harvest sprouting depends significantly on (1) hereditary attributes like kernel coat, protecting structures of spike and straightness of spike, (2) natural conditions like temperature and precipitation, and (3) agronomic perspective like fertilization. The main considerations next to conditions influencing the resilience to PHS are seed dormancy, seed coat penetrability and color, α-amylase activities, endogenous hormones levels, genes and QTLs. Dormancy was seen as the fundamental internal factor which lead to the wheat resistance from PHS [64, 65, 66]. The seed coat permeability is the essential guaranteeing divider which could increase the wheat PHS resilience. The seed coat color additionally assumes a critical activity in PHS. All around, white wheat varieties have higher germination rates than the red ones [67]. Cultivars having red kernels are more impervious to growing than white ones. Accordingly, red kernel shading is consistently used as an indicator of sprouting resistance in wheat. The α-amylase viewed as one of the significant elements that influence wheat germination rate, cold versatility and production. Some extraordinary endogenous factors like gibberellic acid (GA), abscisic acid (ABA) and indole acidic acid (IAA) could in like manner impact PHS through a wide scope of ways. PHS is a quantitative characteristic compelled by various genes. Viviparous-1 (Vp-1) has been recognized as the main gene that coordinated seed germination and dormancy. Some different genes were also regarded to participate in embryos maturing, seed dormancy and germination through system guideline with Vp-1 to control PHS. QTLs for dormancy and PHS were found in different materials through molecular markers. During kernel development, the Vp-1 gene expressed in cytoplasm subsequent to flowering controlled seed dormancy at the transcriptional level, advanced the seed development and checked the outflow of germination-related genes [68]. There were numerous allelic variety of Vp-1 gene in various grain crops, however the anticipated protein of Vp-1 was monitored with four DNA binding regions A1, B1, B2, and B3. Three alleles Vp-1A, Vp-1B, Vp-1D of Vp-1, situated on 3A, 3B and 3D homologous chromosomes in wheat, separately, have been identified [66, 69]. Numerous investigations additionally centered on the allele’s variety of Vp-1 to clarify how Vp-1 managed the resistance to PHS. Six alleles of Vp-1A, namely Vp-1Aa, Vp-1Ab, Vp-1Ac, Vp-1Ad, Vp-1Ae and Vp-1Af, were found in 81 wheat cultivars and advanced lines [69]. Six alleles of Vp-1B named Vp-1Ba, Vp-1Bb, Vp-1Bc, Vp-1Bd, Vp-1Be and Vp-1Bf were likewise found in wheat [69, 70]. However, no alleles of Vp-1D were found in wheat. The wheat varieties with alleles of Vp-1Ab and Vp-1Ad were regarded to have low germination index (GI) and strong PHS tolerance [69]. However, the wheat varieties with the allele Vp-1Ba have higher germination index and more sensitive to PHS than the other five ones, which even positively influenced on the decrease of germination rate [69, 70]. More than 47 investigations on QTL interval mapping for PHS resistance and related characteristics including ~40 distinct population derived from bread wheat (including synthetic wheat), durum wheat and
Number of QTL for five different traits associated with pre-harvest sprouting tolerance reported in the 47 studies in wheat.
Maximum numbers of QTL have been accounted for PHS index followed by seed dormancy, germination index, falling number, alpha amylase activity and grain color. About ~250 QTL were distinguished, among them just 29 QTL were major and stable across environments; these QTL are conveyed on 11 unique chromosomes (1B, 3A, 4A, 5A, 6A, 2B, 3B, 4B, 7B, 2D, 3D and 7D); the most noteworthy PV explained by an individual QTL range from 23% to 78.3%.
Chromosomes from homoeologous groups 3 and 4 together conveyed 17 of the 29 significant and stable QTL. The PHS and the germination index (a measure of dormancy) have regularly been utilized for estimation of tolerance against PHS. PHS indx is a simple to score parameter and reliable, with the goal that it has been widely used. The QTLs because of seed dormancy, which is characterized as the powerlessness of practical seeds to develop under conditions great for germination is additionally connected with PHS tolerance. The QTL for PHS tolerance, present on the long arms of chromosomes of homoeologous group 3, have regularly been accounted for to be related with genes for red grain color, which contributes to coat-imposed dormancy. A significant stable QTL for PHS (QPhs.ccsu-3A.1; 24.68–35.21% PV) was accounted [71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80]. The utilization of markers related with this QTL in MAS brought about significant level of PHS tolerance, which was tragically connected with red grain color.
In wheat markets, especially in Southeast Asia and Middle East, Africa and North America, there is a consumer preference for white grain. Along these lines, endeavors were later made to deliver white-grained PHS-tolerant wheat genotypes; for this purpose, major and stable QTL on chromosomes of group 4 and different chromosomes were suggested. SSR markers are accessible for practically all major and stable QTL (Table 5); these SSR markers have been utilized for introgression of a QTL for PHS/dormancy to derive lines with high degree of PHS tolerance related with golden grains.
Sl. no. | Traits/QTL | PVE (%) | Linked marker | Physical position (Mbp)c | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
FN/5A | 26.4 | Xpsr1194–Xpsr918b | ND | [81] | |
α-AA/5A | 30.0 | Xpsr1194–Xpsr918b | ND | [81] | |
SD/4AL (33–77.2) | Xcdo795/Xpsr115 | [82] | |||
PHS/QPhs.ccsu-3A.1 (78.3) | Xwmc153–Xgwm155 | 701.7–702.9 | [71] | ||
SD/QPhs.ocs-3A.1 (23.0–44.8) | Xbarc310/Xbcd907 | 7.1 | |||
GI/QGi.crc-3B | 27.0 | Xbarc77–Xwmc307 | 430.1–783.5 | [83] | |
SI/QSi.crc-3B | 24.0 | Xbarc77–Xwmc307 | 430.1–783.5 | [83] | |
FN/QFn.crc-3B | 33.0 | Xbarc77–Xwmc307 | 430.1–783.5, | [83] | |
GI-14/QPhs.dpivic-3D.1 | 26.0–43.0 | Red Grain Color RGC -wms1200 | ND | [84] | |
VI/QPhs.dpivic-4A.1 | 21.0 | Xbarc170–Xgwm269c | 605.7–607.8 | [84] | |
11. | PHS/QPhs.pseru-3AS | 31.26–44.96 | Xbarc12–Xbarc321 | 11.7–15.4 | [85] |
QPhs.dpi.vic.4A.2 | 27.78–39.84 | Xgwm637–Xgwm937 | 617.4 | ||
PHS/2DS | 25.73–27.50 | Xgwm261–Xgwm484 | 19.6–48.1 | [86] | |
GI/QGI.crc-4B | 28.2–66.6 | Xwmc349 | 640.9 | [87] | |
PHS/QSI.crc-4B | 6.2–26.9 | Xwmc349 | 640.9 | [87] | |
PHS/QPhs.cnl-2B.1 | 24.0 | Xbarc55–Xwmc474 | 133.5–172.6 | — | |
GC/QGc.ccsu-3B.1 | 15.28–40.42 | Xgwm938–Xgwm980 | ND | [88] | |
PHS/QPhs.ccsu-6A.1 | 12.01–29.47 | Xgwm1296–Xgwm1150 | ND | [88] | |
PHS/QPhs.caas-3AS.1 | 11.8–27.7 | Xbarc294–Xbarc57 | 7.9–10.3 | [89] | |
GI/QGi.crc-4A | 27.6–58.1 | — | ND | [90] | |
PHS(SI)/QSi.crc-4A | 10.5–32.1 | — | ND | [90] | |
PHS(SI)/QSi.crc-7B | 11.8–20.5 | — | ND 1/2 | [90] | |
FN/QFn.crc-7D | 13.2–20.6 | — | ND | [90] | |
PHS, SD/Qphs.pseru-4A | 17.2–26.5 | GBS_212432–GBS_109947 | ND | [91] | |
QPhs.spa-4B | 35.0–60.0 | Xwmc617b–Xwmc48a | 15.7–98.7 | [92] | |
QPhs.spa-7D2 | 14.0–47.0 | Xbarc76–Xcfa2257a | 634.0 | [92] | |
GI/3AS | 21.6–41.0 | KASP-222 | 7.2 | [93] | |
qPHS.sicau-3D | 8.65–42.47 | AX-94415259 | 562.5–5 | [94] |
A summary of the major and stable QTL for pre-harvest sprouting/dormancy-related traits in wheat.
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Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"46312",doi:"10.5772/57604",title:"The Blood Brain Barrier — Regulation of Fatty Acid and Drug Transport",slug:"the-blood-brain-barrier-regulation-of-fatty-acid-and-drug-transport",totalDownloads:4226,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"Siddhartha Dalvi, Ngoc On, Hieu Nguyen, Michael Pogorzelec,\nDonald W. Miller and Grant M. Hatch",authors:[{id:"130802",title:"Dr.",name:"Grant",middleName:null,surname:"Hatch",slug:"grant-hatch",fullName:"Grant Hatch"},{id:"170126",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",middleName:null,surname:"Miller",slug:"donald-miller",fullName:"Donald Miller"},{id:"170127",title:"Mr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Pogorzelec",slug:"michael-pogorzelec",fullName:"Michael Pogorzelec"},{id:"170128",title:"Ms.",name:"Hieu",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"hieu-nguyen",fullName:"Hieu Nguyen"},{id:"170129",title:"Dr.",name:"Ngoc",middleName:null,surname:"On",slug:"ngoc-on",fullName:"Ngoc On"},{id:"170130",title:"Dr.",name:"Siddhartha",middleName:null,surname:"Dalvi",slug:"siddhartha-dalvi",fullName:"Siddhartha Dalvi"}]},{id:"59071",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74023",title:"Introductory Chapter: GABA/Glutamate Balance: A Key for Normal Brain Functioning",slug:"introductory-chapter-gaba-glutamate-balance-a-key-for-normal-brain-functioning",totalDownloads:1614,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Janko Samardzic, Dragana Jadzic, Boris Hencic, Jasna Jancic and\nDubravka Svob Strac",authors:[{id:"188756",title:"Dr.",name:"Janko",middleName:null,surname:"Samardzic",slug:"janko-samardzic",fullName:"Janko Samardzic"},{id:"398264",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Jadzic",slug:"dragana-jadzic",fullName:"Dragana Jadzic"},{id:"398265",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Hencic",slug:"boris-hencic",fullName:"Boris Hencic"},{id:"398266",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasna",middleName:null,surname:"Jancic",slug:"jasna-jancic",fullName:"Jasna Jancic"},{id:"398267",title:"Dr.",name:"Dubravka Svob",middleName:null,surname:"Strac",slug:"dubravka-svob-strac",fullName:"Dubravka Svob Strac"}]},{id:"64031",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81224",title:"Trends of Protein Aggregation in Neurodegenerative Diseases",slug:"trends-of-protein-aggregation-in-neurodegenerative-diseases",totalDownloads:1585,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Protein aggregation trends in neurodegenerative diseases are largely unmapped due to the complex nature of protein-protein interactions and their regulatory machineries such as protein proteolytic systems. Since the protein aggregation process in humans is a slow process, early determination of the patients that will develop neurodegenerative diseases later in life is critical in terms of starting effective treatment, which will reduce the expensive health care. In this chapter, I will discuss the nature of protein aggregation of signature proteins and the status of protein proteolytic systems such as proteasome and autophagosome in Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, Huntington’s disease, and prion disease under the light of recent studies including our new findings.",book:{id:"7480",slug:"neurochemical-basis-of-brain-function-and-dysfunction",title:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction"},signatures:"Abdulbaki Agbas",authors:[{id:"250609",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdulbaki",middleName:null,surname:"Agbas",slug:"abdulbaki-agbas",fullName:"Abdulbaki Agbas"}]},{id:"55884",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69111",title:"Production and Function of Serotonin in Cardiac Cells",slug:"production-and-function-of-serotonin-in-cardiac-cells",totalDownloads:1553,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Serotonin [5-hydroxy-tryptamine (5-HT)] exerts a number of effects in the mammalian heart: increase in heart rate, increase in force of contraction, fibrosis of cardiac valves, coronary constriction, arrhythmias and thrombosis. These effects are, in part, mediated by 5-HT-receptors, in part, directly by 5-HT action on intracellular proteins. In the beginning, 5-HT was thought to be only produced in the gut and then transported into the heart via platelets, because platelets can take up 5-HT in the gut and enter the capillaries and thus the mammalian heart. 5-HT is to a large extent metabolized in the liver and excreted via the urine. Here, we will also overview data that argue for additional pathways, namely production and degradation of 5-HT in the cells of the heart itself.",book:{id:"5780",slug:"serotonin-a-chemical-messenger-between-all-types-of-living-cells",title:"Serotonin",fullTitle:"Serotonin - A Chemical Messenger Between All Types of Living Cells"},signatures:"Joachim Neumann, Britt Hofmann and Ulrich Gergs",authors:[{id:"198376",title:"Prof.",name:"Joachim",middleName:null,surname:"Neumann",slug:"joachim-neumann",fullName:"Joachim Neumann"},{id:"205353",title:"Dr.",name:"Britt",middleName:null,surname:"Hofmann",slug:"britt-hofmann",fullName:"Britt Hofmann"},{id:"205354",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulrich",middleName:null,surname:"Gergs",slug:"ulrich-gergs",fullName:"Ulrich Gergs"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"58817",title:"Clinical Application of MR Spectroscopy in Identifying Biochemical Composition of the Intracranial Pathologies",slug:"clinical-application-of-mr-spectroscopy-in-identifying-biochemical-composition-of-the-intracranial-p",totalDownloads:2029,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) provides useful information regarding metabolic composition in the tissues, and advanced spectroscopic methods are used to quantify markers of tumor membrane turnover and proliferation (e.g., choline (Cho)), energy homoeostasis (e.g., creatine (Cr)), intact glioneuronal structures (e.g., N-acetylaspartate (NAA)), and necrosis (e.g., lactate (Lac) or lipids). Results are usually expressed as metabolite ratios rather than absolute metabolite concentrations. Because glial tumors have some specific metabolic characteristics that differ according to the grade of tumor, there is a potential for MR spectroscopy to increase the sensitivity of routinely used diagnostic imaging. MRS also has many diagnostic applications in neurosciences to support the diagnosis in conditions like demyelination, infections, and dementia and in postradiotherapy cases. Biochemical changes in the metabolism of tumor cells related to malignant transformation are reflected in changes of particular metabolite concentration in the tumor tissue. Our prospective study aimed to analyze the usefulness of proton MR spectroscopy in grading of glioma and to correlate various metabolite ratios like choline/creatine, choline/N-acetylaspartate, N-acetylaspartate/creatine, and lactate/creatine with the histopathological grades of glioma.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"B C Hamsini, Bhavana Nagabhushana Reddy, Sankar Neelakantan\nand Sunitha Palasamudram Kumaran",authors:[{id:"211054",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunitha",middleName:null,surname:"P Kumaran",slug:"sunitha-p-kumaran",fullName:"Sunitha P Kumaran"},{id:"221485",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankar",middleName:null,surname:"Neelakantan",slug:"sankar-neelakantan",fullName:"Sankar Neelakantan"},{id:"398223",title:"Dr.",name:"B C",middleName:null,surname:"Hamsini",slug:"b-c-hamsini",fullName:"B C Hamsini"},{id:"398224",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhavana",middleName:null,surname:"Nagabhushana Reddy",slug:"bhavana-nagabhushana-reddy",fullName:"Bhavana Nagabhushana Reddy"}]},{id:"62431",title:"The United Chemicals of Cannabis: Beneficial Effects of Cannabis Phytochemicals on the Brain and Cognition",slug:"the-united-chemicals-of-cannabis-beneficial-effects-of-cannabis-phytochemicals-on-the-brain-and-cogn",totalDownloads:1777,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"‘Medicinal cannabis’ can be defined as pharmaceutical grade cannabis-based products used for the treatment of illness. Beneficial treatment effects of cannabidiol (CBD), a major non-intoxicating compound isolated from the cannabis plant, have been shown in multiple states of cognitive impairment, including neurodegenerative (Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s and Parkinson’s disease), neuroinflammatory (sepsis-induced encephalopathy) and neurological disorders (ischemic brain injury). CBD can also treat some of the symptoms of schizophrenia, including cognitive deficits (impairments in learning and memory), which is a major symptom domain of the illness that is largely resistant to existing antipsychotic medications. However, empirical evidence suggests the presence of an ‘entourage effect’ in cannabis; that is, observations that medicinal cannabis seems to work better in some instances when administered as a whole-plant extract. While scientific evidence highlights isolated CBD as a strong candidate for treating cognitive impairment, the entourage effect suggests that the co-operation of other plant molecules could provide further benefits. This chapter explores the scientific evidence surrounding the benefits of CBD and other specific key phytochemicals in cannabis: linalool, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, flavonoids and anthocyanin, on brain health and cognition.",book:{id:"7040",slug:"recent-advances-in-cannabinoid-research",title:"Recent Advances in Cannabinoid Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Cannabinoid Research"},signatures:"Katrina Weston-Green",authors:null},{id:"68776",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Chemical Basis of Neural Function and Dysfunction",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-chemical-basis-of-neural-function-and-dysfunction",totalDownloads:1099,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"7480",slug:"neurochemical-basis-of-brain-function-and-dysfunction",title:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction"},signatures:"Thomas Heinbockel and Antonei B. Csoka",authors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"},{id:"245650",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonei B.",middleName:null,surname:"Csoka",slug:"antonei-b.-csoka",fullName:"Antonei B. Csoka"}]},{id:"68712",title:"Synaptic Transmission and Amino Acid Neurotransmitters",slug:"synaptic-transmission-and-amino-acid-neurotransmitters",totalDownloads:1342,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Amino acids are the most abundant neurotransmitters in the brain. Neurotransmitters are synthesized and stored in presynaptic terminals, released from terminals upon stimulation with specific receptors on the postsynaptic cells. Chemical and electrical synapses are specialized biological structures found in the nervous system; they connect neurons together and transmit signals across the neurons. The process of synaptic transmission generates or inhibits electrical impulses in a network of neurons for the processing of information. Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, while GABA is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter. The balance of glutamatergic and GABAergic tone is crucial to normal neurologic function. Through synaptic transmission, this information is communicated from the presynaptic cell to the postsynaptic cell. Amino acid neurotransmitters primarily glutamic acid, GABA, aspartic acid, and glycine are single amino acid residues released from presynaptic nerve terminals in response to an action potential and cross the synaptic cleft to bind with specific receptor on the postsynaptic membrane. The integral role of amino acid neurotransmitters is important on the normal functioning of the brain. The presynaptic and postsynaptic events in chemical synapses are subject to use dependent and highly regulated as per the changes in synaptic neurotransmitter release and function.",book:{id:"7480",slug:"neurochemical-basis-of-brain-function-and-dysfunction",title:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction"},signatures:"Manorama Patri",authors:[{id:"196763",title:"Dr.",name:"Manorama",middleName:null,surname:"Patri",slug:"manorama-patri",fullName:"Manorama Patri"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"212",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"76869",title:"Role of 5-HT in Cerebral Edema after Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"role-of-5-ht-in-cerebral-edema-after-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:138,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96460",abstract:"The pathogenesis of edema after traumatic brain injury is complex including the destruction of micro-vessels and alterations in microcirculation around the primary injury and leakage of plasma constituents into the tissue, due to permeability changes of the vessel walls. Many functional molecules like histamine, serotonin, arachidonic acid, prostaglandins and thromboxane have been shown to induce blood–brain barrier (BBB) disruption or cell swelling. It is believed that released 5-HT binds to 5-HT2 receptors stimulating cAMP and prostaglandins in vessels that cause more vesicular transport in endothelial cells leading to serum component’s extravasation. The additional amount of serotonin into the tissue due to injury maintains the state of increased vascular permeability that ultimately causes edema. Serotonin is clearly involved in early cytotoxic edema after TBI. Reduction of serotonin in the nervous tissue reduces swelling and the milder cell changes in the brain or spinal cord of traumatized rats. Inhibition of serotonin synthesis before closed head injury (CHI) in rat models or administration of serotonin antiserum after injury attenuates BBB disruption and brain edema volume swelling, and brain pathology. Maintaining low serotonin levels immediately after injury may show neuroprotection and combat various secondary outcomes that occur after traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Priya Badyal, Jaspreet Kaur and Anurag Kuhad"},{id:"76066",title:"Mathematical Models of Serotonin, Histamine, and Depression",slug:"mathematical-models-of-serotonin-histamine-and-depression",totalDownloads:159,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96990",abstract:"The coauthors have been working together for ten years on serotonin, dopamine, and histamine and their connection to neuropsychiatric illnesses. Hashemi has pioneered many new experimental techniques for measuring serotonin and histamine in real time in the extracellular space in the brain. Best, Reed, and Nijhout have been making mathematical models of brain metabolism to help them interpret Hashemi’s data. Hashemi demonstrated that brain histamine inhibits serotonin release, giving a direct mechanism by which inflammation can cause a decrease in brain serotonin and therefore depression. Many new biological phenomena have come out of their joint research including 1) there are two different reuptake mechanisms for serotonin; 2) the effect of the serotonin autoreceptors is not instantaneous and is long-lasting even when the extracellular concentrations have returned to normal; 3) that mathematical models of serotonin metabolism and histamine metabolism can explain Hashemi’s experimental data; 4) that variation in serotonin autoreceptors may be one of the causes of serotonin-linked mood disorders. Here we review our work in recent years for biological audiences, medical audiences, and researchers who work on mathematical modeling of biological problems. We discuss the experimental techniques, the creation and investigation of mathematical models, and the consequences for neuropsychiatric diseases.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Janet Best, Anna Marie Buchanan, Herman Frederik Nijhout, Parastoo Hashemi and Michael C. Reed"},{id:"76224",title:"Roles of the Serotoninergic System in Coping with Traumatic Stress",slug:"roles-of-the-serotoninergic-system-in-coping-with-traumatic-stress",totalDownloads:144,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97221",abstract:"Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is characterized by substantial physiological and/or psychological distress following exposure to trauma. Intrusive fear memories often lead to persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma, detachment from others, irritability and sleep disturbances. Different key structures in the brain are involved with fear conditioning, fear extinction and coping. The limbic system, namely, the amygdala complex in close relationship with the hippocampal hub and the prefrontal cortex play central roles in the integration and in coping with fear memories. Serotonin acting both as a neurotransmitter and as a neurohormone participates in regulating the normal and pathological activity of these anatomic structures. We review the literature analyzing how the different actors of the serotoninergic system (5-HT receptors, transporters and anabolic and catabolic pathways) may be involved in regulating the sensitivity to highly stressful events and hopefully coping with them.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Tania Vitalis and Catherine Verney"},{id:"75576",title:"Serotonin, Sleep and Depression: A Hypothesis",slug:"serotonin-sleep-and-depression-a-hypothesis",totalDownloads:253,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96525",abstract:"For most cases of endogenous depression (major depression), the hypothesis of monoamine deficiency, despite a number of limitations it faces, is still considered the most acceptable explanation. The main difficulty faced by this hypothesis is the reason for the decrease in the level of cerebral monoamines (primarily serotonin) during depression. It is assumed either increased activity of the MAO enzyme, which metabolizes serotonin, or a mutation with the loss of function of the gene of the Tph-2 enzyme, which synthesizes serotonin, as possible causes. In this review, a third cause is proposed, which can explain a number of cases of «spontaneous» onset of depressive symptoms in apparently healthy people, as well as links the hypotheses of “monoamine deficiency” and “disturbances in circadian rhythms.” It is assumed that the formation of endogenous depression is due to a combination of two factors: a reduced “basal” level of cerebral serotonin and excessively long pre-morning periods of REM sleep, during which the release of cerebral monoamines stops altogether. As a possible way to of non-drug treatment of depression, not deprivation, but fragmentation of this phase of sleep is suggested, that is much easier for patients to tolerate.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Vladimir M. Kovalzon"},{id:"75797",title:"Serotonin Pathway in Neuroimmune Network",slug:"serotonin-pathway-in-neuroimmune-network",totalDownloads:265,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96733",abstract:"Once considered merely as a neurotransmitter, serotonin (5-HT) now enjoys a renewed reputation as an interlocutor in the dense and continuous dialogue between neuroendocrine and immune systems. In the last decades, a role has been depicted for serotonin and its derivatives as modulators of several immunological events, due to the expression of specific receptors or enzymes controlling 5-HT metabolism in diverse immune cell types. A growing body of evidence suggests that the effects of molecules belonging to the 5-HT pathways on the neuroimmune communication may be relevant in the clinical outcome of autoimmune/inflammatory pathologies of the central nervous system (CNS), such as multiple sclerosis, but also in Alzheimer’s disease, or in mood disorders and major depression. Moreover, since the predominance of 5-HT is produced by enterochromaffin cells of the gastrointestinal tract, where 5-HT and its derivatives are important mucosal signalling molecules giving rise to the so-called “brain-gut axis”, alterations in brain-gut communication are also involved in the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of several psychiatric and neurologic disorders. Here we illustrate how functional interactions between immune and neuronal cells are crucial to orchestrate tissue homeostasis and integrity, and the role of serotonin pathway components as pillars of the neuroimmune system.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Giada Mondanelli and Claudia Volpi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. 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He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. 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This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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