-Preparation and fabrications of nanolayers with different methods.\n
-Description of recent achievements related to very important III-V heterostructures.\n
-Descriptions of mechanical, thermal, optoelectronic, photocatalytic, and tribological properties of nanolayered structures.\n
Some environmentally friendly applications are also treated in this book.\nThe presented book provides a description of specific and original results obtained by authors. We hope that the volume will be of interest for a wide range of readers working in the field of material science.",isbn:"978-953-51-3144-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3143-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4829-6",doi:"10.5772/65465",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nanoscaled-films-and-layers",numberOfPages:298,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f43ea8f3894ee0c3e44b2351bf3447d5",bookSignature:"Laszlo Nanai",publishedDate:"May 24th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5789.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19233,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:32,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:60,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 26th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 17th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 13th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 13th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 12th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"61978",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",middleName:null,surname:"Nanai",slug:"laszlo-nanai",fullName:"Laszlo Nanai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61978/images/system/61978.png",biography:"Prof. Nanai was born on April 19, 1948, in Csopak (Hungary). He studied physics (MSc) at Saint Petersburg State University (RU), and his PhD degree and habilitation in the field of quantum electronics were obtained at Lebedev Physical Institute, Moscow (RU), and Szeged University (H). \r\n\r\nHe is a specialist in the fields of solid-state physics, laser-matter interaction fabrication and characterization of nanostructures. He has written over 170 scientific publications including about 10 books and chapters in books and conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Szeged",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Szeged",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"54288",title:"Formation of Nanolayer on Surface of EPD Coatings Based on Poly-Ether-Ether-Ketone",doi:"10.5772/67570",slug:"formation-of-nanolayer-on-surface-of-epd-coatings-based-on-poly-ether-ether-ketone",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK) is a high performance polymer with many intrinsic properties. When it is used in the form of coating, an improvement of some of its functional properties was achieved by forming a surface nanolayer. In this chapter, it will be described how it was possible to obtain this result. Firstly, three kinds of PEEK composite coatings were deposited by electrophoretic deposition, adding alumina particles, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and lignin to PEEK. Then, the composite coatings were thermal treated in a furnace. Therefore, surface nanostructure and chemical composition of these PEEK composite coatings were modified with respect to bulk coatings, due to interaction between PEEK chain and secondary phase, emphasised by the thermal treatment conditions. Experimental evidence of the formation of surface nanolayer was provided by SEM, TEM, GIXRD, ATR-FTIR and XPS characterisations. Functional characterisations demonstrated that wear resistance—in the presence of alumina particles—hydrophobicity—in the presence of PTFE—and corrosion resistance—in the presence of Lignin—were increased with respect to pure PEEK.",signatures:"Maria Federica De Riccardis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54288",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54288",authors:[{id:"77857",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Federica",surname:"De Riccardis",slug:"m.-federica-de-riccardis",fullName:"M. Federica De Riccardis"}],corrections:null},{id:"54678",title:"Electroless Deposition of Nanolayered Metallic Coatings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68220",slug:"electroless-deposition-of-nanolayered-metallic-coatings",totalDownloads:3438,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Electroless metallic coating is referred as the deposition of a substrate material by the process of chemical or autocatalytic reduction of aqueous metal ions deposited to a substrate material without any external supply of power. Electroless nickel alloys are generally considered synonymous to the word “electroless coating” as ~90% of productions in industries are of this alloy coating. Rest of the electroless metallic coatings includes gold, copper, palladium, cobalt, silver, etc. These electroless metallic coatings (other than electroless nickel coatings) are also one of the vibrant areas in the field of materials properties and surface engineering research. From the year 2000 to till date, nearly 1000 SCI indexed research papers were published on this topic. However, no comprehensive studies about the recent progress on this topic were reported elsewhere so far. In this context, the present chapter aims to give a complete overview on various aspects of the rest of the electroless metallic nanocoatings/layer as a whole. More importance will be on the recent developments of the nanocharacteristics and future scopes.",signatures:"Jothi Sudagar, Rajendraprasad Tamilarasan, Udaykumar Sanjith, Raj\nRajendran and Ravi Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54678",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54678",authors:[{id:"202302",title:"Dr.",name:"Jothi",surname:"Sudagar",slug:"jothi-sudagar",fullName:"Jothi Sudagar"},{id:"203599",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamilarasan",surname:"Tr",slug:"tamilarasan-tr",fullName:"Tamilarasan Tr"},{id:"203600",title:"MSc.",name:"Sanjith",surname:"U",slug:"sanjith-u",fullName:"Sanjith U"},{id:"203601",title:"Prof.",name:"Rajendran",surname:"R",slug:"rajendran-r",fullName:"Rajendran R"},{id:"203602",title:"Prof.",name:"Ravi Kumar",surname:"Nv",slug:"ravi-kumar-nv",fullName:"Ravi Kumar Nv"}],corrections:null},{id:"54328",title:"Laser Prepared Thin Films for Optoelectronic Applications",doi:"10.5772/67659",slug:"laser-prepared-thin-films-for-optoelectronic-applications",totalDownloads:1502,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Laser techniques such as pulsed laser deposition, combinatorial pulsed laser deposition, and matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation were used to deposit thin films for optoelectronic applications. High-quality transparent conductor oxide films ITO, AZO, and IZO were deposited on polyethylene terephthalate by PLD, an important experimental parameter being the target-substrate distance. The TCO films present a high transparency (>95%) and a reduced electrical resistivity (5 × 10−4 Ωcm) characteristics very useful for their integration in the flexible electronics. InxZn1−xO films with a compositional library were obtained by CPLD. These films are featured by a high optical transmission (>95%), the lowest resistivity (8.6 × 10−4 Ωcm) being observed for an indium content of about 44–49 at.%. Organic heterostructures based on arylenevinylene oligomers (P78 and P13) or arylene polymers (AMC16 and AMC22) were obtained by MAPLE. In the case of ITO/P78/Alq3/Al heterostructures, a higher current value is obtained when the film thickness increases. Also, a photovoltaic effect was observed for heterostructures based on AMC16 or AMC22 deposited on ITO covered by a thin layer of PEDOT:PSS. Due to their optical and electrical properties, such organic heterostructures can be interesting for the organic photovoltaic cells (OPV) applications.",signatures:"Marcela Socol, Gabriel Socol, Nicoleta Preda, Anca Stanculescu and\nFlorin Stanculescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54328",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54328",authors:[{id:"21373",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Stanculescu",slug:"anca-stanculescu",fullName:"Anca Stanculescu"},{id:"21611",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin",surname:"Stanculescu",slug:"florin-stanculescu",fullName:"Florin Stanculescu"},{id:"178419",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Socol",slug:"gabriel-socol",fullName:"Gabriel Socol"},{id:"184343",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoleta",surname:"Preda",slug:"nicoleta-preda",fullName:"Nicoleta Preda"},{id:"198589",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcela",surname:"Socol",slug:"marcela-socol",fullName:"Marcela Socol"}],corrections:null},{id:"54765",title:"Heteroepitaxy of III–V Zinc Blende Semiconductors on Nanopatterned Substrates",doi:"10.5772/67572",slug:"heteroepitaxy-of-iii-v-zinc-blende-semiconductors-on-nanopatterned-substrates",totalDownloads:1555,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last decade, zinc blende structure III–V semiconductors have been increasingly utilized for the realization of high‐performance optoelectronic applications because of their tunable bandgaps, high carrier mobility and the absence of piezoelectric fields. However, the integration of III–V devices on the Si platform commonly used for CMOS electronic circuits still poses a challenge, due to the large densities of mismatch‐related defects in heteroepitaxial III–V layers grown on planar Si substrates. A promising method to obtain thin III–V layers of high crystalline quality is the growth on nanopatterned substrates. In this approach, defects can be effectively eliminated by elastic lattice relaxation in three dimensions or confined close to the substrate interface by using aspect‐ratio trapping masks. As a result, an etch pit density as low as 3.3 × 105 cm−2 and a flat surface of submicron GaAs layers have been accomplished by growth onto a SiO2 nanohole film patterned Si(001) substrate, where the threading defects are trapped at the SiO2 mask sidewalls. An open issue that remains to be resolved is to gain a better understanding of the interplay between mask shape, growth conditions and formation of coalescence defects during mask overgrowth in order to achieve thin device quality III–V layers.",signatures:"Thomas Riedl and Jörg K.N. Lindner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54765",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54765",authors:[{id:"196852",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Riedl",slug:"thomas-riedl",fullName:"Thomas Riedl"},{id:"197870",title:"Prof.",name:"Jörg K.N.",surname:"Lindner",slug:"jorg-k.n.-lindner",fullName:"Jörg K.N. Lindner"}],corrections:null},{id:"54687",title:"Surface Modification of III-V Compounds Substrates for Processing Technology",doi:"10.5772/67916",slug:"surface-modification-of-iii-v-compounds-substrates-for-processing-technology",totalDownloads:1968,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Semiconductor materials became a part of nowadays life due to useful applications caused by characteristic properties as variable conductivity and sensitivity to light or heat. Electrical properties of a semiconductor can be modified by doping or by the application of electric fields or light; and from this view, devices made from semiconductors can be used for amplification or energy conversion. The compound semiconductor materials from III-V class experienced a qualitative leap from promising potential to nowadays technologic environment. The III-V semiconductor compounds are the material bases for electronic and optoelectronic devices such as high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMT), bipolar heterostructure transistors, IR light-emitting diodes, heterostructure lasers, Gunn diodes, Schottky devices, photodetectors, and heterostructure solar cells for terrestrial and spatial operating conditions. Among III-V semiconductor compounds, gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium antimonide (GaSb) are of special interest as a substrate material due to the lattice parameter match to solid solutions (ternary and quaternary) whose band gaps cover a wide spectral range from 0.8 to 4.3 μm in the case of GaSb. The solid/solid interfaces could play a key part in the development of microelectronic device technology. In most of the cases, the initial surface of III-V compounds exposed to laboratory conditions is covered usually with native oxide layers. Various techniques for performing the surface cleaning process are used, e.g., controlled chemical etching, in situ ion sputtering, coupled with controlled annealing in vacuum and often these classic techniques are combined in order to prepare an eligible semiconductor surface to be exposed to a technological device chain. The evolution of surface native oxides in different cleaning procedures and the characteristics of as-prepared semiconductor surface were investigated by modern surface investigation techniques, i.e., X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS) combined with electrical characterization. Surface preparation of semiconductors in particular for III-V compounds is a necessary requirement in device technology due to the existence of surface impurities and the presence of native oxides. The impurities can affect the adherence of ohmic and Schottky contacts and due to thermal decomposition of native oxides (e.g., GaSb) it also affect the interface metal/semiconductor. The practical experience reveals that the simple preparation of a surface is a nonrealistic expectation, i.e., surface preparation is a result of combined treatments, namely chemical etching and thermal treatment, ion beam sputtering and thermal reconstruction procedure.",signatures:"Rodica V. Ghita, Constantin Logofatu, Constantin-Catalin Negrila,\nLucian Trupina and Costel Cotirlan-Simioniuc",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54687",authors:[{id:"50919",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodica V.",surname:"Ghita",slug:"rodica-v.-ghita",fullName:"Rodica V. Ghita"},{id:"197743",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucian",surname:"Trupina",slug:"lucian-trupina",fullName:"Lucian Trupina"},{id:"198134",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantin",surname:"Logofatu",slug:"constantin-logofatu",fullName:"Constantin Logofatu"},{id:"198135",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantin-Catalin",surname:"Negrila",slug:"constantin-catalin-negrila",fullName:"Constantin-Catalin Negrila"},{id:"198140",title:"Dr.",name:"Costel",surname:"Cotirlan-Simioniuc",slug:"costel-cotirlan-simioniuc",fullName:"Costel Cotirlan-Simioniuc"}],corrections:null},{id:"54581",title:"Nanoscaled Fluorescent Films and Layers for Detection of Environmental Pollutants",doi:"10.5772/67869",slug:"nanoscaled-fluorescent-films-and-layers-for-detection-of-environmental-pollutants",totalDownloads:1797,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hazardous gas and ion pollutants are the most serious environmental problems around the world. It is of great importance to develop devices for easy detection of these hazardous substances. Fluorescence technology with high resolution and operational simplicity has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Organic fluorescent dyes absorb/emit lights within a broad wavelength range, which is suitable for various demands. Chromophores, such as perylene, cyanine dyes, spiropyran, and so on, are widely studied as fluorescent probes for gases and ions. The dyes could respond to external stimuli through structural changes of the conjugated chromophore itself or the attached functional groups, leading to detectable spectral changes. Organic dyes are incorporated into nanoscaled films and layers, which are portable and durable for effective sensing in complex environments. In this chapter, preparation and application of fluorescent films and layers (FFL) for gaseous/ionic detection are reviewed. We discuss the response mechanism of fluorescent dyes, the fabrication of nanoscaled FFL, and some examples of FFL for the detection of gas and ion pollutants.",signatures:"Meizhen Yin and Chendong Ji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54581",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54581",authors:[{id:"197509",title:"Prof.",name:"Meizhen",surname:"Yin",slug:"meizhen-yin",fullName:"Meizhen Yin"},{id:"200372",title:"Mr.",name:"Chendong",surname:"Ji",slug:"chendong-ji",fullName:"Chendong Ji"}],corrections:null},{id:"54290",title:"Mechanical Nanoprocessing and Nanoviscoelasticity of Surface- Modified Polycarbonate",doi:"10.5772/67512",slug:"mechanical-nanoprocessing-and-nanoviscoelasticity-of-surface-modified-polycarbonate",totalDownloads:1277,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To clarify their potential as atomic force microscope (AFM) memory media, the nanometer‐scale mechanical processing properties of untreated and fluorocarbon plasma‐treated polycarbonate samples were determined via the sliding of an AFM tip. The surface energy of the polycarbonate was reduced by the fluorocarbon plasma treatment, as well as the force necessary for processing. Nanometer‐scale precise processing of the polycarbonate was realized after the fluorocarbon plasma treatment, and the interval pitch in the formation of lines, spaces, and nanometer‐scale fine dots was minimized to 60 nm with these samples. The viscoelastic properties of the fluorinated polycarbonate were evaluated using an AFM in force modulation mode. The fluorocarbon plasma treatment reduced the friction force of the polycarbonate sample and improved its wear resistance, which caused the friction durability corresponding to the reliability of data reproduction to be markedly improved. These results show that high‐density recording can be realized by nanometer‐scale processing of fluorocarbon plasma‐treated polycarbonate samples.",signatures:"Shojiro Miyake and Mei Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54290",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54290",authors:[{id:"22097",title:"Dr.",name:"Mei",surname:"Wang",slug:"mei-wang",fullName:"Mei Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54966",title:"Green Intelligent Nanomaterials by Design (Using Nanoparticulate/2D-Materials Building Blocks) Current Developments and Future Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68434",slug:"green-intelligent-nanomaterials-by-design-using-nanoparticulate-2d-materials-building-blocks-current",totalDownloads:1500,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Feasibility of designing and synthesizing ‘smart’ and ‘intelligent’ materials using nanostructured building blocks has been examined here based on the current status of the progress made in this context. The added advantages of using 2D layered/nonlayered materials along with phytosomal species derived from natural plants are highlighted with special reference to their better programmability along with minimum toxicity in biomedical applications. The current developments taking place in their upscaled productions are also included while assessing their upcoming industrial usages in diverse fields.",signatures:"Dinesh Kumar and Shamim Ahmad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54966",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54966",authors:[{id:"196523",title:"Dr.",name:"Shamim",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"shamim-ahmad",fullName:"Shamim Ahmad"},{id:"205981",title:"Prof.",name:"Dinesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"dinesh-kumar",fullName:"Dinesh Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"54751",title:"Molybdenum Disulfide-Based Photocatalysis:Bulk-to-Single Layer Structure and Related Photomechansim for Environmental Applications",doi:"10.5772/67825",slug:"molybdenum-disulfide-based-photocatalysis-bulk-to-single-layer-structure-and-related-photomechansim-",totalDownloads:2001,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bulk-to-single layer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is widely used as a robust candidate for photodegradation of organic pollutants, hydrogen production, and CO2 reduction. This material features active edge sites and narrow band gap features, which are useful for generating reactive species in aqueous suspensions. However, the high-charge carrier recombination, photocorrosion, unstable sulfide state, and formation of Mo-S-O links during photocatalytic reactions limit its applicability. Thus, research has focused on improving the performance of MoS2 by tailoring its bulk-to-single layer structure and combining it with other semiconductor materials to improve the photocatalytic performance. Different strategies have been successfully applied to enhance the photocatalytic activity of MoS2, including tailoring of the surface morphology, formation of heterojunctions with other semiconductors, doping, and modification with excess sulfur or carbon nanostructures. This review describes the influence of starting precursors, sulfur sources, and synthetic methods to obtain heterostructured morphologies and study their impact on the photocatalytic efficiency. Finally, the relevance of crystal facets and defects in photocatalysis is outlined. Future applications of MoS2 with tailoring and tuning physicochemical properties are highlighted.",signatures:"Surya Veerendra Prabhakar Vattikuti and Chan Byon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54751",authors:[{id:"196995",title:"Prof.",name:"S V Prabhakar",surname:"Vattikuti",slug:"s-v-prabhakar-vattikuti",fullName:"S V Prabhakar Vattikuti"},{id:"199682",title:"Prof.",name:"Chan",surname:"Byon",slug:"chan-byon",fullName:"Chan Byon"}],corrections:null},{id:"54449",title:"Advance in Tribology Study of Polyelectrolyte Multilayers",doi:"10.5772/67571",slug:"advance-in-tribology-study-of-polyelectrolyte-multilayers",totalDownloads:1392,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This review introduced the preparation and structural characterization of polyelectrolyte multilayers in recent years and also summarized the tribology research progress of the polyelectrolyte multilayers, including tribological properties, surface adhesion characteristics, and wear resistance properties. Statistics analysis indicated that nanoparticles‐doped polyelectrolyte multilayers present better friction and wear performance than pristine polyelectrolyte multilayers. Furthermore, the in situ growth method resulted in improved structural order of nanoparticles composite molecular deposition film. In situ nanoparticles not only reduced the molecular deposition film surface adhesion force and friction force but also significantly improved the life of wear resistance. That was due to the nanoparticles that possessed a good load‐carrying capacity and reduced the mobility of the polymer‐chain segments, which can undergo reversible shear deformation. Based on this, further research direction of in situ nanoparticles molecular deposition film was proposed.",signatures:"Yanbao Guo and Deguo Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54449",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54449",authors:[{id:"196649",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanbao",surname:"Guo",slug:"yanbao-guo",fullName:"Yanbao Guo"},{id:"197584",title:"Prof.",name:"Deguo",surname:"Wang",slug:"deguo-wang",fullName:"Deguo Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54123",title:"Thermal Radiative Wavelength Selectivity of Nanostructured Layered Media",doi:"10.5772/67395",slug:"thermal-radiative-wavelength-selectivity-of-nanostructured-layered-media",totalDownloads:1370,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Thermal radiative transport yields unique thermal characteristics of microscopic thin films—wavelength selectivity. This chapter focuses on a methodology about adjusting the wavelength selectivity of thin films embedded with nanoparticles in the far‐field and near‐field regimes. For nanostructured layered media doped with nanoparticles, Maxwell‐Garnett‐Mie theory is applied to determine the effective dielectric function for the calculation of radiative thermal transport. The thermal radiative wavelength selectivity can be affected by volume fraction and/or the size of the embedded nanoparticles in thin films. To characterize wavelength selectivity and optical property of nanostructured materials, both real and imaginary parts of effective refractive index need to be analyzed. It has been shown that the nanoparticles made of polar or metallic materials have different influence on thermal radiative wavelength selectivity of microscopic thin films.",signatures:"Yi Zheng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54123",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54123",authors:[{id:"197058",title:"Prof.",name:"Yi",surname:"Zheng",slug:"yi-zheng",fullName:"Yi Zheng"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7194",title:"Methods for Film Synthesis and Coating Procedures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0278e5a9a9d429a23692d1ce9bae2c2c",slug:"methods-for-film-synthesis-and-coating-procedures",bookSignature:"László Nánai, Aneeya Samantara, László Fábián and Satyajit Ratha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7194.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61978",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",surname:"Nanai",slug:"laszlo-nanai",fullName:"Laszlo Nanai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"397",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:"Production, Properties and Functional Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"934fe33b73b2ecba961c67d5a90021ec",slug:"nanofibers-production-properties-and-functional-applications",bookSignature:"Tong Lin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49937",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",surname:"Lin",slug:"tong-lin",fullName:"Tong Lin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1045",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65d477e855685ea85913e5aba0c5217e",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",bookSignature:"John Cuppoletti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1045.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49991",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Cuppoletti",slug:"john-cuppoletti",fullName:"John Cuppoletti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3200",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"97487143b896780afaf08cfd67cd1eec",slug:"nanofibers",bookSignature:"Ashok Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3200.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7718",title:"Professor",name:"Ashok",surname:"Kumar",slug:"ashok-kumar",fullName:"Ashok Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5139",title:"Semiconductor Photocatalysis",subtitle:"Materials, Mechanisms and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ddd35bd632c061ec2e69a0886a817443",slug:"semiconductor-photocatalysis-materials-mechanisms-and-applications",bookSignature:"Wenbin 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Melanophores are specialized cells derived from the neural crest that contain membrane bound vesicles called melanosomes. Melanosomes are filled with melanin, a dark, non-fluorescent pigment that plays a principal role in physiological color adaptation of animals. Melanophores regulate melanosome trafficking on cytoskeletal filaments to generate a range of striking chromatic patterns. The mechanism of physiological color change by these melanophores encompasses both physical and biochemical aspects of melanosome dynamics. Melanophores aggregate or disperse their melanosomes when the host requires changing its color in response to the environmental cues (e.g., social interactions or camouflage). Interestingly, morphological, embryological and physiological evidence has revealed that melanophores of fish, amphibian and reptiles are functionally modified smooth muscle cells [1]. Moreover, during contraction of melanophore there is an aggregation of melanin granules which is to be considered the visible counterpart of an aggregation of colloidal particles that occur during smooth muscle contraction. The biochemical events underlying melanosome dispersion is analogous to those for smooth muscle relaxation: both processes result from increase in cAMP levels and require the presence of extracellular Ca2+ for their action.
Ligands like neurotransmitters and hormones bind to specific receptors to activate contraction in smooth muscle. Subsequent to this binding there is an increase in cellular phospholipase C activity via coupling to a G protein resulting into the activation of a membrane phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-biphosphate (PIP2). Phospholipase C (PLC) produces two potent second messengers from PIP2: Diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol 1, 4, 5-triphosphate (IP3). IP3 binds to specific receptors, causing release of calcium (Ca2+). Later in the cascade DAG activates PKC, which further phosphorylates specific target proteins. In smooth muscles PKC promotes phosphorylation of Ca2+ channels that regulates cross-bridge cycling. Ca2+ binds to a calcium modulated protein called calmodulin, resulting into the activation of MLC kinase, which is a myosin light chain protein [2]. This step initiates the shortening of the muscle cell together with actin via cross bridge cycling. The state of contraction is maintained by a Ca2+ sensitizing mechanism that is brought about by another protein, Rho kinase also known as ROCK. ROCK increases the activity of the motor protein myosin II by two different mechanisms: Firstly, phosphorylation of the myosin light chain (MLC) increases the myosin II ATPase activity. Thus several bundled and active myosins, which are asynchronously active on several actin filaments, move actin filaments against each other resulting in the net shortening of actin fibres. Secondly by inactivating MLC phosphatase, leading to increased levels of phosphorylated MLC [2, 3, 100]. (Figure 1)
Regulation of Smooth Muscle Contraction and Relaxation. Contraction is triggered by the influx of calcium through the transmembrane channels (ligand-gated (noradrenaline) and the voltage-gated Ca2+-channels). The calcium combines with calmodulin to form a complex that converts myosin light chain kinase to its active form (MLCK*). The latter phosphorylates the myosin light chains (MLC), thereby initiating the interaction of myosin with actin. Activation of RhoA leads to the activation of Rho-kinase (ROCK), which in turn phosphorylates the regulatory myosin-binding subunit of myosin phosphatase (MLCP), resulting into the inhibition of the enzyme. Substances that increase the cAMP may cause relaxation in smooth muscle by accelerating the inactivation of MLCK and facilitating the expulsion of calcium from the cell. (Reproduced with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: [
The process of relaxation requires a decreased intracellular Ca2+ concentration and increased myosin light chain (MLC) phosphatase activity. The plasma membrane contain Ca Mg-ATPases along with Na+/ Ca2+ exchangers that remove Ca2+ from the cytosol. Also the voltage operated Ca2+ channels in the plasma membrane close to the entry of Ca2+ in the cell resulting into relaxation [2].
In short the contractile activity in smooth muscle is initiated by a Ca2+-calmodulin interaction to stimulate phosphorylation of the light chain of myosin. A Ca2+ sensitization of the contractile proteins is signaled by the RhoA/Rho kinase pathway to inhibit the dephosphorylation of the light chain by myosin phosphatase, maintaining force generation. Removal of Ca2+from the cytosol and stimulation of myosin phosphatase initiate the process of smooth muscle relaxation [2,100] (Figure 1).
The comparison of melanophores to smooth muscle cells dates back as early as 1917 when Spaeth provided evidence for the similarity of melanophores with smooth muscle cells. Rhythmical pulsations in the isolated scale melanophores of
The biochemical events underlying the melanosome dispersion are analogous to smooth muscle relaxation since both these processes result from an increase in cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels [102]. Unlike cardiac muscle, increased cAMP in smooth muscle causes relaxation. The reason for this is that cAMP normally inhibits myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), the enzyme that is responsible for phosphorylating smooth muscle myosin and causing contraction. It is known that the increase in cAMP initiates the influx of Ca2+ from the cytoplasm to the endoplasmic reticulum and/or mitochondria or out of the smooth muscle cell. Whereas the melanosome dispersion progresses in the absence of Ca2+ and presence of extracellular Ca2+ (from the action of MSH) [4]. The crucial role of Ca2+ and MSH in the bidirectional movement of melanophores has been shown in the figure 2. Extracellular stimuli (either hormonal; adrenaline or mechanical stimulus) could result in inward movement of Ca2+ from the extracellular matrix. This is followed by activation of phospholipase C (PLC) promoting 1) inositol trisphosphate (IP3)-dependent release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores and 2) diacylglycerol (DAG)-sensitive activation of protein kinase C (PKC), which facilitates Ca2+ entry through voltage-dependent calcium channels, resulting into pigment aggregation. Stimulation of alpha MSH receptor that couples to Gsα proteins stimulates adenylyl cyclase and increase intracellular cAMP resulting into pigment dispersion by activating a calcium pump that drives the expulsion of calcium out from the cells resulting into pigment dispersion. In the case of pigment cells the action of Melanocyte concentrating hormone (MCH) is enhanced by the absence of intracellular Ca2+ [5, 101] which in the case of smooth muscle may be an apparent counterpart triggered by β adrenergic receptors (NE or noradrenaline). The actual process of how melanosomes translocate from the concentrated to dispersed state and vice versa is not completely unfurled. However the mechanism is highly coordinated and requires a multitude of factors and entities.
Model for the crucial role of Ca2+ and MSH in the bidirectional movement of melanophores. Extracellular stimuli (either hormonal; adrenaline or mechanical stimulus) could result in inward movement of Ca2+ from the extracellular matrix. This is followed by activation of phospholipase C (PLC) promoting 1) inositol trisphosphate (IP3)-dependent release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores and 2) diacylglycerol (DAG)-sensitive activation of protein kinase C (PKC), which facilitates Ca2+ entry through voltage-dependent calcium channels, resulting into pigment aggregation. Stimulation of alpha MSH receptor that couples to Gsα proteins stimulates adenylyl cyclase and increase intracellular cAMP resulting into pigment dispersion by activating a calcium pump that drives the expulsion of calcium out from the cells resulting into pigment dispersion
Since all muscle cells are "excitable cells," i.e., they are capable of responding to appropriate stimulation. The response to this is contraction, however the stimulus can vary. It may be an electrical signal or depolarization produced at the surface of the muscle cell by the activity of neurons. Some muscle cells (particularly smooth muscle) respond not only to neuronal signaling, but to direct chemical or mechanical stimulation [6]. Hormonal signals can cause contraction in some situations. Interestingly, melanophores have an instinctive ability to quickly reposition pigment granules within the cells on given appropriate stimulus. The responses of melanophores to external stimuli are highly coordinated; where external signals are received and integrated, thereby eliciting a concerted and appropriate response [7, 8]. This cellular communication depends largely on the transmission of signal couriers (i.e. “ligands/agonist”) which are received via cell surface and intracellular recognition molecules (i.e. “receptors”) on the recipient cells, resulting into remarkably coordinated bidirectional movement of pigment granules within the cells [7, 8].
By far the most striking resemblance between the melanophores and smooth muscle cells has been furnished on physiological grounds [9, 1]. Also the morphological, as well as embryological evidence has been brought to light that supports the idea that color changes in the three groups of lower vertebrates; fishes, amphibians and reptiles along with crustaceans and cephalopods are brought about by responses of specialized functional smooth muscle cells [10, 11, 12].
The most striking evidence of resemblance between smooth muscles and melanophores in terms of physiological basis was provided as early as 1906 by Franz [13]. He recorded the similarity between the physiological responses of the sphincter papillae in
There is a certain resemblance between the mechanisms coordinating the mechanism of smooth muscles with that of vertebral melanophores in terms of innervation. Both are controlled by sympathetic nervous system and influenced by hormonal secretion during nervous excitement [16, 18,8]. In the case of smooth muscles, however there is an autonomic innervation of antagonistic fibers that are morphologically distinct. Interestingly, the neural control of skeletal muscles differs significantly from that of smooth muscles. A skeletal muscle fiber has only one junction with a somatic nerve fiber, and the receptors for the neurotransmitter are located only at the neuromuscular junction [19]. By contrast, the entire surface of smooth muscle cells contains neurotransmitter receptor proteins. Neurotransmitter molecules (norepinephrine) are released along a stretch of an autonomic nerve fiber that is located some distance from the smooth muscle cells and stimulate a number of smooth muscle cells [20].
The innervation of the melanophores has been demonstrated physiologically in several species of teleosts [22, 23, 24, 1]. As early as 1876, Pouchet [21] reported that in teleost fishes, the sectioning of peripheral nerves or the electrical stimulation of spinal nerves led respectively to the darkening or paling in definite areas, claiming the innervation to be of sympathetic nature. Interestingly, the surface of melanophores contains numerous receptors of neurotransmitters as well as hormones including adrenoceptors [8]. It is now generally accepted that the melanophores are sympathetically innervation and the catecholamines released from the adrenergic fibers are responsible for causing pigment aggregation.
Interestingly it has been demonstrated that the excised iris of certain fishes (elasmobranchs and teleosts) and amphibians responds to illumination by contraction of sphincter papillae. Also a light induced stimulation in chromatophores of cephalopods, Octopus and Loligo have been demonstrated [25], which was a direct result of contraction and relaxation of radially arranged smooth muscles. In another report the smooth muscle cells of the frog, (
It has been reported that gentle stretching or pinching of excised pieces of fish and frog stomach and esophagus induced powerful contractions, provided the stimulus has not been too violent. Similarly, melanophores from the portions of skin of Loligo resulted into wide expansion. Single aggregated melanophores from isolated scales of the angelfish,
The responses of several types of smooth muscles as well as the melanophores from the three groups of lower vertebrates show considerable similarity in their contraction to faradic stimulation.
It has been reported that sphincter papillae of eel and frog (
Effect of various chemicals and pharmacological compounds has been extensively studied on pigment as well as muscle cells. The responses to various biogenic amines/ compounds and neurotransmitters have been analyzed and it is confirmed that the effector cells contain several types of receptors for different neurotransmitters and hormones [8]. The extracellular signals are translated by the receptor system into an increase or a decrease in levels of intracellular second messenger. Until recently three kinds of second messengers were known to take part in the motile responses of chromatophores, namely cyclic adenosine mono phosphate (cAMP), Calcium (Ca2+), and inositol 1,4,5 tri-phosphate (IP3). Interestingly the roles of these second messengers in smooth muscle contraction have been described [31, 32].
Calcium is one of the most important cations in terms of diversity of function and has a crucial role in muscle contraction and pigment translocation respectively (due to the extent of depth only the role of Ca2+ is discussed). The role of Ca2+ in the process of muscle contraction and relaxation has been reviewed by Karaki et al., in quite detail [103].
In smooth muscle, the influx of calcium leads to depolarization. There calcium binds to calmodulin, causing the calmodulin-caldesmon complex to change its configuration and pull the caldesmon away from the myosin binding sites on the actin strand. The myosin heads bind to actin resulting into muscle contraction. Calcium ions are required in the medium for the full darkening action of melanocyte- stimulating hormone. It has been reported that frog (
Another signaling molecule Nitric oxide (NO) plays a significant role in a number of cellular processes like the relaxation of blood vessels, sperm motility, and polymerization of actin. It has been found that the signal transduction by NO can be mediated through the activation of soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), which leads to increased production of cGMP and activation of cGMP-dependent kinases (PKG) [108]. Studies show that melanosome aggregation depends on synthesis of NO, and NO deprivation causes dispersion indicating a crucial role of NO and cGMP in regulation of melanosome translocation. Similar results have been reported by other workers on teleostean melanophores [109]. Interestingly the parallelism of NO action in terms of smooth muscles can be drawn since increased intracellular cGMP by NO, inhibits calcium entry into the cell, thereby decreasing intracellular calcium concentrations and causing smooth muscle relaxation. NO also activates K+ channels, which leads to hyperpolarization and relaxation. Finally, NO acting through cGMP can stimulate a cGMP-dependent protein kinase that activates myosin light chain phosphatase that dephosphorylates myosin light chains, which leads to relaxation (Figure 3).
NO induced smooth muscle Relaxation, NO; nitric oxide, NOS; nitric oxide synthase, GC; guanylyl cyclase, PDE cyclic GMP-dependent phosphodiestrase, MLC lyosin light chain
Immunocytochemical experiments conducted on the melanophores, xanthophores, and iridophores from the skins of the two Antarctic fish species
The cytoskeleton is now no longer considered to be a rigid scaffold, but instead is viewed as a complex and dynamic network of protein filaments that can be modulated by internal and external cues. Three cytoskeletal polymers- actin filaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments cooperate to maintain the physical integrity of eukaryotic cells and, together with molecular motors, allow cells to move themselves and their intracellular organelles like melanosomes. Pigment cells provide an excellent model to study organelle transport as they specialize in the translocation of pigment granules in response to defined chemical cues. Pigment cells of lower vertebrates have traditionally been used as a model for these studies as they transport pigment organelles in a highly concerted and coordinated fashion. These cells can be cultured and transfected, are ideal for biochemical and in vitro studies. Changes in pigment translocation can be easily monitored under light microscopy. Many important mechanism of organelle transport like the regulation and interactions of cytoskeletal filaments (actin and microtubules) and motor proteins have been studied using pigment cells of lower vertebrates. Genetic studies of mouse melanocytes allowed the discovery of essential elements involved in organelle transport including the myosin-Va motor and its receptor and adaptor molecules on the organelle surface [47]. Future studies of pigment cells will contribute in unraveling the mechanisms of regulation of microtubule motors and other related mechanisms that may involve the cooperation of motor proteins.
The most interesting example of organelle transport is within melanophores of lower vertebrates where the cytoskeletal actin and microtubules act in cooperation. The melanophores contain a radial array of ~1000–2000 microtubules [48, 40, 49]. The bidirectional movement of pigments occurs along the radially-organized microtubule cytoskeleton of these cells and also transported along filamentous actin [50]. Microtubules act as tracks for the transport of several intracellular organelles, including pigment vesicles, melanosomes. The trafficking of melanosomes is controlled by two classes of microtubule-associated motor proteins, kinesins, and cytoplasmic dyneins. Kinesins power the plus-end-directed microtubule-based motility, while cytoplasmic dyneins drive the minus end motility [51, 52]. Dyneins and kinesins also have well-established roles in retrograde (aggregation) and in anterograde (dispersion) transport of melanosomes [53, 54, 55, 56]. In microtubule-poor regions of the cell, pigment granules are transported along microfilaments powered by a myosin motor.
Involvement of cAMP in melanosome movement
Although actin filaments and microtubules differ in origin and structure, their shared features reflects extensive convergence of function. The microtubules and actin filaments show tremendous interaction by binding of several motors to the same cargo at the same time, and movement of pigment granules along both types of cytoskeleton tracks. Studies have demonstrated that the microtubule motor activity is coordinated while the microtubule and actin-based transport are competitive [59]. The direction of melanosome movement is determined by the orientation of plus and minus ends of microtubules and actin filaments within the melanophores [60]. As in most cells, melanophore microtubules are oriented with the minus ends located at the nucleus and their plus ends toward the periphery near the plasma membrane [61, 47]. In melanophores, melanosome aggregation and dispersion are achieved by minus- and plus-end directed movement respectively [59]. In contrast to microtubule organization which is typically in the center of the cells, actin filaments are randomly oriented in a form of a meshwork close to the plasma membrane. The filaments consist of globular subunits arranged head-to-tail into double helical polymers, giving the structure polarity [62]. Actin filaments are required for complete melanosome dispersion but also for maintenance of the dispersed state [34].
Kinesin and Dynein are key entities of microtubule-based motion and are termed as Microtubule Associated Proteins (MAPs). These two families of motor proteins transport membrane-bounded vesicles, proteins, and organelles along microtubules. Purified
Cytoplasmic dynein is responsible for the aggregation of pigment organelles in melanophores and consist of two heavy chains containing the motor domains as well as various intermediate, light intermediate and light chains [66, 64]. Like kinesin, cytosolic dynein is a two-headed molecule, with two nearly identical heavy chains forming the head domains. However, unlike kinesin, dynein cannot mediate transport by itself. Rather, dynein-related motility requires a large complex of
Kinesin II is a heterotrimeric motor protein. Motor heads shown in blue (95 KD) and orange (85 KD) and a non motor subunit shown in grey (115 KD) called kinesin-associated protein (KAP).The motor domains contain binding sites for cytoskeleton. The coiled-coil domain connects the motor domain to the tail domain. Kinesin light chain (KLC) binds through the globular tail domain of kinesin heavy chain (KHC).
The dynein molecule, itself a complex of heavy (HC), intermediate (IC) and light chains, interacts with the p150glued subunit of the dynactin complex through its intermediate chains (arrow), although the precise mode of interaction is not known. The most prominent component of the dynactin complex is a short filament of the actin-related protein Arp1 (Reproduced with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd [
Myosin V is the unconventional class V of the myosin family which is found in many different organisms [69,70]. It is composed of:
The
The
The
Myosin Va binds to melanosomes through a complex of melanophilin and Rab27a, a small GTP-binding Ras-like GTPase (Figure 6) [71,47]. Rab27a first binds to the melanosome and then recruits melanophilin, who’s N-terminal interact with the GTP- bound Rab27a. Subsequently myosin Va, requiring binding of both Rab27a and melanophilin to the melanosome, is able to interact with the C-terminal portion of melanophilin [70, 71] (Figure 7).
Mysoin Va binds to melanosomes through a complex of GTP-bound Rab27a and melanophilin. Rab27a binds to the melanosome first and then recruits melanophilin. Myosin Va requires the binding of both Rab27a and melanophilin before being able to interact with melanophilin.
During pigment translocation across the cells microtubules and actin filaments interact with several motors that bind to the same cargo (melanosome) at the same time. In
However there are two different mechanisms postulated to explain the unidirectional (either aggregation or dispersion) transport of melanosomes attached to two opposing motor proteins. In the first model, the motors are involved in a competitive manner called the “tug of war” with the stronger motor determining the direction of motion at any given time. On the other hand the second model, there is coordination, so that when the melanosome moves in one direction the opposing motors are inactive.
The external stimulation of pigment cells result into a highly coordinated bidirectional movement of pigment granule that either result into aggregation (movement towards the minus ends of microtubules, indicated by white arrow) or dispersion (movement towards the plus ends of microtubules and the periphery of the cell, indicated by a blue arrow). Melanosomes that are in the process of dispersion, move off microtubule tracks and then move along short, randomly-oriented actin filaments. ‘Active’ microtubule motors are indicated by red globular motor domains; ‘inactive’ microtubule motors are indicated by white motor domains. (Figure from reference [
The process of pigment translocation within the pigment cells as evident from above discussion is a remarkably regulated phenomenon that involves the coordination of numerous cellular entities. Biochemical studies of melanosomes purified from aggregated and dispersed states have indicated that motor proteins remain attached to the melanosome even when their activity is not required; for example, kinesin II remains associated with melanosomes in an inactive state during melanocortin-induced pigment aggregation [58]. In contrast to mammalian cells, the motor activity in melanophores is acutely altered in a cAMP- and protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent manner. Elevated cAMP results in increased kinesin activity, which leads to melanosome dispersion, whereas reduced cAMP results in increased dynein activity, which gives rise to aggregation [72]. PKA directly associates with melanosomal kinesin and dynein and might be recruited to melanosomes by the small GTPase Rab32 [73, 74].
Studies show that one to three dynein molecules can transport each melanosome in the minus end direction. The transport in the plus end direction is driven by one –two copies of kinesin II. The number of dyneins transporting a melanosome increases during aggregation, whereas the number of active Kinesin II stays the same during aggregation and dispersion. Thus the direction of net melanosome transport is regulated by the number of active dynein molecules [111]. Kinesin-II and dynein compete for the same binding site on p150Glued of dynactin [68]. During aggregation, the release of myosin V helps the dynein-mediated movement to \'win\' over the kinesin-II mediated movement [59]. Also studies show that the long-range, bidirectional, microtubule-dependent melanosome movements, coupled with actomyosin Va–dependent capture of melanosomes in the periphery, is the predominant mechanism responsible for the centrifugal transport and peripheral accumulation of melanosomes in mouse melanocytes [71] (Figure 9).
Coordinating several motors: the melanosome paradigm. (Reproduced with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd [
Gross
Model for transport of melanosomes by actin- and microtubule-based motors. Figure originally published in reference [
The field of drug discovery is enormous with the development of novel and sensitive pharmaceutics and drugs that exert a distinguished response on targeted sites. On these grounds the noteworthy contribution of pigment bearing cells, melanophores cannot be overlooked. The fact that melanophores are highly specialized in bidirectional and coordinated translocation of pigment granules on given appropriate stimulus has conferred them as exceptional model system for pharmacological and physiological assays. The movement of pigment granules on external cues has been a highly coordinated phenomenon that requires an orchestrated and coordinated work of numerous cellular entities. This cellular connection depends largely on the transmission of signal couriers which are received via cell surface and intracellular recognition molecules (
Also the striking chromatic changes that occur are dependent on the cytoskeletal platforms that form the intricate networks within the cells and that these pigment motions are clearly microtubule dependent, since any disruption of microtubules blocks pigment dispersion and prevents directed pigment aggregation [39, 40, 77]. In addition, it is now known that melanosome aggregation may be mediated by the retrograde microtubule-dependent motor protein dynein [76, 78] and dispersion is supported by the anterograde motor protein kinesin [80]. Therefore pigment motion within the melanophores could be a used as a revolutionary tool to study the possible relationship between microtubule dynamics and intracellular transport. Nonetheless the search is still on to bridge in the gap that still exists.
Selected G-protein coupled receptors can be functionally expressed in cultured frog melanophores. It has been demonstrated that the recombinant frog melanophores can be used as a biosensor for the detection of opoids. Transfection of melanophores with selected receptors enables the creation of numerous melanophore biosensors, which respond selectively to certain substances. The successful generation of in vitro cultures of these cells [51] has facilitated further characterization of melanophore cell signaling pathways and has made possible their use as a cell based reporter system [81]. The melanophore biosensor has potential use for measurement of substances in body fluids such as saliva, blood plasma and urine. Since the pigment granules, termed melanosomes, may be stimulated to undergo rapid dispersion throughout the melanophores (cells appear dark), or aggregation to the center of the melanophores (cells appear light). This simple physiological response, which can easily be measured in a photometer, has been used in a sensitive biosensor for catecholamine in blood plasma and pertussis toxin in saliva, based on melanophores in isolated fish scales [82, 83]. The melanophores are also an attractive model for studies in pharmacology, for drug design and in cytotoxicity screening [84]. Odorant, pheromone, and gustatory receptors all belong to the GPCR family, suggesting that melanophore biosensors, expressing the appropriate receptor, may also be a new principle for odor, pheromone, and taste sensing [86]. In an interesting report by De-Camp et al. [87] a 7-pass trans-membrane protein “Smoothened” was investigated for its ability to act as a G-protein-coupled receptor in immortalized
According to Karlsson
Zebrafish model system has emerged as one of the most reliable systems for studies related to developmental gene function and disease processes in nervous system. During the past 20 years zebrafish has served as an excellent model for understanding normal development and birth defects based on its powerful genetics and exquisite embryology. For example, recent breakthroughs made in zebrafish include the isolation of a human skin color gene, the development of a melanoma model, and the isolation of a chemical that can correct cardiovascular defects. As vertebrates they possess a brain structure similar to that found in mammals. The intracellular signaling downstream of hormone stimulation and the biomechanical processes involved in zebrafish pigment translocation, has confirmed the importance of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) as a mediator of pigment translocation and the presence of intact microtubules essential for both melanin dispersion and aggregation, has rendered it as an experimental model for studying both physiological color change and the molecular basis of pigment translocation [91]. Also in the recent years zebrafish melanophore model has been used to study melanocyte biology and melanoma [92]. Due to its prolific reproduction and the external development of the transparent embryo, the zebrafish serve as a cutting edge tool for genetic and developmental studies, as well as research in toxicology and genomics. Zebrafish melanophores are externally visible, and single cells can be visualized in a living animal. Zebrafish melanocytes retain melanin unlike mammals where the melanin pigment-containing melanosomes are transported to neighboring keratinocytes. For this reason zebrafish melanocytes can serve as a reliable and useful cell-type marker. Furthermore, the characteristic pattern of pigment cells in the zebrafish skin, combined with newly developed techniques molecular genetics, makes the zebrafish an ideal experimental system for the evaluation of melanogenic regulatory compounds and the mechanism of pigmentation pattern formation [93, 95, 96].
Since a growing number of diseases, including neuropathology and developmental disorders, are thought to result from disrupted transport of organelles, the regulation of molecular motor proteins by applying genetics to the problem of melanosome transport in zebrafish melanophores could be used as a promising tool in investigating such problems. This will be accomplished by screening zebrafish mutants specifically for alterations in melanosome dynamics. Mutants of interest can be examined by isolating their melanophores via live cell imaging and characterizing their defects in pigment transport [94].
Our earlier impression of cell has been completely reconditioned with the novel concepts that has brought cell to be a dynamic rather than a rigid entity. The regulation of normal responsiveness of a pigment cell result from dynamic interaction of cytoskeletal processes, molecular motor proteins and associated regulatory processes that are viewed as complex and integrated array of events. How do cells regulate this complex array of motor proteins and their interaction to control the trafficking of same cargo across the cells? Future investigations of melanosome dynamics promise to answer questions about how motor proteins and their motility are controlled and coordinated. The ability to isolate biochemically-defined melanosomes in large quantities from cultured melanophores, coupled with in vitro motility assays to test the activity of specific motors under different conditions, provide a great opportunity to gain insights into how these complex interactions are regulated [97]. Fish melanophores are a classical example [98] of a cell highly specialized in intracellular microtubule-dependent transport, and it is worth considering whether microtubule polymerization and de-polymerization in these cells may be directly coupled to the translocation of pigment organelles [50]. The direct observation and manipulation of cultured melanophores will provide ways to draw conclusions from the in vitro experiments and expand our understanding of this mechanism. These experiments would provide deeper insights into the control and coordination of motility for a variety of cargos in different eukaryotic cell systems [97]. It is known that several genetic disorders in mice and humans are linked to disrupted intracellular organelle transport. The recent characterization of genes defective in these diseases has drawn immense interest in the melanosome as a model system for understanding the molecular mechanisms that underlie intracellular membrane dynamics [99]. The regulation of normal cellular morphology is a highly concerted system that must integrate the temporal-spatial control of multiple cellular processes, including cytoskeletal and membrane dynamics. Since cells interact with other cells through their surfaces, therefore cellular phenotypes are a dynamic process that reflects the influence of other cells. On these grounds we emphasize upon the role of pigment cells and their dynamics that might help to better comprehend the dynamics of other cellular entities like the muscle cells and vice versa. The study of these cellular systems would significantly contribute towards comprehension of both physiological and pathological events related to muscle as well as pigment cells.
Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique whose purpose is discovering new molecules, determining quantities of known components and determining structural and chemical properties of a molecule.
The detection capability in mass spectrometry is very small, of about 10−12 grams and its application field is multifaceted, being used in industries such as: chemical, pharmaceutical, biotechnology, food, among others. It is frequently used in environmental and medical sciences, and in molecular biology.
Some of its most common uses are related to:
Performing doping tests in athletes [1].
Locating petroleum reservoirs through the use of precursors in the rocks [2].
Controlling fermentation of products in biotechnology processes [3].
Determining genetic damages [4].
Determining the presence of contaminants in food [5].
Identifying the structure of biomolecules, such as nucleic acids [4].
Analyzing the biodegradation of medications [6].
Establishing the age of geochemical and archeological samples [7].
The origin of mass spectrometry goes back to the experiments by J. J. Thompson, which evidenced, on one side, the presence of electrons, and on the other side, the presence of positive radiation, when energy falls into a vacuum tube to which a difference in electric potential was applied [8]. Thompson remarked the importance that this new technique might have in the field of chemical analysis and described it in his book “Rays of Positive Electricity and Their Application to Chemical Analysis” [9]; however, despite this interesting possibility of use, mass spectrometry was relegated to the field of experiments in physics. It was not until the 1940s, that the first analytical mass spectrometers started to be developed.
At present, Mass Spectrometry and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, are the most complete and widespread techniques in educational and research labs around the world, regarding the study and discovery of organic molecules. In the field of natural products many of the studies about secondary metabolites have been validated in a mass spectrometer, since it is a very complete technique for the identification and control of this type of substances.
A mass spectrometer is an instrument with the capability of measuring the mass of a molecule after it has been ionized. Due to the extremely small mass of a molecule expressed in grams or kilograms, it is more convenient to measure its molecular mass, expressed as mols; for example, the mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.66 x 10−24 grams, but its mol is approximately 1 gram, or if it is desired in Daltons, considering that this unit is equivalent to 1/12 of the mass of an isotope carbon-12.
The spectrometry does not directly measure the mass of an isotope, but rather its mass-to-charge ratio of the ions that are formed (m/z), where z is the charge, most of the ions formed in the mass spectrometry have a value of charge of z = 1.
The mass spectrometers are constituted by various components, namely: 1) system for introducing the sample, 2) ionization source, 3) mass analyzer, 4) detection system and 5) data analysis system. Components 2, 3 and 4 should be necessarily subject to a vacuum system; a summarized scheme of the instrument may be seen in Figure 1.
Scheme of a mass spectrometer.
The parts that diversify and create the different instrumentation variants are the ionization source and the mass analyzer.
A classic system requires the formation of ions in gaseous phase; however, the latest instrumentation advances have generated methodologies that enable introducing molecules in liquid phase or even in solid phase. The process for generating the mass spectrum is:
Production of ions and fragmentation
Separation of the ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio
Detection
The ion production, also known as ionization, occurs in different manners. The classic one is by means of the interaction of an electric current (electronic ionization) with a substance in vapor phase. The energy is considered as high and has been standardized at 70 eV, which is greater than the energy of the bonds of any molecule.
Another method is chemical ionization (Cl) where the rupture is produced due to the incidence of a gaseous substance with an extra proton, for example CH5+, on substances in vapor phase. Chemical ionization is less energetic than electronic ionization and produces less fragmentation.
Other types of ionization of recent development are:
(Fast Atom Bombardment, FAB): impact of atoms at high velocity on a sample dissolved in a liquid matrix.
(Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry, SIMS): impact of ions at high velocity on a thin film of sample deposited on a metal substrate, or dissolved in a liquid matrix (Liquid SIMS).
(Plasma Desorption, PD): impact of fragments of nuclear fission, for example, of the 252Cf on a solid sample deposited on a metal foil.
(Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization, MALDI): impact of high energy photons on a sample enclosed in an organic solid matrix.
(Field Desorption, FD): imposition of a strong electric field on a sample deposited on a special metal probe.
(Electrospray Ionization, ESI): formation of charged liquid particles which are emitted by desorption or desolvation.
The purpose of the mass analyzers is to separate the ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio. The mass analyzers have different features, namely:
Magnetic sector mass spectrometry. They deviate the trajectory of the ions in circular trajectories that depend on the momentum/charge ratio.
Quadrupole. Consists of 4 poles or bars arranged parallelly, the separation of the ions is the result of the application of a combination of continuous (DC) and alternating at a radiofrequency (RF) electric fields.
Ion trap. The ion trap operates similarly to the quadrupole, with the difference that it may hold and store the ions inside the trap.
Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR). The ions are trapped electrostatically in a cubic cell inside a constant magnetic field.
Time off flight (TOF). They separate ions according to the time employed to travel a particular distance; an ion of smaller mass will have a larger velocity, based on equation Ec = mv2/2 that relates kinetic energy with mass and velocity.
Figure 2 shows the ionization sources, as well as the diverse analyzers which will finally determine the types of instruments that are found in the market.
Ionization sources and analyzers in mass spectrometry.
In most mass spectrometry analyzers, with the exception of the FT-ICR, ions are detected after the separation, transforming the collision energy of the ions on the detector, in order to produce in it further emission of electron and photon ions that are opportunely measured in charge or light detectors.
A mass spectrometer of recent development is the orbitrap, which is a modification of the ionic trap; in this the ions are injected tangentially in an electric field, and they remain turning around a central electrode, highlighting a high mass resolution of them [10].
A mass spectrum consists of a diagram of ionic abundance as a function of its mass-to-charge ratio. The mass spectra are reported as simple histograms, such as the one seen in Figure 3.
Mass spectrum of the methanol.
In this example all the ions are positively charged; it is observed the molecular ion at a value m/z of 32, a majority ion at m/z 31 due to the loss of the H from the OH group, and an ion at m/z 15 which is due to the loss of the hydroxyl (OH).
Depending on the ionization source and the energy employed, spectra will be available with more or less positive fragments aside from the information about the molecular weight of the molecule.
High purity solid samples may be directly placed in a probe inside the instrument, in which it occurs the evaporation of the sample that has been introduced in the vacuum system. Gaseous or liquid samples require special systems for feeding the regulated flow.
When the sample to be analyzed is a complex mixture of compounds, chromatography equipment may be coupled to the mass spectrometer, such as gas chromatography (GC) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The GC/MS systems were developed in the 60s, because the samples that enter to chromatographic column are already in gaseous phase and this facilitates its introduction in the mass spectrometer; an instrument of this type is observed in Figure 4. The coupling with liquid chromatography did not occur until the 80s, due to difficulty of producing an operational vacuum system.
Gas chromatography equipment coupled to mass spectrometer. Life Sciences Laboratory, Salesian Polytechnic University.
At present, the development of GC/MS and LC/MS systems provide a great variety of instruments that facilitate the separation and analysis work, both for quantifying as well as for discovering new structures, with the field of natural products being one of the most benefited from these latest advances.
The coupling of two MS–MS mass analysis states is useful for analyzing compounds in complex mixtures and for determining the structure of unknown molecules. The MS–MS evaluation offers the possibility of analyzing the ions formed in a further fragmentation of those ions formed in the first test.
If the first ionization technique offers the possibility of having various fragments in a highly purified sample, the second ionization offers the possibility of acquiring valuable structural information, and through it achieve a high possibility of determining the structure of a new molecule.
The high development achieved in the last hundred years by mass spectrometry with a great variability of techniques and instruments, makes possible that basically all molecules that are part of natural products may be analyzed, both qualitatively and quantitatively [11, 12], Figure 5 shows various spectra of natural substances obtained by electronic ionization. The extracts coming from biological matrices with natural products are generally a mixture of various compounds, and thus it is very common the use of GC or LC coupled systems [13, 14].
Spectra of natural molecules obtained by electronic ionization.
New techniques such as Electrospray Ionization, have increased the number of possible biomolecules to be analyzed, including those of high molecular weights [15]. Similarly, the use of powerful mass analyzers makes it possible to analyze molecular ions or fractionated ions with an extremely efficient resolution [16].
Essential oils are metabolites of volatile nature; therefore, studies of chemical composition are relatively simple, generally achieving percentages above 90% when investigating the molecules that compose these natural products [17, 18].
The combination of evaluations of mass spectra and retention indices provide information that may be verified in specific databases for this type of compounds [19]. Further studies of GC/MS in molecules separated in TLC, may reveal specific biological properties such as antibacterial or antioxidant [20].
Various plant species contain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, studies are generally carried out by GC/MS, although the compounds of high molecular weight are non-volatile, this is solved employing chemical derivatization methodologies, forming methyl or ethyl esters [21, 22]. Numerous species of nutritional and pharmaceutical interest such as
The aromas and flavors in fruits and vegetables are fundamental for distinguishing their taste features, given their volatility the GC/MS equipment is the ideal for understanding the chemistry of this group of substances. Many of these molecules are very volatile and therefore are not removable in vapor stream, for introducing them in the chromatographic system they are previously extracted with non-polar solvents [26] or may be directly injected with head space introduction systems [27, 28].
Few phenolic compounds may be directly analyzed in an GC/MS system, generally those structures of low molecular weight [29].
Most of the phenolic and polyphenolic compounds are non-volatile and have two analytic paths for their structures to be determined, the first is through chemical derivatization, using the mechanism of sylitation, which make them volatile [30, 31].
The second is through instruments that couple HPLC to mass spectrometry, which has made that a large part of the tests are carried out directly, after their separation in one column. The advantage of the electrospray ionization technique is the possibility of ionizing molecules that lack of volatility [32, 33].
The use of mass analyzers of resolution greater than the quadrupole, such as the TOF or the orbitrap, has resulted in values of m/z that reach more precise levels, which has resulted in greater confidence in the identification of a substance [34, 35, 36].
The alkaloids are active ingredients whose structural feature is to have nitrogen in their structure, many of these molecules have a significant biological activity. Some alkaloids may be directly analyzed in GC/MS equipment, such as nicotine and other present in tobacco [37], caffeine and xanthine alkaloids [38, 39], and others whose volatility enables its separation in gas chromatography such as tropane alkaloids [40].
The most frequently used method in the test of these metabolites is the LC/MS in its diverse variants, such as the LC/MS [41], LC/MS–MS [42], some with a greater mass resolution such as the HPLC-TOF-MS [43]. The use of powerful mass analyzers such as Orbitrap, may lead to the discovery of new structures of this nature [44].
The cannabinols constitute a family of natural products of about 70 compounds, of which the most important are the THC and the CBD [45]. The discovery of the endocannabinoid 1 and endocannabinoid 2 systems, 4 decades ago, awakened the medicinal interest of these substances [46]. These compounds have a high solubility in non-polar solvents and are volatile at the injection temperatures in a gas chromatography equipment, consequently a qualification and quantification of them occur in a very good manner in GC/MS systems [47, 48]. The LC/MS is also useful in the analysis of these substances [49, 50].
Practically all the natural products may be analyzed by means of mass spectrometry, its high sensitivity and detailed structural information, make it an essential tool in research and product development labs.
Equipment with analyzers that have high resolutions can provide us with extremely exact values of molecular ions, and thus being able to differentiate the nature of the molecules.
At present there is a great variety of equipment coupled to LC or GC separation systems, which is ideal for the natural extracts that are generally a mixture of substances of diverse nature. Similarly, the combination of ionization and analyzer techniques, has been able to provide an instrumental variability that currently convert it in a technique highly appreciated for the discovery of new natural structures.
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Here the word “asymmetric” means that the available information of the follower is some sub-\n\nσ\n\n-algebra of that available to the leader, though they play as different roles in the classical literatures. Stackelberg equilibrium is represented by the stochastic versions of Pontryagin’s maximum principle and verification theorem with partial information. A linear-quadratic (LQ) leader-follower stochastic differential game with asymmetric information is studied as applications. If some system of Riccati equations is solvable, the Stackelberg equilibrium admits a state feedback representation.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Jingtao Shi",authors:[{id:"147959",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingtao",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",slug:"jingtao-shi",fullName:"Jingtao Shi"}]},{id:"62516",title:"The Game Theory: Applications in the Wireless Networks",slug:"the-game-theory-applications-in-the-wireless-networks",totalDownloads:1460,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Recent years have witnessed a lot of applications in the computer science, especially in the area of the wireless networks. The applications can be divided into the following two main categories: applications in the network performance and those in the energy efficiency. The game theory is widely used to regulate the behavior of the users; therefore, the cooperation among the nodes can be achieved and the network performance can be improved when the game theory is utilized. On the other hand, the game theory is also adopted to control the media access control protocol or routing protocol; therefore, the energy exhaust owing to the data collision and long route can be reduced and the energy efficiency can be improved greatly. In this chapter, the applications in the network performance and the energy efficiency are reviewed. The state of the art in the applications of the game theory in wireless networks is pointed out. Finally, the future research direction of the game theory in the energy harvesting wireless sensor network is presented.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Deyu Lin, Quan Wang and Pengfei Yang",authors:[{id:"258432",title:"Dr.",name:"Deyu",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"deyu-lin",fullName:"Deyu Lin"},{id:"259049",title:"Prof.",name:"Quan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"quan-wang",fullName:"Quan Wang"},{id:"261098",title:"Dr.",name:"Pengfei",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"pengfei-yang",fullName:"Pengfei Yang"}]},{id:"63373",title:"Infinite Supermodularity and Preferences",slug:"infinite-supermodularity-and-preferences",totalDownloads:997,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter studies the ordinal content of supermodularity on lattices. This chapter is a generalization of the famous study of binary relations over finite Boolean algebras obtained by Wong, Yao and Lingras. We study the implications of various types of supermodularity for preferences over finite lattices. We prove that preferences on a finite lattice merely respecting the lattice order cannot disentangle these usual economic assumptions of supermodularity and infinite supermodularity. More precisely, the existence of a supermodular representation is equivalent to the existence of an infinitely supermodular representation. In addition, the strict increasingness of a complete preorder on a finite lattice is equivalent to the existence of a strictly increasing and infinitely supermodular representation. For wide classes of binary relations, the ordinal contents of quasisupermodularity, supermodularity and infinite supermodularity are exactly the same. In the end, we extend our results from finite lattices to infinite lattices.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Alain Chateauneuf, Vassili Vergopoulos and Jianbo Zhang",authors:[{id:"248905",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianbo",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"jianbo-zhang",fullName:"Jianbo Zhang"},{id:"248908",title:"Prof.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Chateauneuf",slug:"alain-chateauneuf",fullName:"Alain Chateauneuf"},{id:"248910",title:"Dr.",name:"Vassili",middleName:null,surname:"Vergopoulos",slug:"vassili-vergopoulos",fullName:"Vassili Vergopoulos"}]},{id:"60809",title:"Game Theory Application in Smart Energy Logistics and Economy",slug:"game-theory-application-in-smart-energy-logistics-and-economy",totalDownloads:1025,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In many parts of the world, energy sectors are transformed from conventional to the smart deregulated market structures. In such smart deregulated market environment, cooperative game theory can play a vital role for analyzing various smart deregulated market problems. As an optimization tool, cooperative game theory is very useful in smart energy logistics and economy analysis problem. The economy associated with smart deregulated structure can be better optimized and allocated with the help of cooperative game theory. Initially, due to regulated structure, there is no cooperation between different entities of energy sector. But after new market structure, all the entities are free to take their own decisions as an independent entity. Transmission open access of energy logistics is also comes into the picture, as all the generators and demands have the same right to access the transmission system. In this market situation, multiple utilities are using the same energy logistic network. This situation can be formulated as a cooperative game in which generators and demands are represented by players. This chapter deals with energy logistic cost allocation problems for a smart deregulated energy market. It is cooperative in nature as all the agents are using the same energy logistic network.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Baseem Khan",authors:[{id:"240063",title:"Dr.",name:"Baseem",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"baseem-khan",fullName:"Baseem Khan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"75",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 4th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:47,paginationItems:[{id:"82938",title:"Trauma from Occlusion: Practical Management Guidelines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105960",signatures:"Prashanth Shetty, Shweta Hegde, Shubham Chelkar, Rahul Chaturvedi, Shruti Pochhi, Aakanksha Shrivastava, Dudala Lakshmi, Shreya Mukherjee, Pankaj Bajaj and Shahzada Asif Raza",slug:"trauma-from-occlusion-practical-management-guidelines",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. Ablal",slug:"atraumatic-restorative-treatment-more-than-a-minimally-invasive-approach",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"82608",title:"Early Management of Dental Trauma in the Era of COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105992",signatures:"Khairul Bariah Chi Adam, Haszelini Hassan, Pram Kumar Subramaniam, Izzati Nabilah Ismail, Nor Adilah Harun and Naziyah Shaban Mustafa",slug:"early-management-of-dental-trauma-in-the-era-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82767",title:"Teeth Avulsion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105846",signatures:"Manal Abdalla Eltahir, Randa Fath Elrahman Ibrahim and Hanan Alharbi",slug:"teeth-avulsion",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral Health, Dental Care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic Imaging, Early Diagnosis, Oral Cancer, Conservative Treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive Dental Care, Complementary Therapies, Holistic Health",scope:"\r\n\tThis topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). 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