\r\n\tA quark exhibits confinement, which means that the quarks are not observed independently but always in combination with other quarks. This makes determining the properties (mass, spin, and parity) impossible to measure directly; these traits must be inferred from the particles composed of them. There are six flavors of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. The flavor of the quark determines its properties.
\r\n\tThere are three generations of quarks, based on pairs of weak positive/negative, weak isospin. The first generation quarks are up and down quarks, the second-generation quarks are strange and charm quarks, the third generation quarks are top and bottom quarks. The up and down quarks make up protons and neutrons, seen in the nucleus of ordinary matter. They are the lightest and most stable. The heavier quarks are produced in high-energy collisions and rapidly decay into up and down quarks.
\r\n\tThe baryons and mesons known at the time fell into symmetric families of multiplets (octuplets, decuplets) sharing two identical quantum numbers (spin and parity), but differing in an ordered way in others (mass, charge, baryon number and strangeness). The mathematical group to fit this complex situation-SU3, the symmetric, unitary group of dimension 3-was proposed independently by Gell-Mann and Ne'eman. The validity of SU3 was demonstrated by the experiment. A major prediction was that a particle (the omega-minus), an isotopic singlet with spin = 3/2, positive parity, mass of roughly 1,680 MeV, negative charge, baryon number +1, strangeness = -3, and stable to strong decay, should exist to complete the 3/2+ baryon decuplet. It was therefore a major triumph for the scheme when the omega-minus, a baryon with the precise mass, charge, and strangeness predicted, was discovered in 1964. All these facts introduced a quark idea fully into modern physics.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-313-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-312-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-314-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d9403b5c874f6e63b0686cd7c432e00",bookSignature:"Prof. Zbigniew Piotr Szadkowski",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10205.jpg",keywords:"Chiral Symmetries, Weak Interactions, Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay, Deep Inelastic Scattering, Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), Color Confinement, Quarks Mixing, Cabibbo Angle, Kobayashi-Maskawa Matrix, Quarks Multiplets, CP-Nonconservation, Neutrino Oscillation",numberOfDownloads:56,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 6th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 8th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 7th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 26th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"The designer of the 2nd level trigger for the fluorescence detector and the designer of the 1st level trigger and the Front-End Boards for the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"67836",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Szadkowski",slug:"zbigniew-piotr-szadkowski",fullName:"Zbigniew Piotr Szadkowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67836/images/system/67836.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Szadkowski completed his Ph.D. with a thesis 'Quarks mixing in chiral symmetries SU4 x SU4 and SU6 x SU6”. Habilitation: „Triggers in the Pierre Auger Observatory: Designs, Implementation and the Impact on the Experimental Results”.\r\nDevelopment of the FPGA-based 2nd level trigger for 24 fluorescence detectors and 1st level trigger for 1660 surface detectors of the Pierre Auger Observatory, FPGA based filters suppressing radio-frequency interferences (RFI) in radio detector of Auger Engineering Radio Array, FPGA based triggers for the Auger surface detectors dedicated for a recognition of very inclined EAS induced by 'old” proton showers or 'young” neutrino showers.\r\nDr. Szadkowski has worked as a research scientist in Michigan Technological University, Associate Professor in College de France, Senior Wissenschaftler, Bergische Universität Wuppertal, and currently is working as the head of the Department of High-Energy Astrophysics and as an Associate Professor at the University of Łódź.",institutionString:"University of Łódź",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Łódź",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:[{id:"73971",title:"The Inter-Nucleon Up-to-Down Quark Bond and its Implications for Nuclear Binding",slug:"the-inter-nucleon-up-to-down-quark-bond-and-its-implications-for-nuclear-binding",totalDownloads:56,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50703",title:"DLC Thin Films and Carbon Nanocomposite Growth by Thermionic Vacuum Arc (TVA) Technology",doi:"10.5772/63367",slug:"dlc-thin-films-and-carbon-nanocomposite-growth-by-thermionic-vacuum-arc-tva-technology",body:'\nDiamond-like carbon (DLC) is an important form of amorphous carbon consisting of a mixture of both sp2 and sp3 coordinated carbon. It is also known that hydrogenated carbon films show a wide range of properties concerned with hardness (3000–5000 kg mm−2), chemical inertness, thermal conductivity, wear resistance (1.6 x 10−9 mm3/mN), low friction coefficients (0.1–0.2), electrical resistivity, optical transparency from ultraviolet to infrared, and tunable band gap by manipulating sp2 and sp3 bonding ratio [1–6].
\nUnfortunately, the widespread use of DLC thin films has been limited by poor adhesion of these films to substrates, because of large compressive stresses induced in the films during the deposition process. It has been reported that the residual stresses in these films arise from a change in the local chemical bonding and changes in bonding angle and bonding length, caused by the ions penetrating into the film surface during processing [3, 7, 8].
\nThe study of multiphase nanocomposite material involves that at least one of the constituent phases has one dimension less than 100 nm. The nanocomposite films are sought due to their multifunctionality, the opportunity of designing unique combinations of properties, difficult to achieve otherwise with traditional materials. The challenges in reaching this promise are tremendous especially in the case of carbon-based nanocomposites [9–11].
\nThin film depositions on specific substrates can totally alter the physical-chemical properties of the coated material, adding certain advantages. During the operation time of mechanical devices with moving parts, it is desirable to reduce friction between metallic or nonmetallic surfaces. The small variation of the friction coefficient both along the contact surface and during the operation process was attained. High imperviousness to temperatures in the range −200 to 450°C or even on broader domains, high resistance to dust particles and to corrosive action of active chemicals such as acids, bases, and the possibility to work without lubricants for a limited period of time in emergency cases are some of the properties of the obtained coatings. These results were confirmed by specific analyses [12, 13]. One of the goals accomplished with the use of these composite materials was to protect the devices against the damaging action of water and vapors thus increasing their operating lifetime. Also, an enhancement in the appearance of decorative parts was observed. Ternary deposition of these materials can reduce the surface wearing caused by the contact erosion, gripping, etc. and also helps avoiding the stick-slips. Also, the creaking between relatively moving parts was completely removed.
\nDue to the deposition process, the obtained coated part has a great resistance to applied pressure. From an economic point of view, the part production cost is reduced significantly due to the fact that the main body can be made of a bulk material with small fabrication cost on which an insignificant quantity of composite layers is deposited. These depositions can be used to enhance the characteristics of mechanical parts such as automotive parts, springs, arbors, gears, cranked axles, central pins, bearings, etc. These specific coatings must have certain characteristics such as resistance to abrasion, very good adherence to substrate, compatibility with the substrate both physically and chemically with no destructive attack of the substrate, lack of friction electric charge generation in order to avoid sparks, and explosions in organic chemical vapors [14]. An important aspect was related to the high wear resistance of the deposited materials. Materials used for the deposition must have the characteristics mentioned above and also present a certain consistency soft enough to allow compatibility with the substrate, to follow its form, and be adherent to it. Thus, the deposited materials used for this study must be both hard and soft.
\nIn this chapter, results on synthesis of DLC thin films and carbon nanocomposites by the versatile nanofabrication method based on plasma entitled thermionic vacuum arc (TVA) are reported.
\nThe Romanian original method, thermionic vacuum arc (TVA), has been studied and successfully used for the synthesis of a large range of metals, oxides, and carbon, as attested by published papers, patents, and internationally funded projects. There is a great potential for this method to become a powerful thin film technology for a large range of applications. Nanometer-scaled thin film deposition such as metals, alloys, DLC, and refractory metals such as W, Mo, Ta, Nb, Re, and B and also nanocomposites: binary C+Me, as well as ternary composites C+Me1+Me2 with low roughness, good smoothness, and low friction coefficient, could be synthesized in different TVA electrode configurations.
\nThe plasma arc discharge is obtained by the bombardment of electrons emitted by the filament from inside of a Wehnelt cylinder directed toward the anode. The material to be deposited from the crucible is heated until evaporation by those accelerated electrons. An increasing positive DC high voltage is applied on the anode, and consequently, the ions of the materials appear by fast electron neutral collisions. The degree of ionization increases due to the accelerated electrons that continuously vaporize the anode material and due to the collision with neutrals, at a certain value of the voltage, a bright plasma is ignited.
\nThe experimental setup for TVA method allows the simultaneous deposition of different materials, providing the possibility of obtaining multi-component thin films in a special two-electron gun configuration (Figure 1) or three-electron gun configuration (Figure 2). The electron guns are symmetrically arranged with respect to the holder mounted at an optimum distance on the central axis. The electric arc is ignited between the cathode and the anode material carbon or metal continuously evaporated by the electrons accelerated at high voltage and incident of the anode. The anode temperature of each element was adjusted in order to have comparable evaporation rates.
\nExperimental setup for binary films.
Experimental setup for ternary films.
The originality of the TVA method consists in the fact that the energy introduced into the system for ignition of the plasma is supplied simultaneously by an electron gun and a high-voltage source. The creation of the vapors is obtained by the electron bombardment of the anode material (e.g., carbon or metal) with electrons emitted by the filament and accelerated between the electrodes. The thin film is growing under the bombardment of incident energetic ions, besides the neutral atoms of the material to be deposited from the anode. Taking also into account the discharge performed in vacuum conditions, one of the great advantages of this method consists of its high degree of purity. Another advantage is related to the direct proportionality between the energy of ions and the cathode fall. The cathode is at ground potential so, with respect to the wall of vacuum vessel, the plasma potential is equal to the cathode fall. Therefore, for characteristic anode currents of 1 A, a potential difference equal to the cathode fall will accelerate the ions toward the walls of the vacuum vessel up to energy of 500 eV.
\nDLC of varying sp3/sp2 ratio was obtained by changing the deposition conditions. The sp3 phase is responsible for the high mechanical properties and the sp2 phase for the electron conductance properties of DLC films [15, 16]. It was found that in order to tune amorphous carbon to have a specific sp3 fraction, the following parameters of the TVA technology are essential: filament current (If), arc current (I), applied voltage (V), and the distance to the substrate (d). The influence of these plasma parameters on the preferential formation of sp3 sites was analyzed.
\nIn the case of carbon, the previous work proved that thermionic vacuum arc method can be used to produce smooth DLC films with relatively low growth stress and high nanohardness with a controlled final percentage of sp3 content, between 20–67%—depending on plasma parameters. It was found that the sp3:sp2 ratio is higher at higher applied voltage, when the plasma potential and consequently the carbon ion energy are higher [17].
\nThe extension of thermionic vacuum arc technology to coatings using gases or evaporable liquids as in the case of gaseous thermionic vacuum arc (GTVA) instead of solid materials is of great interest especially for DLC growth. While in the TVA method the anode is solid—a carbon rod—being suitable for practically any solid material, the GTVA method enables the growth of ultrathin and ultrapure DLC coatings using CH4 as gas precursor in vacuum conditions [18].
\nAlthough the principle is the same, there are main operational differences between the two forms of TVA technology (electrodes configuration, breakdown voltage, specific parameters), not pointed out in this chapter. Both type of discharges offer the following advantages for thin carbon layer depositions: high rate of evaporation up to 100 nm/min; no buffer gas is necessary; very low thermal energy transfer and very stable discharge conditions. The prepared thin film layers are smooth, compact, and of very fine structures; no cathode impurities can be found in deposited thin films; low mechanical stress of the deposited layer; and very good adherence.
\nThe deposition of a-C/DLC films have a rather high residual compressive stress which depends on the deposition method. The limit for practical application of a-C/DLC film high stress is caused by the weakening of film bonding to the substrate; thus, when reaching some critical thickness, the stress can result in the delamination of film from the substrate [19, 20].
\nFor this reason, the initial steps have been undertaken in this direction in order to optimize the structure of carbon-metal composite films and the interaction with other materials.
\nIt is well known that one way to alter the grain size of the material in a controlled way is by using the co-deposition of two materials. Practically, there is no limit for TVA deposition to combine two elements in order to obtain binary composites. A plenty of mixture based on carbon has been synthesized during the last years by the TVA method [21–24]. We will focus on the best combination for anticorrosion and wear resistance properties: C-Ag, C-Al, C-Cu, C-Ni, and C-Si.
\nAs a soft and ductile element, Cu, as well as Ag, embedded into the amorphous carbon matrix, may improve tribological properties such as lowering brittleness rates. C-Cu films are considered as high-technology materials due to their unique characteristics that have made them of particular interest in a wide variety of applications.
\nThe excellent properties of the Ag-incorporated carbon films can be related to the following: first, due to the face-centered cubic structured, Ag nanoparticle has a significantly smaller elastic modulus than carbon, which can absorb compressive stress from the carbon matrix [25, 26]. Meanwhile, the formation of bonds between the nanocrystallites and the matrix can be diminished due to an increase in toughness of composite film [27–29].
\nAlso, the C-Ag thin films present a high interest thanks to the prospect of various applications such as catalysts, optical filters, and photographic processes for biology and medicine [30, 31]. The incorporation of silver into carbon films offers the possibility to provide coatings that are hemocompatible and antibacterial [32–35].
\nAnother element Al is remarkable for its low density and for its ability to resist corrosion being less affected by environmental factors such as air and water and consequently being suitable for coating application in open air.
\nThe morphology (a), composition (b), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images after the tribological tests are as shown in Figure 3 for all these binary composites synthesized by the TVA method.
\nIn the same context, due to the high resistance to corrosion of Ni, it was found that C-Ni coatings on stainless steel were very effective in improving the wear resistance. Surface morphology analyzed using an AFM (Atomic Force Microscope) in tapping mode also shows a significant roughness of the coating. Figure 4a shows a typical image of the of a C-Ni sample (Ni concentration of about 40%), and the RMS - Root Mean Square roughness is of about 500 nm. In this case, C-Ni coating seems to have followed the substrate morphology creating a rough surface. However, for friction parameters this is actually beneficial for the retention of the lubricating liquid in the running-in phase or after long time nonoperating mode of the engine shaft.
\nTopographical images and compositional results for C-Ag, C-Al, and C-Cu films.
AFM and TEM images of C-Ni coating.
Figure 4b and c shows the images from the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) investigations of the C-Ni coatings. The structure of the upper layer presents tubular features with about 10 nm width and 50–100 nm length. These appear together with small grains with a lateral size of about 5 nm.
\nThe high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) image of the grains in the upper layer is presented in Figure 4d. One could see the crystalline structure in most of the grains, while the surrounding matrix is amorphous.
\nRegarding the frictional properties of the coatings, the tests were performed using a ball-on-disc tribometer provided by CSM INSTRUMENTS, in ambient atmosphere (~50% humidity and ~23°C). Using a dead weight, a load of 1 N was applied. Carbon-based binary composites were covering 25 mm diameter stainless steel discs, and the counterpart was a 6-mm ball-bearing steel. The track radii were 3 and 4 mm, respectively, and the sliding speed was about 5 mm/s. A total of approximately 10 m of sliding was performed in about 30 min. Recorded friction coefficient (on a PC) was studied using OM (Optical Microscope). As shown in Figure 5, the coefficient of friction of the prepared films drastically decreased about three to five times compared to those of the initial substrate (stainless steel) or with pure Ni coatings.
\nFrictional behavior of C-Ni coatings.
Due to the ion bombardment in the TVA technique, compact C-Ni films with no columnar structure were formed on stainless still surface, while irregular and hemisphere-type protuberance C-Cu films were obtained on the same substrate surfaces. In principle, the surface roughness could be further optimized by adjusting the deposition parameters (such as the intensity of the filament heating current, the introduced electrical power and the anode-cathode distance, and the distance between the anodes and the substrate). Measured coefficients of friction of the C-Me (for Me concentration in the range of 30–40%) by using a CSM pin-on-disc tribometer in dry sliding overlays were found to be reduced by a factor of 3 to 5, compared with that of the stainless steel used as substrate or covered with a pure metal [36].
\nUsing the thermionic vacuum arc deposition method, ternary thin film structures with improved physical properties for industrial applications were obtained for the first time. Properties such as resistance to abrasion, good adherence, high hardness, low friction, and a strong compatibility with the coated material were observed. In order to obtain these characteristics, a mixture of C, Al, and Si was deposited on different substrate glass, silicon, and OLC45. Carbon was used in this mixture for its high lubrication of the composite layer and high resistance against chemical and corrosive environment attack. In combination with aluminum, it ensured the lubrication and a low-friction coefficient value of the thin film.
\nOn the contrary, silicon is a very attractive material: tough, with low friction, second only to diamond in wear resistance. For this reason, C-Si has excellent properties such as high strength and hardness, thermal and chemical stability, oxidation resistance, high melting point, high erosion resistance, etc. All of these properties make CSi a perfect material for high power, high temperature electronic devices as well as cutting and abrasion applications. Silicon carbide is composed of tetrahedral carbon and silicon atoms with strong bonds in the crystal lattice [37].
\nThe deposition took place under high vacuum conditions. During this phase, the parts were rotated in order to assure a uniform coating. Both carbon and silicon were deposited using the TVA method [38] by igniting a plasma in their pure vapors. The third material aluminum was deposited using a thermal evaporation setup. This setup allows for a smoother control of the deposition rate than in the case of the TVA setup for this material. One of the advantages offered by TVA technique consists in using punctual evaporation sources which allow for a large variety of elemental concentration for ternary depositions by positioning the samples in respect with the sources [39]. The lack of any gaseous inclusion inside the deposition layer due to extremely high vacuum conditions is another advantage offered by TVA deposition method [40]. All these aspects mentioned above are essential for obtaining high-quality depositions.
\nSEM image of the C-Si-Al film deposited on silicon (left) substrate and wear image (right).
TEM images (left) with particles selection for statistic determination and grain size distribution (right) of the deposited films on different substrates.
SEM and EDS measurements were performed to observe the surface morphology and atomic relative concentration distribution of the three elements inside the film. The SEM image revealed the granular nanocomposition of the film (Figure 6). In spite of the fact that EDS (Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy) investigation does not offer information on depth profile since it incorporates the signal of the strained electrons, it can offer exact information on structure. The relative concentrations of the film components determined by EDS investigation were estimated at 58% C, 9% Al, and 30% Si. The increased C content in the film was obtained due to the chosen deposition parameters. The oxygen concentration was estimated to be 2%. This contamination was attributed to the post-deposition exposure of the samples to atmospheric air. We can argue that EDS is not a reliable method for determining silicon content of the C-Si-Al films due to the fact that the high silicon concentration could be attributed to the substrate.
\nTEM images (Figure 7) were fitted with radial distribution functions, and so the peaks were obtained Using log-normal function for the polycrystalline materials. Using the values obtained at some selected crystallites, the histogram is performed for Feret-like diameters.
\nTEM analysis confirmed an amorphous-like structure for the samples coated on glass and OLC45 substrates, and a crystalline structure for the samples coated on silicon, certifying the role of the substrate structure on the deposition atomic arrangement.
\nMicro hardness measurements at 10 mN load.
The film hardness was determined by nanoindentation measurements. Figure 8 (right) shows the result of seven measurements performed on C-Si-Al using a 10-mN force at different depths [Figure 8 (left)]. Thus, film hardness is very high with values between 3600 and 5000 N/mm2 (~3.6–5.0 GPa).
\nFor tribological characterization, systematic measurements were performed using a ball-on-disc tribometer made by CSM Switzerland, with normal force of 1N, 3N, and 5 N, respectively, a stainless steel ball with a diameter of 6 mm, a dry sliding distance of 100 m, and linear speed of 20cm/s (Figure 9). For C-Si-Al composite films, the friction coefficient exhibited values 2–3 times lower than that of the uncoated substrates. An increasing tendency of the friction coefficient with the increase of the applied force was noticed. At 3 N, the film friction coefficient becomes equal with the value for the substrate. Over this value of applied force, film friction coefficient continues to increase.
\nComparative view of the friction coefficient of substrate (OLC45) and of CSiAl film deposited on the substrate at different loading forces.
Depth profile of the wearing traces after tribological characterization.
The wear rate was estimated for 3 N and 5 N loading forces based on depth-profile measurements performed on the wearing traces. The wear rate was 1.23E-05 mm3 /Nm for a force of 3N, while for 5 N it is higher: 6.16E-05 mm3 /Nm. These values indicate a good behavior of the deposited layers under working conditions. Due to high substrate roughness, the rate for 1N load could not be calculated.
\nFigure 10 presents the depth profile of the wearing traces after the tribological characterization. The roughness was determined by AFM analysis, with a range of 20–34 nm, confirming along with SEM measurements the nanometric granular structure of the obtained thin film. SEM investigations show a high-quality film surface, without major defects.
\nWetting of solid substrates by liquids is a fundamental phenomenon with relevance to both the technological and natural worlds. Applications include the spreading behavior of liquid coatings as well as chemical reactors and thus the understanding and characterization of the solid surfaces wettability is of great interest. The wettability of solid-fluid-vapor interfacial phenomena is determined by the estimation of the contact angle between a solid surface and a liquid drop. This measurement is often used, being a useful and sensitive tool for assessing the wettability of a surface, the solid surface energy, and liquid surface tension [41, 42].
\nThe contact angles and free surface energy were determined by means of Surface Energy Evaluation system (SEE System). The device is based on the usage of a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera, which observes a liquid drop on the studied surface, by using sessile drop method. The tangent angle of the drop with the solid surface is measured by selecting three points on the contour of the drop, two for solid-liquid, and one for liquid-vapor interfaces.
\nDrop profile and tangent angle of the drop with the solid surface.
This technique is generally applied only to low-energy solid surfaces, as most available liquids as water and ethylene glycol have relatively low surface tensions and wet solids with higher surface energy [43].
\nIn Figure 11, the tangent angle of the drop with the solid surface defined as “contact angle” method is presented. It can be interpreted as a mechanical force balance on the three-phase contact line; the surface tension is an energy per unit area, equivalent to a force per unit length acting on the contact line. Horizontal balance of forces is given by Young equation:\n
In order to perform the measurements, the samples were set on a holder in front of the CCD camera, and the static contact angles were measured from the front view. The averaged results were calculated from 10 values and measured on different location on sample, and the drop volume was of 0.4 μl. The constant small volume of the drops used for the measurements is necessary in order to minimize the gravitational effect.
\nThe water contact angles Θ results on the thin films are plotted in Figure 12. These results were further analyzed using Owens Wendt method, which allows us to determine the electron-donor and electron-acceptor parameters of the free surface energy. The total free surface energy is a sum of polar (γAB) and dispersion (γLW) components:\n
Contact angle measurements.
Comparative view of surface-free energies.
where γLW refers to the total Lifshitz-Van der Walls interaction and γAB refers to the acid-base interaction [15, 44]. The comparative view of the surface free energy values calculated is presented in Figure 13.
\nThe surface free energy can be different from sample to sample due to the nonuniformity of the samples. In order to reduce this, we take instants of the drops for the various liquids used on one sample only, and we calculate the contact angle from these instants.
\nImages of droplet-stilled water on different thin films.
Typical image frames acquired by the image analysis system described are displayed in Figure 14. The figure shows a printout of the side view for a sample during experimental measurement for stilled water on the substrate. These data were digitalized and measured using the software, the omissions of other images obtained, for ethylene glycol, were deliberate to avoid redundancy of images.
\nContact angle can reflect the wettability of the materials, and it is influenced by many aspects such as surface characters, roughness, and temperature. Roughness was affected by manufacture craft of the substrate material; however, surface free energy was variable because surface free energy represented the interface molecular between materials and the analyzing liquid. The values of the contact angle reported above indicate a hydrophobic character of the surfaces except for the CSi thin film that has a hydrophilic character.
\nThe TVA deposition technique has been successfully used to obtain thin films that presented high purity, low roughness, and good adhesion on the substrates. Also, it is suitable for obtaining carbon-containing binary and ternary composite structures.
\nThe combined deposition of carbon and metal improves basically the film adhesion and the friction coefficient. The structure of C-Me films changes with the metal and its content, as verified by TEM and EDS analysis. HRTEM images and SAED (Selected Area Electron Diffraction) reveal that C-Me structures consist of a distribution of nanocrystallites embedded within an amorphous matrix.
\nFrom the tribological analysis, the friction coefficient of the ternary structure showed a 2–3 times decrease with a slight increasing tendency in the range of 0.17–0.58 with an increase in loading force compared with the uncoated substrates. The calculated wear rate was in the range 1.23×10−5 and 6.16×10−5 mm3/Nm. The ternary structure hardness was high in the range 3600 to 5000 N/mm2, decreasing with the depth measurement increase.
\nMaterial characteristics presented here enhance the mechanical parts with special features such as higher resistance to wearing and gripping and excellent conformity of the layer with the geometry of the coated parts. These results could have a great impact on the development of advanced materials and many manufacturing industries, as well as expanding the technologically important field of interface science where the control of the film-substrate interface would be critical.
\nThis work was supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research, CNDI–UEFISCDI, project number 160/2012, PN-II-PT-PCCA-2011-3.2-1453.
\nThe integration of nanotechnology with biology and bioengineering has produced many advances with the manipulation of well-defined structures at the nanoscale with high accuracy. DNA molecules can be used for the assembly of devices, for the interconnect joints, or as the device element itself. Sequence-specific DNA detection has been applied in the diagnosis of pathogenic and genetic diseases. The unique physical properties of dots or wires with the remarkable recognition capabilities of DNA could lead to the miniaturization of biological electronics and optical devices, which includes the biosensors and probes. Numerous advantages of nano- and micro-biodevices include the separation technologies, HPLC and capillary electrophoretic separation of DNA, nanopillar devices for the ultra-fast separation of DNA and proteins, nanoball materials for the fast separation of wide range of DNA fragments and the nanowire devices for ultra-fast separation of DNA, RNA, and proteins. The studies about these devices have been carried out by Prof. Yoshinobu Baba and the research group [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. The nanopillar, nanowall, nanoslit, and nanopore structures were designed by the top down or semiconductor nano-fabrication technology, while the nanoball, nanowire, nanoparticles and the quantum dot structures are designed by the use of bottom up or self-assembled nano-fabrication technology. These devices are shown in Figure 1.
\n(a) Device design of nanopillar and (b) nanobiodevices with nanopore, nanopillar, nanowire and nanowell. Adapted from Ref. [1].
DNA exhibits many other properties; as high stability, adjustable conductance, vast information storage, self-organising capability and programmability. So it is considered as an ideal material for the applications of nanodevices, nanoelectronics and molecular computing. There are several advantages to use DNA for these device designs. The first step of the DNA-based nanotechnology is to attach DNA molecules to the surfaces. It can be done by three different methods: by electrostatic interaction between DNA and a substrate, covalent binding of a chemical group attached to the DNA end and the binding of protein attached at the DNA end to the corresponding antibody immobilized at the surface. Seeman and co-workers [13] have exploited the properties of DNA’s molecular recognition to design complex mesoscopic structures based solely on DNA. They used the branched DNA to form stick figures by properly choosing the sequence of the complementary strands. Further macrocycles, DNA quadrilateral, DNA knots, Holliday junctions, and other periodic crystal structures were also designed. DNA-mediated self-assembly of nanostructures has been extended to metallic nanowires [14, 15, 16]. In a study, DNA as a template was used to grow conducting silver nanowires [14]. The fabrication of gold and silver wires was used with the DNA as a template or skeleton [15]. Nguyen et al. developed an approach for the attachment of DNA to oxidatively open the ends of multiwall carbon nanotube arrays [17]. The carbon wall nanotubes can be used as electrodes to transmit electrical signals or as sensors to detect the concentration of chemical or biological materials [18, 19, 20]. Efficient DNA delivery is vital for the gene therapy, DNA vaccination and the advancement of other clinical therapies. Molecular devices are highly desirable as they can rapidly accumulate and displace electrons/charges within the nanoscale structures, and are sensitive to the changes in the physicochemical and biological environments. DNA logic gates can also constructed from the concepts based on the DNA tweezers [21]. Molecular wires and/or machines resemble electronic memory units can be made by cost-effective and low-energy technologies, so that they can provide the environmental friendly solutions. DNA origami has gained much attention recently because of its potential to direct the formation of predefined 2D or 3D DNA structures at the nanoscale [22].
\nDNA nanomachines can also be fuelled by enzymes or DNA [23, 24]. An enzyme-operated DNA-switch was proposed recently [24]. DNA-protein conjugates were widely applied in the development of immunoassays, biosensors, micro-chips and molecular devices [25]. A field effect transistor was also designed, based on the DNA base deoxyguanosine derivative [26]. The replacement of the natural bases can be carried out by the artificial nucleosides or nucleoside mimics [27]. Metal ions (Cu2+, Pd2+, and Ag+) have been successfully incorporated as artificial DNA bases into the oligonucleotides [28]. Ni-DNA nanowires exhibit the characteristics of memristors, find potential application in mass information storage system [12]. The Ni-DNA device structure is given in Figure 2.
\nNi-DNA nanobiodevice structure. Adapted from Ref. [12].
Assembling the biomolecules and microorganisms into a desired architecture has offered new routes to the fabrication of nanomaterials [29, 30]. DNA nanowires can be used as a template to fabricate functional nanomaterials and as a platform for genetic analysis [31, 32, 33]. These nanowires associate with an aqueous solution of DNA molecules, where capillary forces of the solution at a receding meniscus act to stretch and immobilize the molecules on a solid surface [34]. Yet the widespread use is still hindered due to the limited control over the size, geometry, and alignment of the nanowires. Hence to manipulate the size, geometry, and alignment of nanowires, efforts has been needed to control the evaporation of the solutions by adjusting the experimental parameters, such as: concentration and temperature, or by applying external forces that move the droplets in the desired direction [35, 36, 37].
\nNovel conductive DNA-based nanomaterial, DNA-peptide wire composed of a DNA core and a peripheral peptide layer, is used for the wide variety of nano electronic and biosensor applications. The electrical conductivity of these wires is higher than the native double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). These wires produce high conductivity and better resistance to the mechanical deformations caused by the interactions between the substrate and electrode surface. Porath et al. [38] has studied the electrical transport through short (10 nm) dsDNA molecules deposited between platinum nanoelectrodes at different temperatures, confirming the reproducible semiconducting behavior with a gap [39, 40].
\nElectrical studies indicate that the charge transport in DNA is dominated by holes due to the position of the HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital) and LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) levels of DNA with respect to the Fermi energy of the coinage metal contacts (e.g., Au and Pt), though the photo physical studies indicate the transportation of both hole and electron in DNA [41]. As a result, DNA molecule behaves as a p-type nanowire [42]. The representation of conductive silver nanowires and nanoparticles NPs attached on the DNA origami are given in Figure 3.
\n(a) The construction of conductive silver nanowires, (b) PVD metal deposition on the alignment of DNA NW, (c) RNA functionalized AuNPs and (d) (1) DNA origami molds with Au nanoparticles and (2) nanoparticles NPs attached on the DNA origami. Adapted from Ref. [40].
The charge transport is explained by three main mechanisms: single-step-electron-tunnelling, thermal hopping, and domain hopping [43]. The charge transport in DNA occurs predominantly through the guanine bases due to their lowest electrochemical oxidation potential. When the DNA is absorbed on the surface, the conformations are affected by the van der Waals, electrostatic, and hydrophobic interactions within the substrate. Further the behaviour of DNA is affected by the DNA sequences, substrate and contact properties, temperature and humidity [44, 45, 46]. Recently, studies were conducted on the electrical measurements on guanine quadruplex DNA (G4-DNA), which is uniform in composition, consist of only G-nucleotides and it was observed that G4-DNA exhibit a greater bending rigidity compared to the dsDNA. Several techniques have been developed for contacting the nanowires with the combination of bottom-up and top-down strategies. These are:
Lithographically defined contacts and in situ/ex situ I–V measurements
Conductive AFM measurements
DNA Origami-based metal nanostructures
DNA acts as a promising material for biomolecular nanotechnology due to its unique recognition capabilities, physicochemical stability, mechanical rigidity and high precision processibility. Significant progress has been made in this field, but it is still in the early stages. The catalytic, electrical, magnetic, and electrochemical properties of such structures can be systematically investigated and will represent the new frontiers in this field. Various DNA-based nanostructures, including DNA itself, DNA functionalized with metal and semiconductor nanoparticles, DNA-directed nanowires, and DNA-functionalized carbon nanotubes are used in wider application for biological and medical applications. Due to the present applicability of DNA structures, these properties should be properly studied to provide an access to the new and useful electronic and photonic materials. The development of DNA nanowires has recently focussed its attention in three aspects: (1) customising the sequence of nucleic acids for better electrical conductivity with reduced mismatch pair complexes, (2) stacking targeted double-helical backbone for stable and rigid nanowires, and (3) interconnection of discrete DNA origami structures [47]. Though researches have been carried out for the achievement of these targets, the cost of experimental synthesis need to be address in near future.
\nRS acknowledges the financial assistance by the DST WOS-A (SR/WOS-A/CS-69/2018). RS is also thankful to her mentor Dr. Shrish Tiwari, Bioinformatics Department, CSIR—Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad for the support.
\nAuthors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\\n\\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\\n\\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\\n\\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\\n\\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\\n\\nQi Xie 2016-18
\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nYuekun Lai
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\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\n\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
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\n\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\n\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\n\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\n\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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USA, CRC Press Taylor & Francis, Asia Pacific, Trans Tech Publications Ltd., Switzerland, and Materials Science Forum, USA. He is a member of various editorial boards serving as associate editor for journals such as Environmental Chemistry Letter, Applied Water Science, Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, Springer-Nature, Scientific Reports-Nature, and the editor of Eurasian Journal of Analytical Chemistry.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"99002",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Koontongkaew",slug:"koontongkaew",fullName:"Koontongkaew",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Thammasat University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"156647",title:"Dr.",name:"A K M Mamunur",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"a-k-m-mamunur-rashid",fullName:"A K M Mamunur Rashid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"MBBS, DCH, MD(Paed.), Grad. Cert. P. Rheum.(UWA, Australia), FRCP(Edin.)",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Khulna Medical College",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"234696",title:"Prof.",name:"A K M Mominul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a-k-m-mominul-islam",fullName:"A K M Mominul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/a043Y00000cA8dpQAC/Co2_Profile_Picture-1588761796759",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Mominul Islam received both of his bachelor's and Master’s degree from Bangladesh Agricultural University. After that, he joined as Lecturer of Agronomy at Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, Bangladesh, and became Professor in the same department of the university. Dr. Islam did his second Master’s in Physical Land Resources from Ghent University, Belgium. He is currently serving as a postdoctoral researcher at the Department of Horticulture & Landscape Architecture at Purdue University, USA. Dr. Islam has obtained his Ph.D. degree in Plant Allelopathy from The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Japan. The dissertation title of Dr. Islam was “Allelopathy of five Lamiaceae medicinal plant species”. Dr. Islam is the author of 38 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, 1 book chapter, and 3 books. He is a member of the editorial board and referee of several national and international journals. He is supervising the research of MS and Ph.D. students in areas of Agronomy. 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Omar obtained\nhis Bachelor degree in electrical and\nelectronics engineering from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2002, Master of Science in electronics\nengineering from Open University\nMalaysia in 2008 and PhD in optical physics from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2012. His research mainly\nfocuses on the development of optical\nand electronics systems for spectroscopy\napplication in environmental monitoring,\nagriculture and dermatology. He has\nmore than 10 years of teaching\nexperience in subjects related to\nelectronics, mathematics and applied optics for\nuniversity students and industrial engineers.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"191072",title:"Prof.",name:"A. K. M. Aminul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a.-k.-m.-aminul-islam",fullName:"A. K. M. Aminul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191072/images/system/191072.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Aminul Islam received both of his bachelor and Master’s degree from Bangladesh Agricultural University. After that he joined as Lecturer of Genetics and Plant Breeding at Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh and became Professor in the same department of the university. He is currently serving as Director (Research) of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh. Dr. Islam has obtained his Ph D degree in Chemical and Process Engineering from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. The dissertation title of Dr. Islam was “Improvement of Biodiesel Production through Genetic Studies of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.)”. Dr. Islam is the author of 98 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, 11 book chapters and 3 books. He is a member of editorial board and referee of several national and international journals. He is also serving as the General Secretary of Plant Breeding and Genetics Society of Bangladesh, Seminar and research Secretary of JICA Alumni Association of Bangladesh and member of several professional societies. Prof. Islam acted as Principal Breeder in the releasing system of BU Hybrid Lau 1, BU Lau 1, BU Capsicum 1, BU Lalshak 1, BU Baromashi Seem 1, BU Sheem 1, BU Sheem 2, BU Sheem 3 and BU Sheem 4. He supervised 50 MS and 3 Ph D students. Prof. Islam currently supervising research of 5 MS and 3 Ph D students in areas Plant Breeding & Seed Technologies. Conducting research on development of hybrid vegetables, hybrid Brassica napus using CMS system, renewable energy research with Jatropha curcas.",institutionString:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"322225",title:"Dr.",name:"A. K. M. Aminul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a.-k.-m.-aminul-islam",fullName:"A. K. M. Aminul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Aminul Islam received both of his bachelor's and Master’s degree from Bangladesh Agricultural University. After that he joined as Lecturer of Genetics and Plant Breeding at Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh, and became Professor in the same department of the university. He is currently serving as Director (Research) of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh. Dr. Islam has obtained his Ph.D. degree in Chemical and Process Engineering from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. The dissertation title of Dr. Islam was 'Improvement of Biodiesel Production through Genetic Studies of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.)”. Dr. Islam is the author of 99 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, 11 book chapters, 3 books, and 20 proceedings and conference paper. He is a member of the editorial board and referee of several national and international journals. He is also serving as the General Secretary of Plant Breeding and Genetics Society of Bangladesh, Seminar, and research Secretary of JICA Alumni Association of Bangladesh and a member of several professional societies. Prof. Islam acted as Principal Breeder in the releasing system of BU Hybrid Lau 1, BU Lau 1, BU Capsicum 1, BU Lalshak 1, BU Baromashi Seem 1, BU Sheem 1, BU Sheem 2, BU Sheem 3 and BU Sheem 4. He supervised 50 MS and 3 PhD students. Prof. Islam currently supervising the research of 5 MS and 3 PhD students in areas Plant Breeding & Seed Technologies. Conducting research on the development of hybrid vegetables, hybrid Brassica napus using CMS system, renewable energy research with Jatropha curcas.",institutionString:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"91977",title:"Dr.",name:"A.B.M. Sharif",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"a.b.m.-sharif-hossain",fullName:"A.B.M. Sharif Hossain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"97123",title:"Prof.",name:"A.M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Sharif Ullah",slug:"a.m.m.-sharif-ullah",fullName:"A.M.M. 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In 2002, he took up the position of Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the United Arab Emirates (UAE) University. He was promoted to Associate Professor in 2006 at the UAE University. He moved to his current employer in 2009. His research field is product realization engineering (design, manufacturing, operations, and sustainability). He teaches design and manufacturing related courses at undergraduate and graduate degree programs. He has been mentoring a large number of students for their senior design projects and theses. He has published more than 90 papers in refereed journals, edited books, and international conference proceedings. He made more than 35 oral presentations. 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