\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to provide the readers with an understanding of the characteristics of the crisis itself, recognize the wide range and multi-layer of the crisis from a real situation, give ideas on how to minimize the damage, and find ways to increase resilience in the future. To adapt to the rapidly and diversely changing world, the necessary experience and appropriate management for all kinds of crisis issues will be discussed as well. At the same time, it is intended to suggest elements such as verified scientific and empirical knowledge and applicable technologies; more effective risk management operation; modeling of the risks, manuals, management plans, and strategies.
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Nanotechnology is undoubtedly the most promising research arena that has deeply influenced biotechnology and medicinal fields and can be considered as the prime technology of the 21st century. Not only biological endeavors, nanotechnology facilitates innovative techniques and applications in electronics, computer science, and aerospace technology also. In the present socioeconomical scenario, nanotechnology can play a significant role in solving many health and environmental issues. “Nano” is a Latin word meaning “dwarf” and technically, an object having one dimension in nano size is considered a nanomaterial. At nanoscale, the physicochemical properties of a substance change drastically like surface area enhancement; changes in thermal and optical properties and dominance of quantum effect are associated with the conversion of a substance to nanoscale. The concept of nanotechnology was first described by physicist Richard P. Fenyman in 1959 and the term nanotechnology itself was coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1974.
From its evolution, to date, nanotechnology has marked its significant presence in diverse areas of medicines, biology, electronics, space research, and agriculture.
In the field of medical science and health care sector, nanotechnology intervention has created a new field called “nanomedicine.” The most prominent areas of nanotechnology application in pharmaceutical industry include drug delivery, biosensors, and diagnostic imaging. Different nanoparticles (metal, polymeric, liposomes, and dendrimers) already have well-established applications in drug delivery and disease diagnostics, but in this chapter we will mainly focus on the applications of graphene quantum dots (GQDs) in drug delivery and bioimaging.
In general, a quantum dot (QD) is a semiconductor crystal in the size range of 1–10 nm. Due to their specific size range, QD exhibits quantum phenomena that yield significant benefits in optical properties. It is a well-known fact that on excitation, smaller the size of QD higher will be the energy and intensity of emitted light. QDs can be derived from metals (gold), semiconductors (e.g., selenium, cadmium, etc.), or carbon-based materials (carbon dots and graphene). Due to their specific properties, QDs are used as photodiodes and have a wide range of applications in analytical chemistry but the potential toxicity associated with semiconductor quantum dots prevents their applicability in biology and medicine. This limitation of QDs was the prime driving source for finding out new alternatives, and with the advancement in nanotechnology, quantum dots fabricated from graphene evolved as a more biocompatible source for biomedical applications. Graphene is a carbon-allotrope, zero-band-gap, two-dimensional (2D) sheet of a single layer sp2-hybridized carbon with excellent thermoelectric properties [1, 2]. First, its properties were studied by R. Wallace in 1947 [3], and Hoffman et al. isolated pure graphene from graphene oxide via hydrazine reduction in 1963 [4]. The name “graphene” was given by Mouras et al. in 1987 [5]. Though initial discoveries on graphene were mostly unnoticed, it is only after the groundbreaking work by Geim and Novoselov in isolating graphene from highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) that huge interest in research was ignited exploring the properties of graphene [2].
GQDs, first reported by Peng et al., are zero-dimensional graphene segments that are small enough to exhibit quantum confinement and size effect. Unlike graphene sheets, they exhibit band gap that is responsible for their unique electrical and optoelectronic properties. Moreover, GQDs also possess size-dependent strong photoluminescence properties [6–9]. These are relatively new nano-dimension entities with a size range between 1 and 10 nm, having a “molecule-like structure,” nontoxic, and can be easily handled compared with colloidal QDs. GQDs are gradually attaining significance due to their potential applications in sensors, electronics, and biology from the standpoint of less health concerns than their traditional semiconductor counterparts due to their less toxicity, ease of functionalization, and favorable electro-optic properties [10–12].
To date, remarkable progress has been made in developing new synthesis methodology for graphene quantum dots. There are two broad synthesis approaches for GQDs that can be classified as top-down and bottom-up methods. The first route is based on the cleavage and exfoliation of bulk graphene-based material (graphite) under harsh conditions. In the bottom-up approach, GQDs are mostly prepared from polycyclic aromatic compounds or molecules with aromatic structures.
Though the top-down method is more cost effective having multiple synthesis steps, harsh reaction conditions and lack of morphological control are the major shortcomings associated with this method. However, the prime advantage with this approach is that GQDs obtained by this method have oxygen-containing functional groups influencing the solubility and functionalization of GQDs. Bottom-up approaches give precise control on morphology, size, and shape but still suffer from disadvantages like need for expensive precursors and complex synthesis steps. GQDs synthesized by this method have a strong tendency of aggregation that limits the applicability of this approach. In this segment, a brief overview of recent approaches for GQD synthesis will be given.
The basic route of implementing top-down methods is either chemical reactions or physical methods. Based on their mechanism, these approaches can be described as “defect-mediated fragmentation processes.” Mostly, chemical approaches are applied due to some distinguished benefits. Generally, graphene oxide (GO) is cleaved to generate GQDs, and chemical methods generate defects due to the presence of oxygen-containing reactive epoxy and hydroxyl groups. The reactive groups generate a cleavage site, thus allowing GO sheets to be cut into smaller sheets [13]. During the oxidation procedure of graphene, epoxy groups appear linearly on the carbon lattice and this alignment causes the cleavage of C–C bond. The emergence of epoxy groups on GO makes it energetically favorable to convert these groups into stable carbonyl pairs at room temperature. Graphene sheets become fragile due to these chemical transformation and defects and can be readily attacked by chemicals to generate GQDs. The presence of aromatic sp2 domains having epoxy groups on graphene, GO, carbon black, and carbon nanotubes makes them excellent starting candidates for GQD synthesis.
Particle size of GQDs and formation mechanisms are deeply influenced by hydrothermal synthesis. Water, as a green solvent used in this procedure, is a key player in atom-economical reactions [14]. These methods generally require a high amount of strong alkali (NaOH and ammonia) for cutting carbon precursors into GQDs. First, Pan et al. reported this method to synthesize water-soluble blue luminescent quantum dots. The diameter of QDs was 5–13 nm and they exhibited strong fluorescence in alkali conditions, while in acidic conditions the fluorescence got quenched. The basic synthesis step involved was the oxidation of graphite to GO that produces epoxy groups, which cause the rupture of C–C bonds. Further, these epoxy groups are oxidized into stable carbonyl groups responsible for the water dispersiblity of GQDs as shown in Figure 1. Later, Pan et al. put forth a modified high-temperature synthesis procedure to synthesize fine crystalline GQDs with green fluorescence [14, 15].
Synthesis mechanism of GQDs via cutting of graphite sheets. This was a multistep process and GQDs were prepared by the reduction of epoxy groups generated in oxidation and cutting step. (Ref [
In recent years, graphene-based materials have seen extensive applications in the field of electronics, pollution treatment, solar cells, Li-ion batteries, and sensing. The modification of graphene by nitrogen or boron doping significantly amends its optical and electronic properties. Similarly, a change in photoluminescence and electric properties can be attained by tuning the band gap of GQDs [16].
Hydrothermal approach deeply influences the size and morphology of GQDs. In one report, Tetsuka et al. [17] synthesized amine-functionalized graphene quantum dots (NH2-GQDs) using oxidized graphene sheets and ammonia using this method by bond–scission reaction. Concentration variation of ammonia played a key role in controlling the luminescence of GQDs from violet to yellow. The nucleophilic substitution upon ammonia addition to graphene triggered the reaction of ring-opening epoxide, and sp2 domains were cut out to generate amino-functionalized GQDs of 2.5 nm size and 1.1 nm thickness (Figure 2). In this series, few researchers have reported altered optical properties of GQDs after functionalization with polymers or small molecules. Feng et al. have put forth their idea of fluorinated GQDs (F-GQDs) prepared by hydrothermal procedure. Xenon difluoride was utilized for fluorinated graphene synthesis at high temperatures and then F-GQDs were obtained by hydrothermal procedure [18].
Illustration of hydrothermal synthesis of amino-functionalized GQDs. (Ref [
Hu et al. [19] came up with a new methodology by synthesizing nitrogen-doped GQDs (N-GQDs) from oxidized debris (ODs) on graphene oxide by the hydrothermal treatment of GO at 180°C in the presence of ammonia without any strong acid treatment. The as-prepared N-GQDs were highly blue luminescent, 2–6 nm in size, with a quantum yield (QY) of 24.6. Aqueous route and novel application of ODs for the synthesis of N-GQDs were the major highlights of their work. The prime advantage associated with this approach was its cost effectiveness due to aqueous reaction conditions in the absence of any surface-passivation agent or strong acids. Liu et al. and Zhang and coworkers also reported similar procedures for the synthesis of functionalized GQDs [20, 21]. Recently, Nigam et al. have reported a novel reducing agent Lawsone for hydrothermal synthesis of GQDs of 3-6 nm size and green fluorescence from graphene oxide reduction. The GQDs were stable and showed good biocompatibility at higher concentrations [22]. In another approach, Shen et al. prepared surface-passivated GQDs from hydrazine hydrate reduction of GO that were further passivated by poly(ethylene glycol) diamine (PEG1500N) as depicted in Figure 3. By this method, they obtained GQDs of broad diameter in the range of 5–19 nm with blue fluorescence; hence, they further modified the procedure, and the GQDs were synthesized via one-pot hydrothermal synthesis route using GO and PEG as starting materials. The basic advantage of PEG-surface passivation was high photoluminescence (PL) quantum yield, better photon-to-electron conversion, and improved unconverted PL properties than native GQDs [23].
Synthesis of surface-passivated GQDs with hydrazine hydrate reduction and surface passivation by PEG1500N. (Ref. [
In solvothermal reaction, organic solvents (dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), dimethylformamide (DMF), and benzene) are utilized instead of water to obtain GQDs. The size and morphology of the GQDs are greatly influenced by the physicochemical properties of solvents. In a recent approach reported by Zhu et al. [24], DMF was used as a solvent to split graphene oxide into green fluorescent GQDs under ultrasonication followed by heating at 200°C in a Teflon autoclave. Column chromatography on silica gel was performed to obtain GQDs instead of dialysis treatment with water as eluent. As an improvisation, they later increased the reaction time to 8 h using methanol/methylene chloride and water as mobile phase for GQD synthesis [25]. Shin et al. put forth a new solvothermal approach based on novel acid-free and oxone-oxidant-assisted synthesis of GQDs using various natural carbon resources, including graphite, multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), carbon fibers (CFs), and charcoal (C) [26].
Hydrothermal/solvothermal techniques are the most applied processes for GQD synthesis, but due to their tedious synthesis protocols, researchers have reported a few procedures based on microwave-assisted synthesis as this technique has the advantage of both hydrothermal and microwave processes. In a recent work by Luk et al., nitrogen-doped GQDs (N-GQDs) were prepared by mixing 3 wt% of glucose dissolved in aqueous ammonia (25%) at room temperature. The homogeneous solution was heated in a microwave reactor (300 W power) for 5 min at 180°C. Using this method, GQDs with 6 nm size and excitation-dependent luminescence spectra were obtained. Upconversion emission spectrum was another important feature of their work. According to their findings, nitrogen doping played the key role in two-photon luminescence [27]. Recently, a one-step-microwave-assisted solvothermal method for fabricating sulfur- and nitrogen-doped GQDs (S-, N-GQDs) has been reported based on the reaction of GO and reduced glutathione in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) at 200° C under microwave irradiation [28].
Tang et al. have reported glucose-derived GQDs through a microwave-assisted hydrothermal (MAH) approach. The basic advantage of this method was uniform heating that produced particles of small sizes. The authors have synthesized GQDs of average size of 4 nm. Based on the microwave heating time, GQDs of varying sizes were obtained [29].
In another approach, Li et al. [30] have developed a method for facile microwave-assisted synthesis of two-color GQDs in acidic conditions. Figure 4 shows the schematic of basic steps involved in the synthesis procedure. Greenish yellow luminescent GQDs (gGQDs) of average size 4–5 nm were obtained. The as-synthesized GQDs were further moderately reduced with NaBH4, and blue GQDs were produced with the same dimensions. The quantum yield of blue and green GQDs was 23% and 12%, respectively.
Schematic of synthesis of green and blue GQDs. (Ref [
Ultrasonication is a simpler procedure to prepare GQDs, because of the fact that ultrasound can generate alternating low-pressure and high-pressure waves in liquid that can be useful for shearing the carbon layer materials into GQDs. Zhu et al. [31] have reported one-step synthesis using ultrasonication with only graphene oxide and KMnO4, and luminescent graphene quantum dots of 3 nm in high quantum yield were prepared.
Electrochemical approaches were already established for the synthesis of carbon dots at a potential of 1.5–3 V, where electrochemical exfoliation and intercalation are the basic steps to obtain the desired product by generating hydroxyl and oxygen radicals that play the role of electrochemical “scissors” in an oxidative cleavage reaction [32, 33].
Li et al. [34] extended this strategy further to synthesize GQDs of 3–5 nm size through an electrochemical method that involved the breaking up of a graphene film that has been treated with oxygen plasma to increase hydrophilicity. The as-synthesized GQDs exhibited green luminescence and enhanced stability in water dispersion. Zhang et al. [35] put forth another approach for synthesizing water-soluble GQDs by electrochemical exfoliation of graphite and further reducing the as-synthesized nanoscale GQDs with hydrazine at room temperature in contrast to earlier reported high-temperature reductions. It was the first report of strong yellow fluorescence in high yield and uniform sizes. The yellow fluorescence can be attributed to hydrazide groups on the surface of GQDs, produced during the low-temperature hydrazine reduction step. Though carbon nanotubes are not very suitable materials for GQD synthesis due to their potential toxicity, recently Pillai and Shinde have described an electrochemical procedure for GQDs based on multiwalled nanotubes. Figure 5 illustrates the mechanism of GQD synthesis. This method is a new procedure to synthesize size-tunable quantum dots by the oxidation time [36]. Due to the toxic base material, applicability of GQDS prepared by such methods is limited and it involves extra efforts to coat the GQDs with any polymer or compound to enhance their biocompatibility. However, in another report, Shinde et al. put forth a two-step electrochemical strategy of synthesizing nitrogen-doped GQDs (N-GQDs) from multiwall CNTs. The presence of nitrogen dopants in the carbon framework caused faster unzipping of N-MWCNTs, and also provided lower activation energy site that was beneficial for enhanced electrocatalytic activity for oxygen reduction reaction [37].
Synthesis stages involved in electrochemical synthesis of GQDs from MWCNTs. (Ref [
Recently, a facile electrochemical exfoliation of graphite in K2S2O8 solution for the synthesis of uniform small-sized red fluorescent GQDs (RF-GQDs) was demonstrated by Tan et al. with no chemical modification. This method was relatively simple, and water-soluble GQDs of uniform size (3 nm diameter) with excellent PL properties and less cytotoxicity were obtained with in vivo applicability in bioimaging applications.
Nanolithography is a high-precision technique but gives low yield, and expensive instrumentation is required, which is the prime reason for very few reports being available on this methodology. Ponomarenko et al. [39] used ultrahigh-resolution electron beam lithography to cut graphene to desired sizes. In another work by Lee and coworkers [40], chemical vapor deposition method was used to generate GQDs of uniform size from self-assembled block copolymers (BCP) as an etch mask on graphene films. Although this was a low-yielding method, uniform particles were synthesized for probing effects of size and functionalization.
As compared to top-down approaches, very few bottom-up procedures have been reported.
Pyrolysis is one of the simplest methods of synthesizing graphene quantum dots. In this method, GQDs are formed via carbonization of small organic molecules. However, apart from its simplicity, GQDS of low quantum yield are produced in most of the cases. Few recent reports based on this method are described here. GQDs from hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronene (HBC) were reported by Liu et al. [41]. HBC is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon that resembles nanoscaled fragments of graphene that stack via π–π interactions. This method produced monodisperse disk-like GQDs of ≈60 nm and 2–3 nm thickness. Pyrolysis, unfunctionalization, and oxidation processes are shown in Figure 6. Further, GQDs from citric acid (CA) and glutathione (GSH) as starting materials were also prepared. Glutathione is a tripeptide containing glutamate, cysteine, and glycine. The core advantage of glutathione is enhanced biocompatibility and high quantum yield. In this method, a 33.6% QY was obtained that can be attributed to the amination reaction between the amine group of GSH and the epoxy and carboxylic groups of GQDs [42]. It has been reported earlier that carboxylic and epoxy groups act like non-radiative electron–hole combination centers [18], and during amination reaction, reduction in number of these centers leads to better emission properties.
Illustration of pyrolysis procedure of HBC for synthesis of GQDs. Monodisperse disk like GQDs with 2–3 nm thickness and 60 nm diameters were obtained. (Ref [
In another approach, Wu and coworkers synthesized GQDs via a simple one-step pyrolysis of L-glutamic acid in a heating mantle. With this method, GQDs with a broad emission range (from visible to near infrared (NIR)) with excellent quantum yield of 55% were obtained. Figure 7a illustrates the basic steps of pyrolysis procedure, while Figure 7 b, c depicts the characteristic features of GQDs. These quantum dots exhibited tremendous bioimaging potential, and as shown in Figure 7d they can be successfully utilized for in vitro and in vivo cell imaging [43].
(a) Schematic of pyrolysis of L-glutamic acid; (b) HRTEM image of GQDs and size distribution; (c) Absorption spectra (A) and fluorescence emission spectra (B); (d) Confocal fluorescence images (C–E) under different excitation wavelengths from 359 nm, 488 nm, and 514 nm. (Ref [
Citric acid was also explored as the staring material to synthesize blue luminescent GQDs by tuning its carbonization degree. The as-synthesized GQDs were 15 nm in width and 0.5–2.0 nm in thickness. GQDs obtained by this method were self-passivated due to incomplete carbonization of citric acid [13]. Gram-scale synthesis of functionalized GQDs from pyrene via facile molecular fusion route was described by Wang et al. [44]. The single-crystalline GQDs were having excellent optical properties such as bright excitonic fluorescence, strong excitonic absorption bands extending to the visible region, large molar extinction coefficients, and long-term photostability.
Recently, a facile bottom-up method producing fluorescent nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots (N-GQDs) based on one-step pyrolysis of citric acid and tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane was reported. These nitrogen-doped GQDs emitted strong blue fluorescence under 365 nm ultraviolet (UV) light excitation with the highest reported quantum yield of 59.2% [45].
Lu et al. [46] reported a mechanistic approach for the synthesis of geometrically well-defined GQDs on a ruthenium surface using C60 molecules as a precursor. Ruthenium (Ru) catalyzed the cage opening reaction of C60. The strong C60–Ru interaction initiated the formation of surface vacancies in the Ru single crystal and a subsequent embedding of C60 molecules in the surface. At high temperatures, embedded molecules get fragmented and form carbon clusters that undergo diffusion and aggregation to form GQDs.
GQDs are nanosized graphene sheets. In this chapter, we will deal with Bohr radius and quantum confinement effect to explain the optical properties of GQDs. It is believed that the variations in photoluminescence, electronic, and physical characteristics of GQDs are related with these two important terminologies. Therefore, let us briefly look at these terms that will enhance our basic understanding on the properties of GQDs.
Quantum dots possess the structural features of parent molecule but exhibit unique electrical and optical properties as a function of their size. The quantum size effect occurs when these nanostructures attain a size smaller than a fundamental unit of exciton Bohr radius. An exciton is a bound state of an electron and an electron hole, which are attracted to each other by the electrostatic Coulomb force that is formed when a photon is absorbed by a semiconductor that excites an electron from the valence band into the conduction band.
In Gaussian unit, a Bohr radius is given by:
where a0 is the Bohr radius,
When the size of quantum dot becomes smaller and approaches toward the Bohr radius of bulk exciton, the quantum confinement effect becomes apparent. Depending on the dimension of the confinement, three kinds of structures can be defined: quantum well (QW), quantum wire (QWR), and quantum dot (QD) based on the reduced dimension. Material size is reduced in one direction in a QW and the exciton is free to move in other two directions, while in a QWR the material size is reduced in both the directions leaving only a single direction for the movement of exciton. In a QD, all directions are reduced restricting the free movement of exciton in any direction [48].
Due to this confinement effect exciton nature gets modified, which leads to distinguished optical and electrical properties of quantum dots.
The 2010 Nobel Prize was awarded to Geim and Novoselov for their remarkable work in graphene. This not only validated the importance of graphene but also paved the way for their applications in different research areas of electronics and optics as well as commercial applications. GQDs are so closely related to graphene that a discussion on GQD would be incomplete without describing the basics of graphene. With technological advancements in different fields, demand for carbon and carbon-related materials like graphene, carbon nanotubes is increasing rapidly for electrical, mechanical, and biomedical applications due to their tremendous thermal, electrical, mechanical, optical, and other unique properties [49–51]. Although graphene has an upper hand in comparison to CNTs due to low toxicity, it has the disadvantages of aggregation and low dispersity. The nanoparticles of GQDs are more advantageous due to their better physicochemical properties.
Graphene is known as a zero-band-gap material having infinite exciton Bohr radius, because of the linear energy dispersion of the charge carriers [52, 53]. Quantum confinement is a phenomenon that evolves in a finite-size graphene sheet and GQDs are best examples of this prominent effect. GQDs exhibit non-zero, tunable band gap than graphene and luminescence on excitation. Moreover, GQDs provide the flexibility of tuning the band gap by size and surface chemistry amendments. Eda et al. have reported that electrical properties of GQDs are size tunable. According to their findings of density functional theory (DTF), the band gap of GQDs consisting of 20 aromatic rings is approximately 2 eV, while for a benzene ring the value is 7 eV [54]. GQDs are a very new addition to the family of quantum dots and a great deal is left to explore their electronic and electrochemical properties. Graphene has been widely explored in field-effect transistors but GQDs are applied in single electron transistor (SET)-based charge sensors [55–57]. SETs are newer switching devices that use controlled electron tunneling to amplify a current [58]. Apart from charge variation detection, GQDs are applied for electronic sensors for humidity detection based on the modulation of electron tunneling distances caused by humidity and pressure.
GQDs are widely explored for their photoluminescence properties. They generally show a strong absorbance in UV region. The basic absorption spectra of GQDs show a prominent peak at about 230 nm, which is assigned to the π
Variation in absorption spectra of GQDs with synthesis parameters (a) UV–Vis spectra of GQDs A, B, and C correspond to synthesized reaction temperature at 120, 100, and 80°C, respectively (Ref [
Another attractive feature of GQDs is their photoluminescence profile. Though the exact mechanism of PL is still not completely validated, researchers have revealed that the possible causes can be quantum confinement effect, aromatic structures, presence of functional groups and oxygen-containing groups, free zigzag sites, and edge defects, due to which GQDs show new absorption features that affect the photoluminescence profile of GQDs [66–69]. It is a well-known fact that GQDs exhibit quantum confinement and edge effects, the key players of PL properties. Researchers have identified that the band gap is a function of size of QDs and decreases with an increase in size. Eda et al. [55] in their hypothesis proposed that the radiative recombination of e–h pairs generated within localized states can be the possible cause of blue PL spectra. The energy gap between the π and π* states generally depends on the size of sp2 clusters [27] or conjugation length [18]. According to their findings, it is the interaction between the nanometer-sized sp2 clusters and the finite-sized molecular sp2 domains which is the key in optimizing the blue emission. Moreover, the synthesis procedure of GQDs in top-down approaches and cutting of large graphene fragments in different crystallographic directions generates edges (zigzag and arm chair). These edges are prima facie responsible for diverse emission properties, as suggested by Kim et al. [61]. Zigzag sites are either carbine like with a triplet ground state or carbyne-like with a singlet ground state, and the irradiation decay of activated electrons from LUMO to HOMO is the most probable cause of blue emission [14].
In this segment, we will discuss some aspects of GQDs and their effect on PL spectra. Size dependency of PL of GQDs was reported by Alam et al. [70]. In their analysis, emission wavelengths of pristine zigzag-edged GQDs of different diameters were calculated. On varying the size from 0.46 nm to 2.31 nm, GQDs exhibited PL spectra from deep UV to near infrared as shown in Figure 9a. The smallest GQD (benzene) showed an emission peak at 235.2 nm while a peak at 999.5 nm was exhibited by GQDs of size 2.31 nm. They reported a linear and steep size dependence and concluded that emission covers the entire visible-light spectrum (400–770 nm) on varying the diameter of GQD from 0.89 nm to 1.80 nm [70].
Depending on the method of synthesis, GQDs possess oxygen-containing groups, that is, hydroxyl, carboxy, carbonyl, and epoxy ether groups; the difference in energy levels of surface groups and emission traps on GQDs governs the difference in emission spectra and PL with different colors including red, green, blue, and yellow [52, 71].
As reported by Zhu et al., surface defects on GQDs that arise from oxidation of surface groups also result in red-shifted PL spectra [72].In addition, not only the surface defects and functional groups but also the synthesis parameters (pH and solvent), size, and excitation wavelength have marked their impact on the PL spectra of GQDs. As described above, quantum confinement effect is a major phenomenon of QDs that arises when the size of QDs is less than the Bohr exciton radius. This size dependency of band gap of GQDs is responsible for their unique optical and spectroscopic characteristics. It is reported that by decreasing the size of QDs, emission spectra show blue or high energy shift [73–76]. Figure 9 illustrates various effects of physiological parameters on emission spectrum of GQDs.
Illustrating the change in emission spectra of GQDs based on (a) size (Ref [
In an interesting finding, few reports deal with the upconversion luminescence properties exhibited by GQDs. As reported by Shen et al., surface-passivated GQDs showed strong upconversion PL when illuminated with 980 nm. An unconverted PL spectrum at 525 nm was obtained (Figure 10a). The upconversion emissions also showed peak shifts from 390 nm to 460 nm when excited with wavelengths of 600–800 nm. They further demonstrated that the PL spectrum was a transition from the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital to the highest occupied molecular orbital [23]. Similar phenomena were also observed by Zhu et al., and when their GQDs were illuminated with 600–900 nm wavelengths, a significant red shift was obtained. The possible cause for this can be explained by the multi-photon active process as reported for carbon dots earlier [77, 78]. The possible cause of upconversion effect was depicted by anti-Stokes transition, as shown in Figure 10c. In comparison to excitation-dependent upconversion effect, Zhou et al. observed an excitation-independent upconversion effect with GQDs synthesized via ultrasonication as illustrated in Figure 10d [79].
(a) Upconversion luminescence properties exhibited by GQDs; (b) A schematic illustration of various typical electronic transitions processes of GQDs (Ref [
Quantum yield is another important aspect associated with the PL of GQDs. The highest value reported was 28%. However, Wu et al. have reported a high QY of ~55% by the pyrolysis method of GQD synthesis [43]. In general, the QY depends on the fabrication methods and surface chemistry. It was reported by Liu et al. and Loh and coworkers that the removal of oxygen-containing groups and surface passivation can drastically enhance the QY of GQDs [80–82]. The possible reasons for this can be the non-radiative electron–hole recombination tendency of oxygen-containing groups. Though GQDs have optical properties similar to semiconductor QDs, few basic differences in PL spectra in terms of bandwidth (GQDs have broad bandwidth) and spectral shift toward red that decreases with increasing excitation clearly distinguish them from the semiconductor QDs [82].
Another unique characteristic of GQDs is electrochemiluminescence (ECL), a phenomenon of showing luminescence during electrochemical reactions. GQDs are electro-active species and few reports deal with their ECL properties [83, 84]. Figure 11 is an illustration of ECL and PL spectra of GQDs synthesized by hydrothermal method. GQDs exhibited bright blue emission under ultraviolet irradiation (∼365 nm) in a water solution of neutral pH, an excitation-independent photoluminescence feature, and interestingly, it also exhibited a novel anodic ECL by using H2O2 as a co-reactant [83]. The possible mechanism can be the formation of excited-state GQDs* through electron transfer (ET) annihilation of negatively and positively radical species.
ECL intensity curves at different ECL intensities and ATP concentration. (Ref [
GQDs are basically carbon materials and show low toxicity. As graphene and related materials have shown great potential in disease diagnosis and bioimaging, the potential toxicity of GQDs in biological systems has become a cause of concern. It is previously reported that graphene or graphene oxide can cause pulmonary inflammation upon inhalation [55], and graphene family materials were found to be toxic to bacteria [85–87]. In vitro studies on animal cell lines were also conducted and it was reported that the cytotoxicity of graphene and GQDs is also dependent on the method of synthesis and starting material. GQDs synthesized from carbon nanotubes are more toxic than those synthesized from graphene oxide and amino acids. Few reports have shown that GQDs can be well tolerated at low concentrations (50 µg/ml) but at higher concentrations (1 mg/ml), they show acute toxicity. In this regard, it is imperative to find out new strategies for less-toxic graphene materials for their practical biological applications with enhanced bioavailability. Surface functionalization of GQDs and graphene material can play an important role in mitigating the cytotoxicity of GQDs. These are the materials of future with potential biomedical applications, and surface modification of GQDs is an important criterion for their wide applicability. Many researchers have reported the emergence of unique properties with variations in surface properties. Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) from GQDs by blue laser ablation and surface passivation by polyethylene glycol was reported by Christensen et al. in cell-free conditions [88] In another study by Yuan and coworkers, on functionalized GQDs, very encouraging results of cytotoxicity were observed; even at higher concentrations (200 µg/ml), quantum dots showed good biocompatibility as depicted in Figure 12 a, b. Their analysis proved that surface functionalization can be a better alternative to reduce the cytotoxity of GQDs [89]. Jastrzębska et al. have summarized the toxicological analysis of graphene-related materials in a recent review [90]. As an interesting fact, many researchers have reported that GQDs are less toxic than GO and the possible cause may be less damage to cell membrane owing to their smaller size and their fast clearance [91].
Biocompatibility analysis of GQDs in vitro. (Ref [
Moreover, due to increasing biological applications of GQDs and graphene materials, in vivo toxic effects should also be considered. Wang et al. have reported that high doses (0.4 mg) of graphene oxide caused chronic toxicity in animals [91, 92]. In another study, PEGylated GQDs showed no toxicity to mice while PEG–GO was toxic due to its accumulation in liver and spleen. They observed dark spots of micrometer size, much larger than the size of GO in animal organs. That was a clear indication of aggregation of PEG–GO in organs, responsible for organ damage and even deaths [93].
Based on the data available, it can be concluded that GQDs are less toxic than other graphene family materials and that is the prime reason for newer applications of GQDs in the field of biology and medicine.
Due to the excellent optical and physical properties of GQDs, they have wide biological applications as a sensitive probe for disease marker screening in fluids, precise marker for tissue biopsy classification, and high-resolution contrast agent for biomedical cell/tissue imaging that can be applied for detecting tiny tumors. Moreover, the most distinctive feature of GQDs is their precise detection from macroscale visualization, down to atomic resolution using electron microscopy. Though many reports are there dealing with the wide applications of GQDs in energy-related [94, 95] biosensing [96, 97] and light-emitting diodes [98, 99], in this section we will only emphasize the role of GQDs in drug delivery and bioimaging or specifically nanotheranostic application of GQDs in medical biology. “Theranostics” is a new term coined by Funkhouser in 2002 that describes any “material that combines the modalities of therapy and diagnostic imaging” into a single package [100].
With the advancement in the field of nanotechnology, the field of nanotheranostics has emerged that not only provides a platform for simultaneous drug distribution and release monitoring but also enables us to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of a noninvasive treatment in real time that will guide toward personalized therapy based on patients’ individual responses and needs, minimizing the chances of the adverse side effects due to over- or under-dosing [101, 102].
In this segment, recent advances in the application of graphene quantum dots in drug delivery and bioimaging will be discussed.
GQDs are emerging as an effective drug carrier for nanotheranostics application due to their unique properties as quantum dots as well as goodness of graphene. To date, many reports deal with GQDs as drug carrier and bioimaging. Recently, Wang et al. [103] synthesized PEGylated green fluorescent GQDs for carrying doxorubicin (Dox) for cancer treatment. Surface passivation by PEG enhanced the fluorescence and improved the solubility of GQDs. Moreover, GQDs were synthesized via reduction of GO by L-ascorbic acid so they adopted the green route for better biocompatibility. Figure 13a represents the schematic of Dox-loaded GQDs. GQD–PEG showed distinctly different loading capacities toward Dox at different pH values. The maximum loading capacity of Dox on GQD–PEG is 0.9 mg/mg at pH 5.5; 2.5 mg/mg at pH 7.4; and 1.1 mg/mg at pH 9 (Figure 13b, c).
(a) Illustration of drug loading on GQDS; (b) Drug loading capacity of GQDs; (c) Percentage release profile of drugs at different pH. (Ref [
(a) Illustrating DNA (38 µM) cleavage with Cu (Phen)2 (di-1,10-phenanthroline-copper) with GO and GQDs; 1(b) Cleavage with different concentrations of GQDS and DOX. 2: CLSM images of MCF-7 cells incubated with GQDs, DOX and GQD-DOX. (Ref [
In another similar application, Zhu et al. [104] fabricated paclitaxel-loaded multifunctional core–shell structure capsules composed of olive oil, dual-layer porous TiO2 shell, Fe3O4, and GQDs. The olive oil core for hydrobhic drug loading was the novel aspect of this formulation. The TiO2 shell suppressed the initial burst release, while Fe3O4 and GQDs were utilized for magnetic targeting and fluorescence imaging, respectively. In two different interesting applications, DNA cleavage activity with drug delivery of GQDs was reported. Wang et al. [105] prepared GQD–Dox complex for enhanced nucleus accumulation and DNA cleavage efficiency. They achieved efficient delivery of doxorubicin to the nucleus through Dox/GQD conjugates, as the conjugates assumed different cellular and nuclear internalization pathways compared to free Dox. Furthermore, with drug-resistant cancer cells, the Dox/GQD conjugates increased the nuclear uptake and cytotoxicity of Dox, capable of increasing the chemotherapy efficacy of anticancer drugs that are suboptimal due to the drug resistance. Figure 14 shows the DNA cleavage activity and cellular internalization of GQD–Dox complex via diffusion and the release of drug in nucleus after interaction with DNA. In another approach, Zhou et al. [106] have reported GQDs in DNA cleavage system. According to their findings, by using GQDs and Cu2+, about 90% supercoiled DNA was converted into nicked DNA, while only about 59% supercoiled DNA was cleaved with the same amount of large-sized GO and Cu2+. According to their hypothesis, the as-prepared GQD sheets with smaller lateral size performed as a better intercalator to DNA molecules than micron GO sheets and therefore, under the same conditions, GQDs exhibited better efficiency than GO for DNA cleavage.
A nanocomposite based on conglomeration of Au–Fe3O4 core–shell with GQDs is reported by Oza et al. [107]. This modular design enabled Au-Fe3O4-GQD-based magnetic combined therapeutic nanoplatform to perform multiple functions simultaneously, such as in multimodal imaging, drug delivery, and real-time monitoring. Dox was loaded by cystamine linker and the drug release was a temperature-dependent phenomenon. With folic acid (FA) as the targeted moiety, this formulation showed potential to be developed as an efficient drug delivery system. Another FA-mediated Dox-loaded GQD-based targeted delivery system was reported by Wang et al. [108]. Due to the inherent fluorescence of GQDs, cell movement in real time can be easily monitored without employing external dyes, and simultaneous localization of the drug carrier and the loaded drug can be possible. The nanoassembly was internalized by the target cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis with prolonged Dox release and accumulation. Though there are many reports utilizing folic acid as targeting moieties for cancer-cell-specific drug delivery, the major constraint is that folic acid receptor is overexpressed on healthy cells as well that restricts the applicability of FA-functionalized delivery system. Nahain et al. [109] put forth a new targeting strategy by functionalizing GQDs with hyaluronic acid (HA). HA is a natural polysaccharide and a targeting receptor for CD44 cells. CD44 are cancer stem cells responsible for drug resistance and reoccurrence of pancreatic cancer. Hence, by targeting CD44 by HA, an effective targeting strategy was developed. Figure 15 illustrates Dox-loaded green fluorescent GQD nanoformulation. The authors also evaluated the in vivo efficacy of GQDs in bioimaging and therapy. Figure 15b shows the in vivo imaging of mice model studies performed. HA-functionalized GQDs showed enhanced stability and stable fluorescence in vivo that could pave the way for future applications of GQDs in targeted drug delivery for cancer, the most fatal disease of human history (Figure 16b).
(a) Schematic of target delivery of GQDs using hyaluronic acid and subsequent release of the drug from the surfaces of GQD in a tumor-cell environment; (b) In vivo fluorescence images of GQD-HA in mice after tail vein injection; (c) Ex vivo images of liver, kidney, spleen, heart, and tumor after dissection. (Ref [
Confocal Images of MCF-7 cells labeled with GQDs 1 (a) Fluorescent image; (b) Bright field; (c) Merged fluorescent and bright field; (d) Section analysis (Ref [
Traditional semiconductor quantum dots like CdSe or CdS and their core–shell nanoparticles have been exploited for applications in in vitro and in vivo cell imaging [110, 111], but the toxicity and potential health and environmental hazards associated with them restrict their applicability in live systems. In this regard, GQDs with their tunable PL, ecofriendly nature, and emergence of GQDs to date have shown remarkable potential for their successful application in the field of biotechnology and medicine owing to their excellent optical properties and low cytotoxicity up to very high concentrations of 400 µg/ml [112]. The authors also noted good uptake of GQDs by cells, as shown by the bright PL observed. Another example of bioimaging potential of GQDs, made from CX-72 carbon black, was reported by Dong et al. [113] in human breast cancer MCF-7 cells. They obtained effective luminescence inside the cell nucleus along with the cell membrane and cytoplasm. It was the first example that illustrated that GQDs have the ability to penetrate the cell nucleus and is another promising feature of GQDs to prove their strong candidature in nanotheranostic applications (Figure 16a). Sun et al. [114] compared the cytotoxicity and bioimaging capabilities of chemically reduced and photoreduced brightly blue luminescent GQDs in A549 cells using the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. According to their findings, the cytotoxicity of the chemically reduced GQDs (cGQDs) was significantly greater than that of the photoreduced GQDs (pGQDs). The possible reason for this was the use of toxic reagents (NaBH4 and N2H4.× H2O) during the chemical reduction. Photoreduced GQDs also exhibited stronger fluorescence indicating better cellular uptake due to the presence of less negative charge on the GQD surface. A very interesting approach was presented by Zhang et al. [35] by utilizing GQDs to label stem cells. The ability of GQDs to penetrate stem cell without reducing cell viability was exploited. Three different types of stem cells (neurosphere cells (NSCs), pancreas progenitor cells (PPCs), and cardiac progenitor cells (CPCs)) with GQDs at a final concentration of 25 μg/ml were labeled and strong fluorescence was observed in the cytoplasm of the stem cells, but not in the nuclei. They obtained good penetration into cytoplasmic areas but not inside the cell nucleus. The authors also found that the GQDs were able to easily penetrate tumor cells (human lung cancer (A549) and human breast cells (MCF-7) and showed little cytotoxicity (Figure 16b). In most of the cases, downconversion PL imaging is reported, but Zhu et al. came up with upconversion GQDs. In downconversion, mainly UV or blue excitations are involved that are considered unsafe for living systems. In this scenario, Zhu et al. could attain more biocompatibility with their upconversion GQDs excited at near-infrared light of wavelength 808 nm for illuminating mouse osteoblast precursor cell line (MT3T3) cells. A blue or bright green fluorescence was observed inside the cells even after 20 min of continuous excitation. This indicated the successful internalization of GQDs inside the cells and photostability of GQDs as well [115].
Recently, Nigam et al. [20] have also reported the excellent bioimaging potential in a human serum-albumin-based multifunctional drug delivery system for pancreatic cancer. A strong and stable green fluorescence with good biocompatibility was observed in their analysis. In another report, Peng et al. [9] incubated breast cancer cell line T47D. The cell nucleus was stained with DAPI (blue color). Figure 16c illustrates the images of T47D cells treated with green GQDs with a 4-h incubation time, which clearly visualized the phase contrast image of T47D cells with nucleus stained with blue DAPI and green fluorescence from the cytoplasm. This bioimaging data proved that GQDs can be utilized in high-contrast bioimaging applications. Recently, GQDs synthesized by polycyclic aromatic compound via bottom-up approach by Zhou et al. were applied for illuminating MCF-7 (breast cancer cell lines). A stable green fluorescence inside the cytoplasm was obtained [116].
Zheng et al. have demonstrated a novel application of GQDs for insulin receptor dynamics, using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM), by functionalizing insulin with GQDs [117]. According to their observation, small discrete clusters of GQDs after pre-incubating adipocytes with insulin GQDs were detected. The steady lateral movement of GQD-enlightened clusters to the cell membrane and vertical movement between the inner cytosol and the plasmalemmal region were also tracked by following the GQD fluorescence (Figure 17). This application is a good example of the potential of the edge-functionalized GQDs for investigating dynamic cellular processes.
(a) Schematic illustration of conjugating a GQD with NGF; (b) Gel electrophoresis of NGF-GQD (lane 1), FITC-NGF (lane 2), and NGF (lane 3); (c) Fluorescence images of living PC12 cells incubated with 200 ng/mL NGF–GQDs (left) or NGF–GQDs together with 20 μg/mL free NGF (right) for 15 min; (d) Representative phase-contrast images of PC12 cells after 2-day incubation; (e) Distribution of NGF–GQDs in PC12 cells differentiated by 200 ng/mL NGF–GQDs for 24 h. (Ref [
GQDs are gradually attaining popularity for their in vivo applications also. The basic flaw related with in vivo imaging is background signal associated with autofluorescence of animal tissues. Moreover, the Rayleigh scattering of short wavelength light absorbed by water is another undesirable effect that is to be considered. It was reported by Nurunnabi et al. that carboxylated GQDs can be efficiently explored for superficial tissue imaging but short-wavelength excitation limits their use for deep tissue bioimaging [118]. However, With GQDs of near-infrared photoluminescence, after 8 h of GQD injection, fluorescent signals were obtained near heart, spleen, and kidney [119]. In another approach, Ge and coworkers synthesized GQDs with polythiophene derivatives via hydrothermal approach and they observed an emission wavelength of 680 nm that enables these GQDs for in vivo applications. Another important finding of their work was the application of as-synthesized GQD in photodynamic therapy as it was observed that GQDs could produce 1O2 via multistate sensitization process (Figure 18) with a quantum yield of about 1.3, the highest yield reported for photodynamic therapy (PDT) agents to date [120].
(a) Schematic illustration of the 1O2 generation mechanisms by conventional PDT agents (left) and GQDs (right); (b) Fluorescence intensity of GQDs at 680 nm versus the O2 concentration in solution; (c) The dependence of the 1O2 quantum yield (
Although the cytotoxicity of GQDs in cells has been reported to be relatively low, contradictory findings were reported by Markovic et al. [121]. According to their observation, GQDs could be cytotoxic to U251 human glioma cells. They postulate that the GQDs can induce oxidative stress and activate apoptosis and autophagy-type cell deaths by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS).
GQDs have attracted tremendous interest in various fields like biotechnology, electronics, and medicine due to their excellent optical and physical properties, biocompatibility, and chemical stability. However, the research on GQDs is still in nascent state and there is huge scope to further explore the applicability of GQDs. The major issues related with GQDs are low quantum yield, low productivity, surface chemistry, and size tunability, and lack of control over PL and optical properties. However, irrespective of these drawbacks, GQDs represent an optimistic future for carbon materials. In our speculation, the future research on GQDs will be based on the following aspects.
Low production yield is the major problem associated with GQDs. Hence, the development of better synthesis strategies by solvent selection, reaction conditions, and appropriate cutting methodology in top-down approaches and better size and solubility control in bottom-up methods should be explored.
To extend the applicability of GQDs in bioimaging and drug delivery, novel approaches are to be developed. Still there are very few reports dealing with in vivo imaging and drug delivery mediated with multifunctional GQDs. Based on their application potential, it is imperative to explore the newer techniques for generating functionalized GQDs for their application in MRI and CT scan.
To date, the GQDs with QY ranging from 10% to 55% have been reported. To increase the QY and PL efficiency of GQDs, new surface-passivation strategies are needed so that GQDs with better bioimaging and stable fluorescence can be obtained.
There is no report to date on application of GQDs in brain. A great deal can be done by tuning the excitation and emission properties of GQDs and they can be potentially exploited for blood–brain barrier penetration and brain gene therapy for neurodegenerative diseases.
Toxicity of nanoparticles is an area of growing research. GQDs are a new addition in the family of nanoparticles and there are concerns about the possible side effects associated with GQDs. So biodistribution, organ accumulation, and genotoxicity of GQDs synthesized via different methods, shapes, sizes, and surface groups should be evaluated.
Graphene quantum dots have shown a high potential in such a short span of time. The ongoing research in this field will open new vistas that will revolutionize the future of medical and biotechnology applications.
Author Dr Preeti Nigam Joshi is thankful to the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, for providing financial support as INSPIRE Faculty Award grant.
In 1895, German physicist Wilhelm C. Roentgen accidentally noticed that a cathode-ray tube could make a sheet of paper coated with barium platinocyanide glow [1, 2]. This effect was even while the tube and the paper were in separate rooms. Roentgen decided that the tube must be emitting some sort of penetrating rays, which he named them
The history of computed tomography (CT) scan has been around for almost 50 years. It was created by British engineer Godfrey Hounsfield of EMI Laboratories in 1972 [35], Figure 1. He co-invented the technology with physicist Dr. Allan Cormack. CT uses a computer algorithm to reconstruct an image from the intensity projections collected by detectors for all angles of rotation of both X-ray source and the detectors around the target; such an image is called a slice. Next slice is obtained after moving the target a step inside the gantry and repeating the rotation, collection, and reconstruct. This made it possible to detect diseases at the earliest stages. At the same time, the radiation load is minimal. Important advantages of CT scan are as follows: the possibility of obtaining three-dimensional images of internal organs, the speed of the performing, comfort of the patient. CT scan has been used for investigating and screening many organs and for different diseases [36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. Moreover, it could be used for brain imaging. For a CT scan slice, detectors acquire data versus rational angles, and the slice image is reconstructed by backprojection and filtered backprojection algorithms [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. This chapter highlights instrumentation aspects and medical applications of conventional and CT scan X-ray technology.
Sir Godfrey Hounsfield with the first commercial CT scanner:
Thus,
The energy of each photon is determined according to the plank’s equation:
where
Non-digital imaging
Bremsstrahlung (brake spectrum) of tungsten.
When a human body is exposure to
In digital X-ray imaging, instead of using an
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) or amorphous selenium (a-Se) is used to generate positive charges proportional to X-ray intensity [10, 55, 56, 57]. These positive charges are stored in capacitors until they are readout. The capacitor charge corresponding to each pixel is read using a thin flat transistor (TFT) and is converted to voltage, using a charge-to-voltage amplifier. Figure 4 shows a single detector for one pixel. A matrix consisting of many single detectors can be fabricated similar to the one used in CCD (charge-coupled display).
Direct digital X-ray image capture. One pixel in a cross section of a linear array, all pixels in the array are similar. The readout control selects the pixel being readout. In a planar array, two readout controls are used for selecting the row and the column of the readout pixel. Advances in semiconductor electronics made it possible to fabricate a matrix of such single detector [
In this technique, the
Indirect digital X-ray image capture. One pixel in a cross section of a linear array, all pixels in the array or matrix are similar. The readout control signal selects the column and row of the pixel being readout.
In conventional
An illustrative sectional diagram of a CT scan machine.
Computed tomography consists of two main steps. The first one is the acquisition of
In Figure 7, an
An intensity function
where
Notice that this logarithmic operation is implemented naturally by different detectors. Thus, the detected value
Also Eq. (4) can be written as
where
It is obvious that due to the integration of the absorption coefficients of all voxels on the line
A backprojection computer simulation example: (a), an intensity function
An intensity function
From Figure 9, we can observe that the linear projection on a detector on the arc is parameterized by the detector angle
where
Figure 11(a) shows a computer simulation scenario for
Backprojection aims at reconstructing an image representing an approximation of the absorption coefficient of each voxel since the true invers is not possible. In linear bean, this backprojection is given by
However, in fan beam, the projection is given by
Frequencies gain of three one-dimensional filters used with backprojection; (a) ramp filter; (b) low-pass filter generated by as a Hanning window; and (c), the multiplication of both filters in the frequency domain normalized to a maximum unity. The filter in (c) is sued for filtering
This implies that in both linear and fan beam projections, each (
A backprojection computer simulation example in fan beam-
Conventional
Chest X-ray image. Top row, normal; bottom row, bacterial pneumonia. From
Chest X-ray image. Top row, normal; bottom row, from left-to-right, COVID-19, bacterial pneumonia, and tuberculosis. From
Low radiation load, high resolution, and fast procedure make the CT scan one of the main diagnostic tools and for different health problems. We are just interested in mentioning few CT scan application examples. CT scan could be used for detecting and screening lung carcinoma as shown in Figure 14. In COVID-19, CT scan has played an important role for lung instigation COVID-19-induced pneumonia. This pneumonia manifests as itself as bright spots in the image since it absorbs more X-ray energy. Figure 15 shows in the top row non-COVID CT scan images while in the bottom one shows COVID-19 images. CT scan also is convenient imaging tool for the brain in trauma and normal clinical routine. Figure 16 shows brain images with hemorrhage in the top row while in the bottom one shows the segmentation for detecting the hemorrhage region. Also, CT scan has been used for the investigation of spinal cord and vertebral column.
Chest CT scan slices: Most left, Normal; middle, adenocarcinoma and Most right, carcinoma. From
Chest CT scan slices: Top row, non-COVID, bottom row, COVID. From
Brain CT scan: Top row, brain image with intracranial Hemorrhage; bottom row, the segmentation of the image to detect the intracranial Hemorrhage region. From
CT scanner has been one of the main diagnostic imaging tools in the medical field. It provides multi two-dimensional slices in the axial plane for abdomen, chest, brain, vertebral column, and spinal cord. It employs low dose of X-ray. It also takes a reasonable time to get CT scan procedure done. More work may be needed to develop CT scan technology affordable for the development countries. Appreciated research efforts are going on to mining and processing the images provided by the CT scanner to develop computer algorithms that can help in improving diagnostic accuracy. These include developing different algorithms in machine learning, image processing, statistical analysis, multi resolution analysis, fast filtered backprojection. Image processing includes noise reduction and image enhancement, features extraction, morphology analysis, image segmentation. Deep learning aims at answering a question of if disease or not disease, e.g., benign tumor or carcinoma one, COVID or non-COVID, based on the given image. In backprojection research, the objective is to develop fast and supper resolution backprojection algorithms and to employ compressive sensing for image reconstruction.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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',metaTitle:"Odredbe i uvjeti",metaDescription:"Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/cro-terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
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\n\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
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\n\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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Many researches have been conducted to determine the best control method for vortex flow in pump sumps so that the pump lifespan can be maximized. In this study, a vortex control principle designed to minimize the impact of submerged vortex flow in pump sump on major pump components is presented. This principle employs a device called the plate type floor splitter which serves the function of eliminating vortices formed on the sump floor and reduces the intensity of swirling motion in the intake flow. A pump sump model was built to carry out the study by installing a floor splitter plate sample under the pump suction inlet and the corresponding parameters used to quantify the swirl intensity known as the swirl angle was measured. Procedures for the measurement were conducted based on ANSI/HI 9.8-2018 standard. A numerical simulation was performed to study the flow in a full-scale pump sump. The results showed that the installation of floor splitter plate can eliminate vortices efficiently and reduce swirl angle significantly. However, optimization of floor splitter design is needed to achieve a reduction effect that can reduce swirl angles to an acceptable value of lower than 5° according to ANSI/HI 9.8-2018 standard.",book:{id:"10080",slug:"vortex-dynamics-theories-and-applications",title:"Vortex Dynamics Theories and Applications",fullTitle:"Vortex Dynamics Theories and Applications"},signatures:"Zambri Harun, Tajul Ariffin Norizan and Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar",authors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"},{id:"313310",title:"Mr.",name:"Tajul Ariffin",middleName:null,surname:"Norizan",slug:"tajul-ariffin-norizan",fullName:"Tajul Ariffin Norizan"},{id:"317421",title:"Dr.",name:"Wan Hanna Melini",middleName:null,surname:"Wan Mohtar",slug:"wan-hanna-melini-wan-mohtar",fullName:"Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar"}]},{id:"20216",title:"Ionic Liquids in Separation Techniques",slug:"ionic-liquids-in-separation-techniques",totalDownloads:8523,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1300",slug:"applications-of-ionic-liquids-in-science-and-technology",title:"Applications of Ionic Liquids in Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Applications of Ionic Liquids in Science and Technology"},signatures:"Jolanta Flieger and Anna Czajkowska-Żelazko",authors:[{id:"20797",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Flieger",slug:"jolanta-flieger",fullName:"Jolanta Flieger"},{id:"136020",title:"Prof.",name:"Czajkowska",middleName:null,surname:"Żelazko",slug:"czajkowska-zelazko",fullName:"Czajkowska Żelazko"}]},{id:"71403",title:"Supercritical-Fluids Thermophysical Properties and Heat Transfer in Power-Engineering Applications",slug:"supercritical-fluids-thermophysical-properties-and-heat-transfer-in-power-engineering-applications",totalDownloads:1135,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Researches on specifics of thermophysical properties and heat transfer at supercritical pressures (SCPs) started as early as the 1930s with the study on free-convection heat transfer to fluids at a near-critical point. In the 1950s, the concept of using SC “steam” to increase thermal efficiency of coal-fired thermal power plants became an attractive option. Germany, USA, the former USSR, and some other countries extensively studied heat transfer to SC fluids (SCFs) during the 1950s till the 1980s. This research was primarily focused on bare circular tubes cooled with SC water (SCW). However, some studies were performed with modeling fluids such as SC carbon dioxide and refrigerants instead of SCW. Currently, the use of SC “steam” in coal-fired thermal power plants is the largest industrial application of fluids at SCPs. Near the end of the 1950s and at the beginning of the 1960s, several studies were conducted to investigate a possibility of using SCW as a coolant in nuclear reactors with the objective to increase thermal efficiency of nuclear power plants (NPPs) equipped with water-cooled reactors. However, these research activities were abandoned for some time and regained momentum in the 1990s. In support of the development of SCW-cooled nuclear-power reactor (SCWR) concepts, first experiments have been started in annular and various bundle flow geometries. At the same time, more numerical and CFD studies have been performed in support of our limited knowledge on specifics of heat transfer at SCPs in various flow geometries. As the first step in this process, heat transfer to SCW in vertical bare tubes can be investigated as a conservative approach (in general, heat transfer in fuel bundles will be enhanced with various types of appendages, that is, grids, end plates, spacers, bearing pads, fins, ribs, etc.). New experiments in the 1990–2000s were triggered by several reasons: (1) thermophysical properties of SCW and other SCFs have been updated from the 1950s–1970s, for example, a peak in thermal conductivity in the critical/pseudocritical points was “officially” introduced in 1990s; (2) experimental techniques have been improved; (3) in SCWRs, various bundle flow geometries will be used instead of bare-tube geometry; (4) in SC “steam” generators of thermal power plants, larger diameter tubes/pipes (20–40 mm) are used, however in SCWRs hydraulic-equivalent diameters of proposed bundles will be within 5–12 mm; (5) with Research and Development (R&D) of next-generation or Generation-IV nuclear-power-reactor concepts, new areas of application for SCFs have appeared—for example, SCP helium was proposed to be used as a reactor coolant, SCP Brayton and Rankine cycles with SC carbon dioxide as a working fluid are being developed, etc. A comparison of thermophysical properties of SCFs with those of subcritical-pressure fluids showed that SCFs as single-phase fluids have unique properties, which are close to “liquid-like” behavior below critical or pseudocritical points and are quite similar to the behavior of “gas-like” substances above these points. A comparison of selected SCW heat transfer correlations has shown that their results may differ from one to another by more than 200%. Based on these comparisons, it became evident that there is a need for reliable, accurate, and wide-range SCW heat transfer correlation(s) to be developed and verified. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to summarize in concise form specifics of supercritical-fluids thermophysical properties and heat transfer in power-engineering applications.",book:{id:"9201",slug:"advanced-supercritical-fluids-technologies",title:"Advanced Supercritical Fluids Technologies",fullTitle:"Advanced Supercritical Fluids Technologies"},signatures:"Igor L. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. 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In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"11672",title:"Chemokines Updates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c00855833476a514d37abf7c846e16e9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Murat Şentürk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",editedByType:null,submissionDeadline:"May 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"14794",title:"Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Şentürk",slug:"murat-senturk",fullName:"Murat Şentürk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14794/images/system/14794.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Murat Şentürk obtained a baccalaureate degree in Chemistry in 2002, a master’s degree in Biochemistry in 2006, and a doctorate degree in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{title:"Infectious Diseases",id:"6"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/173865",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"173865"},fullPath:"/profiles/173865",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()