Project characteristics.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3595",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications",title:"Vision Systems",subtitle:"Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Computer Vision is the most important key in developing autonomous navigation systems for interaction with the environment. It also leads us to marvel at the functioning of our own vision system. In this book we have collected the latest applications of vision research from around the world. It contains both the conventional research areas like mobile robot navigation and map building, and more recent applications such as, micro vision, etc.The fist seven chapters contain the newer applications of vision like micro vision, grasping using vision, behavior based perception, inspection of railways and humanitarian demining. 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He received a Doctoral Degree (PhD) in Robotics. He is committed to highest standards of excellence and it proves through his authorship of many books. His research experience includes various programs, contributions and participation in different countries for diverse fields of study. His research interests reflect in his wide range of publications in various national and international journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Nagoya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"80372",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashish",middleName:null,surname:"Dutta",slug:"ashish-dutta",fullName:"Ashish Dutta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/80372/images/3530_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ashish Dutta obtained his PhD in Systems Engineering from Akita University, Japan. From 1994 to 2000 he was with the Bhabha Atomic Research Center (India) where he worked on telemanipulator design and control for nuclear applications. Since 2002 he has been working with the department of mechanical engineering in the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, in addition to working as an assistant professor in Nagoya University, Japan from 2006 to 2007 in the department of Mechanical Science and Engineering. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As a PPM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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It is common that every business faces a situation that compels a change. Some of these changes usually are starting a new office, launching a new product or service, improving an existing work process, installing a new computer system, merging with another company, moving to a new location, entering a new market, meeting a social need and so on. These changes are necessary to meet operational or strategic goals of an organization. And these goals are accomplished using projects. Further, the primary objective of an organization is to create value for its stockholders and it is achieved when the organization creates a healthy profit through the achievement of its strategic objectives [1]. And projects are the instruments by which an enterprise accomplishes its strategic objectives [2].
\nOrganizations design and execute projects that can be classified as internally and externally funded projects based on the nature of their business. In organizations that conduct externally funded projects for a fee (of sorts) on behalf of external clients, efficiency in the conduct of projects is the means by which the amount of real profit is enhanced [2]. If the primary line of business of the organization is service, manufacturing, or research; the projects in the organization are probably internally funded, and the missions of project teams are to create increased operational efficiency, new products, or new markets. Internally funded projects also play an important role in the profit margin, albeit indirectly. In the case of a nonprofit organization, the projects are executed either internally or externally and are conceived to serve its main purpose, which is a social cause and not profit. However, the underlying project management principles of effective and efficient use of resources are still valid and important to expand their services for social cause without increase in their resources [3].
\nPMBOK® defines project as a temporary endeavor to create a unique product, service, or result [4]. It uses the word, temporary, which sometimes implies negative connotation and low importance. One must remember that “temporary” does not influence the length of the project duration. Also, PMBOK definition does not introduce the concept of value and its contribution to organization’s strategic goals. Value can be tangible (e.g., cost savings) or intangible (e.g., increased brand equity). However, value is always associated with benefit. A project must provide value to all its stakeholders; if not, project will not receive adequate support [5].
\nA project can be seen as a new time-bound effort with several related and/or interdependent tasks to create a unique product or service that adds value. As it is a new effort, often, we do not have complete knowledge or experience about planning and executing the project. Needless to say, projects are characterized with unknown factors and ambiguity, which delay the development of detailed scope and specifications to later stages of project planning. Further, any project requires resources such as materials, tools, equipment, and people to execute it. Considering these additional facets of a project and to extend the definition of a project further, project can be considered as
It is important understand the distinction between a project and process. Process is repetitive in nature with clearly defined procedures and outcomes. A process will yield the same result be it a product or a service. Project, on the other hand, is unique and new by definition. So, outcome of a project would always be new and unique. However, project is executed through project management processes and project deliverable-oriented processes.
\nProjects are conceived, created, and managed because an individual or organization other than the project manager or project team identifies a need [6]. As stated earlier, projects are always aimed at fulfilling organizational objectives and/or strategic needs such as market demand, customer request, technological advance, legal requirements, a social need (for non-profit organizations), crisis situation, and obsolete technology or equipment.
\nA project is time-bound, i.e. it has definite beginning and definite ending. However, it does not mean that project is of a short duration, which may vary from 10 days to 10years. However, “temporary” does not apply for the project deliverable. It is interesting to note that project team is certainly temporary (Table 1).
\n- Unique - Defined start and end - Transient teams - Little precedence - Unknowns | \n- Revolutionary improvements - Change - Risky - Complex - Uncertain - | \n
Project characteristics.
Project outcome can be a product, service, or result.
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Progressive elaboration is another characteristic of a project. As requirements are not clear at the initiation stage. Developing the project scope in steps and continuing by increments is a common aspect of a project and it goes through stages such as: scope – scope definition – project plan – detailed WBS. All these project characteristics present a challenge to manage projects successfully.
\nManaging a project includes identifying requirements, establishing clear and achievable objectives, balancing competing demands of quality, scope, cost, and time, adapting specifications, plans, and approach to meet expectations of all key stakeholders including the client and the end-user. We define project management as
Current trends in the project suggest that organizations manage several projects simultaneously.
\nLong-term success in managing projects requires proven and established project management practices and processes and several successful projects to emulate [1]. Therefore, organization-wide resource allocation becomes necessary to succeed, which may not always be possible. Also, required skills and expertise are always not available locally. Consequently, virtual teams are becoming common for project execution. PM tools increasing in complexity and usefulness. Managing project involves:
identifying requirements
establishing clear and achievable objectives
balancing the demands of time, cost, scope, and quality
adapting to expectations of all stakeholders
Thus, project management is an approach to accomplish project objectives within organizational structural and resource constraints for internal projects. For external projects, political, social, legal and environmental constraints may also have to be considered.
\nProject is an organization-level effort associated with complexity, uncertainties, and unknowns. Consequently, it requires continual involvement of several functions. Obviously, integration, coordination, and accountability assume greater importance. Project Management tools and techniques will help to accomplish these integration and management functions. Uncertainties and unknowns affect requirements to change dynamically and the project manager has to meet these requirements while meeting the expectations of all the project stakeholders.
\nManaging project is fast becoming a standard way of executing business strategies. Some of the reasons for deploying project management practices are:
knowledge economy
increased competition due to free market philosophy
constraints of cost, time, and scope (quality)
client focus
resource constraints
Nature and frequency of projects determine whether an organization requires an informal or formal project management practices. Some of the following questions will help determine the requirement of a formal project management in organizations.
Is the effort associated with complexity and uncertainty?
Are external and technical environments dynamic to compel changes in the organization?
Is it governed by constraints such as time, budget, scope, and quality?
Are there multiple functions involved?
Affirmative responses to some or all of these questions will determine the extent to which project management is required to be formalized. However, project Management (PM) needs investment in resources and consequently demands results. Also, organizations are required to train people at all levels. On the positive side, PM facilitates effective and efficient use of resources. PM also provides an opportunity for senior management to realize strengths and weaknesses of an organization.
\nIn many organizations, PM demands changes in policies, practices, and procedures. Further, PM will also influence the function of finance because project-based financial control systems are routinely implemented. PM tools and techniques aid productivity and help us deal with complexity [7].
\nProjects, by definition are new and learning new is associated with change in behavior. Thus, working in teams, integrating, learning, and collaborating are essential characteristics of the project teams. Consequently, effective communication assumes great importance for its success. As a general rule, with the increase in project size, the number of people involved in the project will also increase. Consequently, effective communication becomes complex with the increase in project size. Based on extensive research, the following are identified as the key drivers of project performance and they are also considered success factors [7]. It is the primarily the responsibility of the project manager to:
define project processes and roles
implement consistent processes
communicate expectations and outcomes to all stakeholders
create clarity in communications
facilitate organizational support
establish trust
manage outcomes be developing performance measures
PM Maturity and success
Project management maturity is a state determined by fully developed standards and processes, which lead to repeatable success in managing projects. PM maturity ultimately should lead to developing best PM practices. However, you should remember that project success factors are different for different stakeholders. For example, a project, in spite of experiencing time and cost overruns, may still be considered successful by the client.
\nThe distinction between project success and project management success must be understood. Project success is measured against the overall project objectives whereas project management success is a measure of managing project within time, cost, and meeting the scope requirements [8]. Success of a project should be measured by considering three different areas: project meeting its own cost-duration targets, the deliverable meeting enterprise strategic objectives, and the deliverable meeting the enterprise financial objectives.
\nProjects are means to accomplish strategic objectives and goals of organizations. Project Management (PM) is an integration of several academic disciplines such as accountancy, decision sciences, economics, finance, and management. It uses systems approach in integrating these disciplines. PM will continue to grow in its importance because it is how business is done, in the present global economy.
\nProject selection should be based on the corporate strategic plan and investment strategies [1]. Thus, each project must have a business objective that is aligned with the strategic plan; it will serve as the foundation for the project investment proposal. In addition, a project must conform to a broader purpose than a set of internally derived objectives. It must support overarching strategies of their parent company or its clients. To be successful, the project manager and the team should clearly understand the vision and mission of their clients; such understanding is more likely to deliver products and services that meet demanding customer requirements, which eventually results in customer satisfaction.
\nProject Scope must include all the work required, and only the work required by the client [6]. Scope management is concerned with defining and controlling the scope. It assumes greater importance than all other knowledge areas of project management. The scope should define the project by what should and should not be planned, budgeted, staffed and executed. Project scope also identifies the boundaries separating excluded activities or resources from those, which must be included for the project execution.
\nAs stated earlier, projects are characterized by unknown factors and ambiguity, which delay the detailed development of scope and specifications to later stage of the project. Consequently, the scope of the project continually changes throughout the project. Sometimes, the original objective of the project may also change as the project progresses and we learn more about what is needed, what is possible, and what the costs are going to be. All these changes will impact on the project scope and its management.
\nDespite these changes, a clearly defined scope is crucial to developing a project plan, which provides a baseline for managing the schedule, the budget, and the detailed work of the project. Without a clearly defined scope, we have no basis for tracking progress on the project as defined or for altering schedule and cost criteria should the client request changes in the original project plan.
\nOnce a project has been initiated, the project manager and an early-stage project team begin scope management by creating a preliminary scope statement based on the project charter. The preliminary scope statement formalizes between the project and its customer an agreement regarding quantifying project/product objectives and clarifying specific deliverables.
\nWhile the preliminary scope statement sets objectives at a higher level of abstraction, these objectives must be defined in as much detail as possible before explicit schedules, budgets, and work plans can be developed during the planning phase of the project management life cycle [9]. At this point, historical information and expert opinion are applied within the constraints and assumptions of the present project to create a body of requirements necessary for guiding project execution. This body of requirements is the foundation of scope definition, which subdivides the major project deliverables into smaller, more manageable components. It is important to translate requirements of the client into specifications, which denote finality and clear definition of project outcomes with specific quality parameters and measures.
\nThis preliminary scope statement document sets various product performance criteria, delineates the initial project organization, boundaries, assumptions and constraints, while providing a high-level WBS and order of magnitude cost estimates [2, 6]. Below is an example of deliverable-oriented WBS (Figure 1).
\nDeliverable-oriented WBS.
This preliminary will be refined into the formal scope statement as the project moves into its planning phase. This refinement comes in the form of WBS. It provides a cornerstone of the scope management plan, which lays out how objectives and deliverables will be administered and how scope changes will be integrated into the project.
\nWBS identifies all project activities to be executed but it does not include estimates of time, resources, or project costs. WBS should be initially developed at a higher level and expanded to include more specifications as you incorporate additional requirements of the project. As a next step, you will develop first two or three levels of the WBS, which essentially contain deliverables. These higher-level work elements are broken down into smaller and smaller work packages so that you can have manageable tasks to complete at any given point in the project [6]. The work package list is both inclusive and exhaustive. Preferably, these tasks should be at level 3 or lower. Remember that a good WBS encourages a systematic planning process, reduces the possibility of omission of key project work elements, and simplifies the project by dividing it into manageable units.
\nTo estimate cost for a work element, we need the following information:
Resources required (people, equipment, tools, materials)
Duration of usage (time unit)
Cost rate for time unit
Duration may not be relevant for materials, which are absorbed for completing the work. Number of resources for each resource multiplied by its duration and the rate will provide an estimate of that resource cost. Adding all the resource costs will give you an estimate of the activity cost. We sum up all these activity costs of the project to determine the total estimated project cost. These costs must then be managed and controlled along with the schedule throughout the project execution phase.
\nThe most accurate and most reliable estimate for a project can be developed when all of the elements of the WBS have been identified with a reasonable degree of reliability and when the resource breakdown structure (RBS) has been defined with the desired degree of certainty [2]. This estimate is referred to as the bottom-up estimate and it is derived from detailed information that is contained in the WBS and RBS at the time of the estimate. Resource Breakdown Structure (RBS) is similar to WBS. By resources we mean everything that will cost money to obtain and are necessary for the completion of the project (labor, materials, equipment, licenses, taxes). RBS follows the WBS structure of hierarchy and we can classify resources into major categories such as:
People
Materials and installed equipment
Tools, machinery
Fees, licenses
To be useful, RBS should be accurate and reliable, so it needs to be updated periodically. An example of RBS is provided below (Figure 2).
\nRBS sample.
Detailed and accurate estimates require substantial definitive information about the project. Further, they require a relatively large block of time and effort for the estimating task. Therefore, one needs to strike a balance between the time spent on estimating, the accuracy of the results, and the degree of accuracy required by the stakeholders at the point in the project life. Project management methodologies recognize various tools and strategies to support project cost estimating.
\nBottom-up estimate.
Once the costs of all work packages have been estimated, supplementary information documented, and cost accounts assigned, then these costs are rolled up to highest level of the WBS to determine project cost. This is a process of progressively totaling the work package estimates to their higher levels of detail.
\nTime Management is required to accomplish timely completion of the project and organizes it into six components, five of which occur during the planning phase of project lifecycles:
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In general, scheduling tools include:
Milestone charts
Flowcharts
Bar (Gantt) Charts
Network Diagrams
Of these, the network diagram shows interdependencies of all tasks and illustrate the workflow of the project and assumes greater importance.
\nNetwork diagrams have evolved as a de facto standard for building project schedules because of their emphasis is on activity dependencies. They depict entire projects, or subprojects, as visual maps that portray activities in their required order of execution. These diagrams can be developed in one of the following two forms:
Activity-on-Arrow (AOA), also called Activity-on-Line (AOL) or Arrow Diagramming Method (ADM)
Activity-on-Node (AON) also called Precedence Diagram Method (PDM)
AOA diagramming is almost never seen today in popular software programs due to the fact that additional memory is needed to program the dummy activities.
\nAON or precedent diagramming was developed in the late 1960’s specifically to “do away” with the dummy activity. In this form of diagramming, the arrow represents “precedence;” it simply identifies what activity must be completed before the next can begin, with the arrowhead representing direction of flow through the network. In precedent diagramming the arrow does not represent work accomplished. Instead, work is represented on the node of the network – and in this case the node is represented by a rectangle with the name of the activity within the rectangle. Other information may also be entered into the rectangular node, including early start, early finish, late start, late finish, duration, cost, etc. The IT industry has adopted precedent diagramming as its predominant form of network diagramming.
\nNetwork diagramming is a scheduling technique fundamental to the skills of any project manager. There are a few basic rules, or accepted practices, that apply to all network diagrams:
An arrow is a straight line and the arrows showing precedence may have right angles built into them. Good practice requires that all such bent arrows be bent at right angles, and only at right angles, so that we can clearly identify that the bend was intended.
An arrow is always directional, with the arrowhead demonstrating the direction. There must be an arrowhead on each arrow to indicate its direction.
The arrows cross each other frequently – but when good practice is used these arrows will cross each other at right angles. The purpose of this is to help us follow the arrows without getting sidetracked onto another arrow.
In well-formatted network diagrams, arrows may proceed from the left to the right, they can proceed up, or they can proceed down on the paper. In the absence of arrows, one can assume that the activities proceed from left to right.
Every project has one, and only one, starting point; and one, and only one, ending point. This is easily accomplished in the AOA format, but it is an accepted practice that is frequently violated in AON networks. The way to correct this error in AON formats is to add two additional nodes, one labeled “start” and the other labeled end. Then, all of your initial activities are initiated from the start node and all of your hanging activities will be tied in to the end node. Of course, the duration of both the start and end nodes will be zero.
\nHas 3 estimates per activity: Optimistic (O), Pessimistic (P), and Most likely (M)
PERT calculates an estimated time using the following equation: ((P + 4 M + O)/6)
These estimates can be used to describe a Beta Distribution. You are probably familiar with a Normal Distribution (similar to the shape of a Bell and used in Six Sigma Quality Management). A Beta Distribution has a different shape as shown in Figure 4.
Estimation.
Notice how there is a long tail to this distribution making different than a normal distribution where the m would be an equal distance between the a and the b and would represent the 50/50 mark of a distribution (50% of sample times falls to the left of m and 50% of sample times falls to the right of m).
\nAlthough this technique may use the words critical path, it does not refer to finding the critical path. It refers to estimating based on one time estimate per activity.
The critical path is the longest path in the network diagram.
There may be more than one critical path.
Allows you to identify potential points where project can go “off schedule” and slack or “float time” that allows you to delay some tasks that are not on the critical path.
This method will create a project duration that is closer to reality than CPM or PERT. This method uses computers to simulate the outcome of a project based on PERT estimates and the network diagram, but does not use the PERT formula. Simulation can tell you the probability of completing the project on any specific day, probability of completing the project for any specific amount of cost, probability of any task actually being on the critical path, and overall project risk.
\nThe network diagram shows the sequence of work elements required to reach project completion. Note that the initial stage of the network diagramming does not require time or cost estimates. We simply determine the most logical and technically viable approach to completing the project and use the network format to visualize this scenario. You must remember that initial network diagram logic is dictated by work-related constraints only; you should not introduce resource and time constraints at that time.
\nOnce the network illustrating a logical flow of work elements in the project is developed, you can assign (or assume) resources to each activity and develop initial task time estimates. These estimates are then aggregated across the network to calculate its critical path, and the slack times associated with each activity. These calculations are based on a forward pass to compute the earliest start and finish times for each activity, and then a backward pass to determine the latest start and finish times of the activity. Then the difference between the earliest and latest times for any activity gives us its slack time. All activities with slack times of zero duration constitute the critical path(s) for the project.
\nQuality management refers to the processes required to ensure that projects satisfy the needs for which they are undertaken. These processes should make certain that a project does not deviate from agreed-upon specifications. Quality management requires accurate assessment of stakeholder needs and requirements during both project planning and implementation. It is important to remember that quality must be planned in as opposed to inspected in. Without adequate quality management, projects may face the risk of increased costs while compromising the project team morale and customer satisfaction.
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One of the most important tasks a project manager must focus on when planning quality is to define quality and how it will be measured (i.e., What defines Project Success?). When developing these metrics, Project Managers should remember to include both quantitative (benchmark specifications, experiments, and financial/cost metrics) and qualitative (subjective assessment) metrics.
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It is important that you understand how these tools operate. Most of these tools are not specific to project environments. They have been developed and utilized to enhance better products and processes in continuous manufacturing environments.
\nRisk is an exposure to a situation that is usually associated with unfavorable outcome [10]. Project risk is an uncertain event or conditions that, if occurs, has a positive or a negative effect on at least on one of the project objectives. The possible result of a risk is either loss or gain. If left unaddressed or ignored, specifically, the negative risk, it could potentially interfere with the successful completion of the project and may result in time and cost overruns, or diminished quality of the product or service. Risk is integral to a project as it is a new effort that is associated with unknowns and uncertainties. In general, when you try something new, risk is inevitable.
\nIt is important to make a distinction between a risk and a problem. A problem is identified and known in a current time-frame and it is a certain event. Therefore, it demands an immediate solution. A risk is a probable and a potential event that may occur in future. Even when a risk event takes place, its consequences are uncertain [10]. A risk is also known or unknown event. Risks are problems that have not occurred yet. A risk can become a problem if it is not planned or managed. Occurrence and assessment of a project risk is a combination of an event which is unanticipated or unwanted, likelihood of its occurrence and its impact on project execution. So, identifying, analyzing, and responding are the essential elements of risk planning.
\nManaging project risk is inevitable and important to project performance. Risk management is the art and science of identifying, analyzing, and responding to risk factors throughout the life of a project and in the best interest of project objectives and metrics for project success. The purpose of risk management is to address risks associated with projects in a systematic manner. If not addressed comprehensively and completely, risks can lead to failure of projects in terms of cost, scope, and project deliverables [11]. The goal of risk management is to maximize the results of positive events and minimize the consequences of negative events. Sources of a risk in a project can be understood from the risk breakdown structure (Figure 5).
\nRisk breakdown structure.
A formal or informal approach to planning and managing risks within a project depends on the impact of risks on project objectives such as financial targets, timely and successful completion of the project. However, it is critical that we understand the formalized approach to risk management. In taking a more formal approach to this process, the PMBOK defines risk management as consisting of (1) Plan risk management (2) Identify risks, (3) Perform qualitative risk analysis, (4) Perform quantitative risk analysis, (5) Plan risk responses, and (6) Control risks. In this learning module, we will focus on the first five of these processes, leaving (6) control risk to be covered later in the program. Various strategies for managing risk are:
Accept: absorb the potential damages
Mitigate: develop protective measures
Transfer: re-route the risk to someone else
Avoid: use an entirely different approach
The risk management plan is a complex process, influenced significantly by organizational and project context, the cultural and operational styles of the performing organizations, as well as the individual perceptions and risk tolerances of management and of the other project stakeholders. Understanding management and stakeholder risk tolerances is critical: customers, sponsors and senior management are expected to have different perceptions of what constitute acceptable risks. Risk management plan should address each of the above considerations in a manner, which is relevant to the individual project and its unique environment.
\nProjects are executed in teams. In general, projects are managed using teams in a work environment that is complex for two reasons: first, each project is unique, and second, conditions for team selection and motivation are often far from ideal [3]. In addition to uniqueness and complexity, unfamiliarity is often described as one of the characteristics of projects and as a result, projects are often associated with change. Consequently, successful project performance requires strong leadership, which provides vision and ability to cope with change.
\nProjects, by definition, are unique and are often associated with uncertainties and unknowns. It is reasonable to assume that in project management, it is not if the plans will change, it is when, what will change, and by how much. If anything is constant in a project, it is the change. When changes are significant in a project, which is often the case, leadership role assumes greater importance. Leadership has its efforts directed towards convincing people about the need to change, aligning them to a new direction, and motivating people to work together to achieve project objectives under difficult and demanding work environments [12].
\nMotivating the project team involves getting the team members to do the tasks that need to be done, not because they have to do them but because they understand the value of their work to the overall success of the project and they want to do them. If people want to do what we need to have them do, their commitment is bound to be greater, and the job is likely to be accomplished much better than if they were being forced to do the work.
\nProject managers must understand the personal aspirations of project team members and support them. The project manager’s leadership skills play an important role in motivating and guiding the project team to grow as professionals while accomplishing project goals at the same time. In essence, project managers should ensure that both personal and project goals are accomplished and that the conflict between these two goals is minimized [7].
\nThe project manager’s job is to get others to do what the project manager needs them to do, not because they have to but because they want to. Empowerment means providing freedom to people (not control) so that they can successfully do what they want to do. This is very different from making them do what you want them to do. Empowerment makes sense on projects. Projects typically employ a multidisciplinary approach, requiring subject matter experts from different functional areas. Each person brings unique expertise, and experience to the project team. By letting project team members make decisions and set goals pertaining to their roles and functions, the project manager can empower the team.
\nPlan-driven or traditional project management presents a transformation view of production. It is based on principles of: managing the project as planned, using the plan for execution, monitoring and for control. The plan includes measures for monitoring progress and completion. The plan-driven or traditional approach is suitable when we can define the scope and specify deliverables precisely. In this approach, uncertainties and unknowns may still exist but they may not be challenging or disruptive to the project deliverable [13]. However, the traditional or plan-driven project management approach may be challenged if a project is complex and changes are major.
\nWhen a project lacks complete understanding of the project deliverables or outcomes, or when a project is associated with fast-paced technological changes, or needs of the client are unclear, change-driven or Agile method is preferred. These projects are associated with uncertainties and change. The client may reveal functional outcomes incrementally as the project makes progress and results are assessed. The project adapts change-driven approach and project team’s immediate focus is on generating value to the client.
\nThe main difference between the plan-driven and change-driven approaches is that instead of freezing specifications early and developing a fixed plan, the Agile approach adapts flexibility to modify and alter project plans to address critical and changing business needs [13].
\nDrought is a worldwide natural hazard and has a detrimental impact on society, the environment, and the economy [1]. Extreme hydrological events both high (flood) and low (drought) flow are of particular concern globally. Of these hydrological extremes, drought is the most complex and widespread [2]. It is one of the most common natural events that has devastating negative impacts on agriculture and water resources [3].
There is no universal definition for drought due to its complexity [4]. Therefore, meteorologists defined drought as a scarcity of precipitation [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; hydrologists have defined hydrological drought as scarcity of surface and subsurface water [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]; agriculturalists and agronomists defined agricultural drought as related to soil moisture deficiency [3, 16, 17] and sociologists and economists defined the overall welfare crisis of the society caused by drought to be socioeconomical drought [4, 18, 19, 20, 21]. These types of droughts have accumulating effects, thus meteorological drought results in losses, such as crop stress, predation by pests, and disease due to low moisture, to the agricultural systems while hydrological drought causes the shortage of water supply, decrease in reservoir water level and groundwater volume, lower irrigation and hydropower production [14]. The accumulation of meteorological and hydrological drought results in socioeconomical drought in which the overall ecosystem will be disturbed and human and animal lives will be negatively impacted and even lost [15].
Historically, Ethiopia has faced multiple seasonal drought events due to erratic rainfall and climate change [22]. The most drought-prone areas in Ethiopia are in Northeast Ethiopia and the Upper Blue Nile basin, including the Northern Tigray region, some parts of Amhara regions, such as South Wollo, North Wollo, South Gondar, and Afar Region, most parts of Somalia Region, and Eastern parts of Oromia Region [1, 3, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. Drought in Ethiopia occurs at a recurrence interval of 3–10 years [1], and even though this frequent recurrence is common, there still lacks any firmly established drought mitigation measure for these events. Only short-term response efforts are provided in the form of food aid when food supplies have decreased significantly due to extended drought.
Meteorological drought analysis has been studied frequently, yet hydrological and agricultural drought analysis and monitoring are not studied adequately. It is thought that Ethiopia is a water tower in East Africa but water resource management over the region is not well developed. This aggravates the natural hazard, such as drought impact on human life. Hydrological drought has a great influence on water supply irrigation and power production by reducing the availability of surface and subsurface water. There are few dams and reservoirs in the country and most of them are hydropower plants. But there is a lack of water conservation to reduce drought impact when it occurs. Generally, drought monitoring and forecasting studies are untouched and need a thorough investigation to alleviate socioeconomic problems related to drought.
The objective of this review chapter is to assess the status of hydrological drought studies in Ethiopia by reviewing different previously studied article papers related to drought. A total of 24 article papers was reviewed and the master plan of the eight-river basin was also reviewed. Of these, only two papers were related to hydrological drought and the remains were about meteorological and other drought-related topics. This implies that hydrological drought studies in Ethiopia require further analysis, monitoring, and forecasting investigation. Therefore, it is important to do this kind of review to show the gap of drought studies over the region for future researchers, stakeholders, and planners to develop a suitable early warning system.
Ethiopia has an ample amount of water resources when compared to other African countries yet the development is still poor. There are 12 major river basins in the country which generate an annual runoff of 123 BM3 (Table 1). From these, Aysha and Ogaden river basins are dry and the Mereb and Denakle have insignificant streamflow over the year, the border basins from North to East direction (Figure 1). Eight river basins have a well-organized master plan, however, only the three river basins (Abbay, Awash, and Tekeze) are popularly studied for the development of irrigation, water supply, and hydropower projects. Different types of drought studies were also relatively studied in these river basins. In the Wabishebele river basin, one hydrological drought analysis was studied by Awas [26]. Abbay and Awash basins have good hydrometeorological data and are highly invested when compared to other river basins. This review is focused on the assessment of hydrological drought analysis and the drought mitigation approach of previous research in Ethiopia, related to drought.
River basin | Area (km2) | Annual runoff (BM3) | Terminus |
---|---|---|---|
Abbay | 199,912 | 52.6 | Mediterranean |
Awash | 110,000 | 4.6 | Within the country |
Baro | 75,912 | 23.6 | Mediterranean |
Genale Dawa | 172,259 | 5.8 | Indian Ocean |
Omo Gibe | 79,000 | 17.9 | Lake Turkana |
Tekeze | 82,350 | 7.6 | Mediterranean |
Rift Valley | 52,000 | 5.6 | Chew Bahir |
Wabishebele | 202,220 | 4.6 | Indian Ocean |
Mereb | 5900 | 0.26 | Sudanese Wetland |
Denakle | 64,380 | 0.86 | Within the country |
Aysha | 2223 | 0 | |
Ogaden | 77,120 | 0 | |
Characteristics of Ethiopian major river basins.
Source: River Basin Master Plan; Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity, Ethiopia.
Drought study information of Ethiopian river basins.
Seasonal variation of streamflow over Ethiopian river basins.
Spatially, the Abbay river basin is the largest and it covers 43.1% of the surface runoff of the country. The general characteristics of each river basin in the country are given in Table 1. In Ethiopia, there is a high seasonal flow and rainfall variation. As shown in Figures 2 and 3, Abbay and Omo gibe river basins have a high flow when compare to other river basins and overall the maximum flow is obtained during the summer season from June to August (JJA).
Ethiopia has 12 major river basins, most of which are transboundary rivers except the Awash river. The total surface water is estimated at 124 BM3 and the groundwater potential is estimated near 30 BM3 [28]. Up to 70% of the surface water is originated from the central and western highlands on the western sides of the Great Rift Valley flow to the west into the Nile river basin system that covers 39% of the landmass and the remaining 30% of surface water originated from eastern highlands flow into east that covers 61% of the landmass.
Mean monthly rainfall of eight river basins in Ethiopia.
Ethiopia is experienced severe drought problems for the last decades. According to Mohammed et al., the most drought years in North East Highlands of Ethiopia were 1984, 1987, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1999, 2003, 2004, 2007, and 2008 [1]. Bayissa et al. also found that 1984/85 and 2003/04 were the extreme drought years in the Upper Blue Nile basin in Ethiopia [29]. Based on EM-DAT, 2014, the most severe drought years in Ethiopia from 1900 to 2013 were 1965, 1969, 1973, 1983, 1987, 1989, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2009, and 2012 with an average recurrence interval of 4 years [30]. Generally, the year 1984 was a bad drought event in Ethiopia and it was globally known. Here, all the above-stated drought years were analyzed based on meteorological drought indicators, especially standardized precipitation index (SPI) and palm drought severity index (PDSI).
To review the status of hydrological drought conditions in Ethiopia, important data were collected from the Ministry of Water, Irrigation, and Electricity, department of Basin Development Authority. The river basin master plan was thoroughly reviewed and previous drought-related studies in Ethiopia were also assessed.
During this review, 24 articles and conference papers related to drought studies in Ethiopia were collected. From these, nine papers are meteorological drought studies, seven papers are general drought impact studies, and the remaining eight were agricultural, hydrological, and socioeconomic drought studies (Tables 2 and 3). Surprisingly, except for some general drought studies related to drought impact over the country, other drought studies were conducted in some specific parts of the country. Especially meteorological drought studies were highly focused on the Abbay river basin (Upper Blue Nile) and Awash river basin. Agricultural and socioeconomic drought studies slightly tried to see the overall drought conditions in Ethiopia. However, these are also not studied in-depth.
No. | Author | Title | Drought Category |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Philip et al. [22] | Attribution analysis of the Ethiopian drought of 2015 | General |
2 | Belayneh et al. [2] | Long-term SPI drought forecasting in the Awash river basin in Ethiopia using wavelet neural network and wavelet support vector regression models | Meteorological |
3 | Yimer et al. 2017 | Meteorological drought assessment in northeast highlands of Ethiopia | Meteorological |
4 | Araya and Leo Stroosnijder, 2011 | Assessing drought risk and irrigation need in northern Ethiopia | General |
5 | Enyew et al. [27] | Assessment of the impact of climate change on hydrological drought in Lake Tana catchment, Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia | Hydrological |
6 | Edosa et al., 2010 | Drought analysis in the Awash river basin, Ethiopia | Hydrometeorological |
7 | USAID Report, 2018 | Economics of resilience to drought; Ethiopia analysis | Socioeconomic |
8 | Philip et al. [22] | The drought in Ethiopia, 2015 | General |
9 | Jjemba et al. | Extreme drought in Ethiopia stretches drought management systems | Socioeconomic |
10 | Gebrehiwot et al. [24] | Spatial and temporal assessment of drought in the Northern highlands of Ethiopia | Meteorological |
11 | Bayissa et al. [17] | Comparison of the performance of six drought indices in characterizing historical drought for the Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia | Meteorological |
12 | Awass [26] | Hydrological drought analysis occurrence, severity, risks: the case of Wabishebele river basin, Ethiopia | Hydrological |
13 | EL Kenawy et al., 2016 | Changes in the frequency and severity of meteorological drought over Ethiopia from 1960 to 2013 | Meteorological |
14 | Bayissa et al. [29] | Spatio-temporal assessment of meteorological drought under the influence of varying record length: the case of Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia | Meteorological |
15 | Zeleke et al. [18] | Trend and periodicity of drought over Ethiopia | Meteorological |
16 | Teshome and Zhang [20] | Increase of extreme drought over Ethiopia under climate warming | General |
17 | Viste et al. [19] | Recent drought and precipitation tendencies in Ethiopia | General |
18 | Getachew et al., 2020 | Application of artificial neural networks in forecasting a standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index for the Upper Blue Nile basin | Meteorological |
19 | Getachew, 2018 | Drought and its impacts in Ethiopia | Socioeconomic |
20 | Temam et al., 2019 | Long-term drought trends in ethiopia with implications for dryland agriculture | Agricultural |
21 | Dawit et al., 2019 | Comparison of meteorological and agriculture-related drought indicators across Ethiopia | Meteorological and agricultural |
22 | Y.A. Bayissa et al., 2018 | Developing a satellite-based combined drought indicator to monitor agricultural drought: a case study for Ethiopia | Agricultural |
23 | IDA GRANT-H0280, 2011 | Emergency drought recovery project (EDRP) in Ethiopia | General |
24 | Sara Pantuliano and Mike Wekesa, 2008 | Improving drought response in pastoral areas of Ethiopia | General |
Summary of selected literature related to drought studies in Ethiopia for this review.
N0. | Basin | Article related to meteorological drought | Articles related to hydrological drought |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Abbay | 3 | 1 |
2 | Awash | 2 | |
3 | Omo-Gibe | 1 | |
4 | Rift Valley | 1 | |
5 | Tekeze | 2 | |
6 | Wabishebele | 1 |
Different types of drought studies status in each river basin.
Agricultural and socioeconomic drought studies were not focused on a particular river basin. Total 13 articles, including agricultural, socioeconomic, and general concepts, and drought impacts in Ethiopia were covered in some parts of the country without specifying a particular river basin.
Ethiopia has been affected by drought many times over the last few centuries. However, drought studies and mitigation measurement investigation are still limited. Although there are few drought studies in the country; it is insufficient. Especially agricultural, hydrological and socioeconomic drought studies are untouched. As shown in Table 4 and Figure 4, most drought studies in Ethiopia are focused on meteorological drought and other general drought-related impact assessments. Meteorological drought is highly varying within the short-period scale in a month depending on the precipitation variability. Therefore, drought analysis from a short-time scale may lead to an erroneous conclusion. But hydrological drought study requires a long-term time scale greater than 6-month cumulative drought conditions of the study area. Mostly hydrological drought analysis is conducted annually based on and above, which will give some concrete information about the drought situation of a particular study area. From this review, hydrological drought studies were covered only 8.33%, which implies that it needs further study (one article in Abbay subbasin and one article from Wabishebele basin). Almost 78% of the study were concentrated in North Eastern and Upper Blue Nile basin, Tekeze and Abbay, and Awash river basin and which is meteorological drought (Table 3). Two researchers have been studied, hydrological drought in Abbay and Wabishebele basins (Table 3). But the remaining six basins are still not studied. Now the government of Ethiopia is planning to transform from agricultural lead to industrial transformation. This will have achieved when the natural resource will be properly managed and utilized. Water is the central part of all infrastructures development. However, the master plan of major river basins in Ethiopia focused only on the potential assessment of irrigation and hydropower, and there is no drought trend analysis and future hydrological drought forecasting. Hydrological drought affects irrigation, water supply, hydropower, and other water-related sectors. So, it is important to study the historical hydrological drought characteristics, such as frequency, magnitude, duration, severity, and future probability of the basin streamflow to satisfy all demands.
Type of drought | Number of studies | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|
Meteorological drought | 9 | 37.5 |
Hydrological drought | 2 | 8.33 |
Agricultural drought | 3 | 12.5 |
Socioeconomic drought | 3 | 12.5 |
General related to drought impact | 7 | 29.16 |
Total articles reviewed | 24 | 100 |
Types of drought studies over Ethiopia.
Percentage of drought studies in Ethiopia (MD = meteorological drought, HD = hydrological drought, AD = agricultural drought, SED = socioeconomical drought, and GD = general drought-related studies).
As far as reviewed from the basins master plan report and previous pieces of literature, there is no method adopted to analyze the hydrological drought in the region. But for sustainable water resource development, mitigation measurements of the extreme hydrological events, such as floods and drought, are impropriated. Otherwise, simply constructing any structure in the basin alone may not be a solution to improve poverty over the country.
From the reviewed papers, 37.5% was covered meteorological drought analysis and monitoring studies, and agricultural drought studies were covered 12.5% (Table 4). Ethiopia is highly dependent on rainfed agriculture; so, meteorological and agricultural drought analysis, monitoring, and early warning system development are crucial. But still, there is no well-adopted drought analysis technique for a nationwide or a regional level. As a result, the development of drought early warning system has lacked. At the same time, hydrological drought analysis and monitoring is also key point for river basin development and water resource management. But due to its large input data requirement, hydrological drought study is not further investigated.
The socioeconomic of Ethiopia is continuously affected by frequent drought disasters. It is difficult to cope with subsequent years after drought has occurred. Up to 29.16% of the reviewed papers were related to drought impact, attribution, economics resilience to drought, extreme drought assessment, trend, and periodicity of drought in Ethiopia [4, 18, 19, 20]. Except for some articles, most of the reviewed articles were conducted in some parts of the country and did not give good information about the effect of drought in the country.
During any river basin master planning, considering extreme hydrological events, such as floods and drought, are the important issues for sustainable water resource development. Otherwise, simply focusing on the investigation and assessment of the available natural resources in a specific river basin and utilization of the resource will never bring development. Particular attention is to be given to drought-affected areas and conjunctive use of ground and surface water is encouraged. Aridity is the general characteristic of an arid climate and represents a (relatively) permanent condition, while drought is temporary. In an arid climate, drought can still occur when local conditions are even drier than normal. But 90% of the reviewed studies in Ethiopia were conducted on arid and semiarid areas of the region. Generally, hydrological drought study lacked in the country. Therefore, in the future, it is important to focus on hydrological drought monitoring and forecasting to achieve the sustainable utilization of available water resources in Ethiopia.
All the river basin master plan documents were freely accessed from the Ministry of Water, Irrigation, and Electricity of Ethiopia. Therefore, great gratitude is given to all the staff members of the ministry, especially for Basin Development Authority Department.
We declared that we have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this chapter.
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Catarina Guedes and F. Xavier Malcata",authors:[{id:"83136",title:"Prof.",name:"F. Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Malcata",slug:"f.-xavier-malcata",fullName:"F. 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Labella, C. Berbel, M. Manchado, D. Castro and J.J. Borrego",authors:[{id:"67855",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan J.",middleName:null,surname:"Borrego",slug:"juan-j.-borrego",fullName:"Juan J. Borrego"},{id:"71146",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Labella",slug:"alejandro-labella",fullName:"Alejandro Labella"},{id:"71148",title:"Dr.",name:"Concepcion",middleName:null,surname:"Berbel",slug:"concepcion-berbel",fullName:"Concepcion Berbel"},{id:"71149",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Manchado",slug:"manuel-manchado",fullName:"Manuel Manchado"},{id:"71151",title:"Dr.",name:"Dolores",middleName:null,surname:"Castro",slug:"dolores-castro",fullName:"Dolores Castro"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"35141",title:"Antibiotics in Aquaculture – Use, Abuse and Alternatives",slug:"antibiotics-in-aquaculture-use-abuse-and-alternatives",totalDownloads:19357,totalCrossrefCites:138,totalDimensionsCites:293,abstract:null,book:{id:"2052",slug:"health-and-environment-in-aquaculture",title:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture"},signatures:"Jaime Romero, Carmen Gloria Feijoo and Paola Navarrete",authors:[{id:"72898",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Romero",slug:"jaime-romero",fullName:"Jaime Romero"},{id:"79684",title:"Dr.",name:"Paola",middleName:null,surname:"Navarrete",slug:"paola-navarrete",fullName:"Paola Navarrete"},{id:"83411",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Feijoo",slug:"carmen-feijoo",fullName:"Carmen Feijoo"}]},{id:"69948",title:"Floating Cage: A New Innovation of Seaweed Culture",slug:"floating-cage-a-new-innovation-of-seaweed-culture",totalDownloads:974,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Eucheumatoid cultivation continues to expand with a variety of methods that can increase production. This chapter will discuss an innovation in seaweed cultivation of the genus Eucheuma, which is the prime marine commodity in the tropical regions of the world. Research conducted during 2015-2017 and 2019 in Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia, provided an overview of the use of floating cage that showed very significant growth results. The research result showed that the growth rates of Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii in floating cage seemed faster and resulted in better thallus morphology. Daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii that were cultivated in floating cage was higher than daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated on longline. Specific growth rate (SGR) of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using floating cage method was also higher than E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using longline method. Moreover, the cultivation by using floating cages produces good growth rates with no effect of herbivore attacks.",book:{id:"8928",slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture"},signatures:"Ma’ruf Kasim, Abdul Muis Balubi, Ahmad Mustafa, Rahman Nurdin, Rahmad Sofyan Patadjai and Wardha Jalil",authors:[{id:"309893",title:"Prof.",name:"Maruf",middleName:null,surname:"Kasim",slug:"maruf-kasim",fullName:"Maruf Kasim"},{id:"313040",title:"MSc.",name:"Abdul Muis",middleName:null,surname:"Balubi",slug:"abdul-muis-balubi",fullName:"Abdul Muis Balubi"},{id:"313041",title:"MSc.",name:"Wardha",middleName:null,surname:"Jalil",slug:"wardha-jalil",fullName:"Wardha Jalil"},{id:"313042",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",slug:"ahmad-mustafa",fullName:"Ahmad Mustafa"},{id:"313043",title:"MSc.",name:"Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Nurdin",slug:"rahman-nurdin",fullName:"Rahman Nurdin"},{id:"313044",title:"MSc.",name:"Rahmat Sofyan",middleName:null,surname:"Patadjai",slug:"rahmat-sofyan-patadjai",fullName:"Rahmat Sofyan Patadjai"}]},{id:"62842",title:"Integrated Rice and Aquaculture Farming",slug:"integrated-rice-and-aquaculture-farming",totalDownloads:1919,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The burning problems like scarcity of food for ever-growing human population in the present world are addressed by adapting various methods for production of protein, carbohydrate, oils and other food materials. One of the methods to produce high amount of food is integrated farming including rice-aquaculture farming, which produces protein and carbohydrate as major components besides others. Rice-aquaculture farming produces grain (carbohydrate) and animal protein without affecting the quality and quantity of rice yield on the same piece of land and renders additional financial gain besides main crop (rice) like conventional monoculture. The aquatic species grown in the integrated culture are mainly distinct types of fishes, selected crustaceans and other selected species. Profitable rice-aquaculture integrated farming is popular in Asian countries than in Western countries. However, the integrated rice-aquaculture farming has its own limitations. The type of methods, culture species, influencing factors, and pros and cons of rice-aquaculture integrated farming are discussed in the present chapter.",book:{id:"7229",slug:"aquaculture-plants-and-invertebrates",title:"Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Aquaculture - Plants and Invertebrates"},signatures:"Pamuru Ramachandra Reddy and Battina Kishori",authors:[{id:"242524",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramachandra Reddy",middleName:null,surname:"Pamuru",slug:"ramachandra-reddy-pamuru",fullName:"Ramachandra Reddy Pamuru"},{id:"255022",title:"Dr.",name:"Kishori",middleName:null,surname:"Battina",slug:"kishori-battina",fullName:"Kishori Battina"}]},{id:"24074",title:"Embryonic and Larval Development of Freshwater Fish",slug:"embryonic-and-larval-development-of-freshwater-fish",totalDownloads:7466,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"612",slug:"recent-advances-in-fish-farms",title:"Recent Advances in Fish Farms",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Fish Farms"},signatures:"Faruk Aral, Erdinç Şahınöz and Zafer Doğu",authors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"},{id:"29132",title:"Dr.",name:"Zafer",middleName:null,surname:"Dogu",slug:"zafer-dogu",fullName:"Zafer Dogu"},{id:"39952",title:"Dr.",name:"Erdinc",middleName:null,surname:"Sahinoz",slug:"erdinc-sahinoz",fullName:"Erdinc Sahinoz"}]},{id:"68966",title:"Novel Biofloc Technology (BFT) for Ammonia Assimilation and Reuse in Aquaculture In Situ",slug:"novel-biofloc-technology-bft-for-ammonia-assimilation-and-reuse-in-aquaculture-in-situ",totalDownloads:1951,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Ammonia is one of the most harmful risks for success of fish and shrimp culture. There is no effective solution for harmlessness of ammonia in traditional aquaculture operations except exchanging water, which would bring negative effects on environment, or fixing expensive equipment. Biofloc technology (BFT) that appeared in recent years supplies a novel solution for this issue without exchanging huge water and fixing equipment. This technology could assimilate ammonia almost in real time with many other supplemental benefits. Because of the very high nutritional value for fish and shrimp, bioflocs, the by-product of BFT, could also be reused as a complemented food in situ or a gradient for feedstuff to replace expensive fishmeal or be processed to pellet diet to feed fish and shrimp directly. However, some aspects with regard to the effective use of biofloc as a food source for fish and shrimp, such as high lipid content, productivity, and palatability, need to be further researched in detail.",book:{id:"8928",slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture"},signatures:"Hai-Hong Huang",authors:[{id:"305215",title:"Dr.",name:"Hai-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"hai-hong-huang",fullName:"Hai-Hong Huang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"32",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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