\r\n\tThe aim and objectives are to illustrate the current status of ethanol production from different feedstocks and the state of technologies involved in ethanol production from such different feedstock.
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1. Introduction
Epitaxial growth of Ge on Si has received considerable attention for its compatibility with Si process flow and the scarcity of Ge compared with Si. Applications driving the efforts for integrating Ge with Si include: high mobility channel in metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors [1], infrared photodetector in Si-based optical devices [2], and template for III-V growth to fabricate high efficiency solar cells [3].
Ge wafers are the commonly used substrates for the fabrication of high efficiency III-V tandem solar cells [4, 5, 6]. Though cheaper than III-V materials, Ge wafers are over 100 times more expensive than Si accounting for more than 50% of the cell cost [3]. Compared with Ge wafer, Si wafer is an alternative with low cost, superior mechanical properties, and higher band gap more desirable for the bottom cell in a double or triple stack [7]. However, the lattice constant of Si is too small to match that of the III-V materials as shown in Figure 1. The lattice mismatch can induce large densities of defects negating the advantages of Si substrate. Several approaches have been investigated to control the defect density in this mismatched heterostructure including the insertion of various III-V intermediate layers, strained layer super-lattices, and the use of thermal annealing [8]. The obtained material qualities through these methods are not high enough to yield high efficiency III-V cells. A promising alternative is growing a Ge buffer layer to engineer the lattice constant of substrate surface to match that of III-V materials. Ge epitaxial film on Si can be used as a “virtual Ge substrate” for III-V solar cells. The virtual Ge substrate has advantages of superior mechanical properties and low cost over Ge wafer.
Figure 1.
Lattice/band gap diagram for tetrahedrally coordinated semiconductors and their alloys [9].
This work investigates the epitaxial growth of Ge on Si by magnetron sputtering, which is an environment-friendly, economical, high throughput, and simple deposition technique. Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) are widely used for Ge epitaxial growth on Si [10, 11, 12, 13]. The MBE and CVD systems require higher vacuum (5 × 10−11 and 1.5 × 10−9 mbar, respectively) than magnetron sputtering (5 × 10−7 mbar) used in this work [14]. While MBE is the most expensive of the three and toxic gases such as germane and silane are used in a CVD system, magnetron sputtering offers a lower cost and safer alternative in supplying epitaxial Ge films on Si, which is potentially capable of large-scale production with good uniformity. This chapter presents the successful epitaxial growth of Ge on Si by magnetron sputtering, investigation on the effects of substrate temperature, and the development of a novel method to grow epitaxial Ge on Si by magnetron sputtering at low temperature through one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization.
2. Growth mechanism of Ge epitaxy on Si
2.1. Stranski-Krastanow growth
Three modes are possible in epitaxial growth: Frank-van der Merwe [15], Volmer-Weber [16], and Stranski-Krastanow [17], as shown in Figure 2. Frank-van der Merwe and Volmer-Weber modes are pure 2D layer-by-layer growth and 3D island growth, respectively. Stranski-Krastanow (SK mode) is a unique mode of 2D growth plus 3D island formation.
Figure 2.
Illustrations of three possible epitaxial growth modes: Frank-van der Merwe, Volmer-Weber, and Stranski-Krastanow [18].
The interfacial free energy and the lattice mismatch determine which growth mode will be adopted in a given system [18]. In lattice-matched systems, the epitaxial film grows either in layer-by-layer mode or island growth mode depending on the interface energy and surface energy of the epitaxial film. In systems with large lattice mismatch, the growth mode may transit from 2D to island growth (SK mode) to relax strain in the epitaxial film. The early stage of the growth could be layer-by-layer due to the small interface energy. With epitaxial film growing thicker, strain energy is accumulated. The island formation is triggered to lower the total energy by introducing misfit dislocations.
The Ge epitaxial growth on Si can be described as SK growth mode due to the 4.2% lattice mismatch between Si and Ge [19, 20]. In order to be used as a virtual substrate for the III-V deposition, smooth Ge surface is required [21, 22]. The island formation kinetics can be suppressed by shortened atomic surface migration length [23]. The reduced diffusion length can forbid the mass transport over a certain distance, which is required to form islands.
The diffusion length of Ge atoms could be reduced by using surfactant [24, 25] or low growth temperature [26, 27]. Sb has been used as a surfactant to suppress the Ge island formation. The energy barrier to diffuse is higher on the surfactant-covered surface than that of pure Si surface. In addition, the Ge atoms may be incorporated below the surfactant layer due to the site exchange process and therefore it is difficult for the Ge on top of the surfactant layer to diffuse as a relatively high diffusion barrier that has to be overcome. However, the use of surfactant also induces the incorporation of Sb leading to a n-type doping in the Ge film [28]. The effect of substrate temperature on the Ge surface roughness will be investigated in this work.
2.2. Lattice mismatch
Due to the 4.2% lattice mismatch between Si and Ge, the Ge epitaxial growth on Si is defect-free only below the critical thickness. The thin wetting layer is compressively strained in plane to adapt its lattice constant to that of the underlying Si substrate. In the meanwhile, a tensile strain is introduced in perpendicular inducing a tetragonal distortion to the Ge lattice. The biaxial strain compensates the lattice mismatch and therefore no defect is formed. The critical thickness for the defect-free growth of strained Ge on Si is in the range of several nanometers, which is also affected by the growth temperature [29].
When Ge growing above the critical thickness, misfit dislocations will nucleate at the interface and thread segments of dislocations run through the layer to the surface as threading dislocations. The misfit dislocations are incorporated to relax the strain arising from the lattice mismatch between Si and Ge by introducing extra half plane of atoms [30]. The misfit dislocations are energetically stable at the Si and Ge interface when Ge layer is above the critical thickness. As byproduct of misfit dislocations, threading dislocations thread either form a dislocation loop or terminate at the film surface. The threading dislocations are detrimental for the electrical devices because they lie cross the whole film reducing the carrier mobility, carrier lifetime, and device reliability [31]. In this work, the epitaxial Ge layer has to be above the critical thickness to achieve a fully relaxed Ge surface matching the lattice of overlying III-V materials. The effect of substrate temperature on the threading dislocation density (TDD) of Ge will be investigated.
3. Epitaxial growth of Ge on Si by magnetron sputtering
3.1. Magnetron sputtering
Sputtering is a physical vapor deposition method. The target and the substrate are put on the cathode and anode, respectively. An inert gas such as argon (Ar) is introduced to create gaseous plasma by applying a voltage between the cathode and anode. The produced ions (Ar+) are accelerated toward the source target to sputter neutral atoms of the target. The ejected neutral atoms will travel to the substrate in a straight line unless they have collision with particles such as Ar atoms. The sputtered atoms, which arrive at the substrate may implant, bounce, diffuse, or simply stick onto the substrate, depending on their kinetic energies. As a result, the substrate will be coated by a thin film composed of target materials.
In conventional RF sputtering, most electrons lose their energy in nonionizing collisions are collected by the anode. The efficiency of ionization from energetic collisions between the electrons and gas atoms is low. Magnets are used to increase the percentage of electrons that participate in the ionization process. Large magnets are formed behind the target by applying a magnetic field at right angles to the electric field. The electrons are trapped near the target surface and kept in spiral motion until they collide with gas atoms. The increased probability of ionization significantly improves the efficiency of target materials sputtering and therefore increases the deposition rate at the substrate. Moreover, this allows the use of lower gas pressure, which may improve the film quality.
Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of the RF magnetron sputtering system employed in this work. Four-inch intrinsic Ge target was used for the depositions of Ge film on Si and 4-inch SiO2 target was used for capping layer deposition. The RF powers were supplied to the Ge and SiO2 targets by two independent RF generators. The RF reverse power was reduced to zero by tuning the variable capacitors in the impedance matching network. Each target had a shutter to isolate the substrate from the plasma. The tilt angle of the targets and the distance between the targets and the substrate could be adjusted to achieve good uniformity.
Figure 3.
Schematic diagram of RF magnetron sputtering system used in this work.
Gas inlet with mass flow meter was used to supply argon into the main chamber. The vacuum in the main chamber was established by a mechanical rotary pump and a turbo molecular pump. Moreover, a load lock chamber was employed to protect the vacuum condition in the main chamber. Quartz halogen lamps were used to heat the substrate. The deposition rate was controlled by varying the RF power applied on the target and measured by a crystal monitor. The substrate was rotated during deposition to improve uniformity of the films.
3.2. Experimental details
In this work, the epitaxial growth of Ge on Si is demonstrated by sputtering Ge target using the AJA ATC-2200 magnetron sputtering system. The base pressure of the chamber was 5 × 10−7 mbar. N-type Si (100) wafers were used as the substrates. The Si substrates were cleaned using RCA solutions [32] followed by a HF dip. The Si substrate was immediately loaded into a load lock chamber after cleaning to minimize the oxidation of the Si surface.
The Ge films were sputter-deposited from a 4-inch intrinsic Ge target (99.999% purity) at a process pressure of 1.5 × 10−3 mbar. Rotation of 30 revolutions per minute was applied to the substrate during deposition to ensure the uniformity of the films. The Ar flow was kept at 15 sccm and the RF power applied to the Ge target was 150 W. The Ge deposition rate was 5 nm/min examined by a quartz crystal deposition rate monitor. 300 nm thick Ge films were sputter-deposited on Si at various substrate temperatures of 300, 400, and 500°C to investigate the effects of substrate temperature. The temperature calibration data was supplied and measured with a Si wafer by the manufacturer of the sputter system.
The surface morphology of Ge films was examined by atomic force microscopy (AFM) with Bruker Icon using the tapping mode. The scan area was 2 × 2 μm. The crystalline quality of the annealed Ge films was analyzed by high resolution X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The XRD measurements were performed with Bruker D8 at a voltage of 45 kV and a current of 100 mA, using Cu Kα1 radiation (λ = 1.5406 Å). The diffractometer was calibrated by making the Si (400) diffraction peak from the substrate maximized and at its theoretical position. Raman spectra of the Ge films were measured with Renishaw inVia Raman microscope using Ar+ laser with wavelength of 514 nm as the excitation source. The beam power was limited to 6 mW to prevent the locally induced crystallization of Ge films during the measurement. Static mode with 20 times accumulation was employed to improve the signal to noise ratio. TEM measurements were conducted with Phillips CM200 microscope operating at 200 kV. The TEM samples were prepared by focused ion beam milling using Nova Nanolab 200.
3.3. Results and discussions
XRD 2θ-Ω scans were conducted on the Ge films deposited on Si at 300, 400, and 500°C in the 2θ range between 20 and 75° to examine the crystallinity of the Ge films. As shown in Figure 4(a), apart from the strong Si (400) peak at 69.2° attributed to the substrate, only one peak at around 66° is observed which corresponds to Ge (400). The absence of any other Ge peaks indicates the Ge films might be single-crystalline Ge (100) which requires further examination by XRD Phi scans. Figure 4(b) shows Si (220) and Ge (220) Phi scan patterns collected from the sample deposited at 300°C by rotating the specimen with respect to the [110] axis. Only the four (220) reflections are observed in the Ge Phi scan pattern suggesting the film is with fourfold symmetry about an axis normal to the substrate [33]. In addition, the Ge (220) reflections align with the Si substrate (220) reflections indicating the Ge is single-crystalline epitaxy film.
Figure 4.
(a) XRD 2θ-Ω diffraction patterns of the Ge films deposited on Si at 300°C, 400°C, and 500°C, (b) Si (220) and Ge (220) phi scan patterns collected from the sample deposited at 300°C showing the epitaxial relationship between the Ge film and Si substrate.
The interface of the Ge film and Si substrate is investigated by high-resolution TEM to confirm the epitaxial growth of Ge on Si. As shown in the atomic-resolution image at the interface in Figure 5, the atoms are continuously aligned from the Si substrate to the grown Ge film suggesting successful epitaxy. This results is in good agreement with the XRD measurements.
Figure 5.
Atomic-resolution cross-sectional TEM image of Ge/Si interface on the sample deposited at 300°C.
The crystallinity of the as-deposited film depends on both the substrate temperature and growth rate as indicated in the schematic diagram shown in Figure 6 [34]. The crystallinity can be improved by increasing the substrate temperature and reducing the growth rate. The XRD and TEM results suggest that substrate temperature of 300°C is enough to obtain single-crystalline Ge epitaxial growth on Si at the growth the rate of 5 nm/min. The effects of substrate temperature on the quality of Ge films are investigated in the following section.
Figure 6.
A schematic phase map of the crystallinity of as-deposited semiconductor films as function of growth rate and temperature [34].
4. Effects of substrate temperature
As reviewed in the previous section, the substrate temperature may play an important role in determining the growth mode. The effects of substrate temperature on the properties of sputter-deposited epitaxial Ge films are discussed in this section. 300 nm thick Ge films were sputter-deposited on Si at various substrate temperatures of 300, 400, and 500°C.
The effect of substrate temperature on surface morphology of the Ge films is investigated using tapping mode AFM. Figure 7 shows the 2D and 3D AFM images of the Ge films deposited at (a) 300°C, (b) 400°C, and (c) 500°C. It can be seen from the 3D AFM images that the surface morphology varies significantly among the Ge films deposited at different temperatures. The root mean square (RMS) surface roughness of the Ge films increases from 0.49 to 6.87 nm with substrate temperature increasing from 300 to 500°C. The increase in surface roughness with increasing substrate temperature indicates the growth switching from layer-by-layer mode to islanding mode with increasing substrate temperature.
Figure 7.
2D and 3D AFM images showing the surface morphology of the Ge films deposited at (a) 300°C, (b) 400°C, and (c) 500°C.
In general, the epitaxial growth of Ge on Si follows the Stranski-Krastanow mode due to the lattice mismatch [18]. The growth initially follows layer-by-layer mode and progresses into island mode when the layer becoming thicker. The thicker layer has large strain energy, which can be lowered by forming isolated thick islands. The island formation can be avoided by reducing the diffusion length of Ge. The reduced diffusion length hinders the mass transport of Ge over large distances which is necessary for the formation of islands [23]. Since the diffusion length of Ge decreases with reducing substrate temperature, the islanding is suppressed at low substrate temperature. As shown in Figure 7, layer-by-layer growth can be obtained at low temperature of 300°C to achieve smooth Ge surface, which is favored for the following III-V deposition. However, the low substrate temperature might induce the degradation of crystallinity simultaneously which will be investigated by the following XRD and TEM measurements.
The XRD reciprocal space mappings (RSM) were conducted to investigate the effect of substrate temperature on the crystallinity of the Ge films. Figure 8 shows the (004) RSM of the Ge films deposited at (a) 300°C, (b) 400°C, and (c) 500°C. Figure 8(a) demonstrates that the Ge diffraction spots are elongated along the Qx direction, which is due to the deteriorated crystal quality [35]. With the substrate temperature increasing from 300 to 500°C, the Ge peak exhibits steeper decay in the Qx direction and the Ge peak position shows a slight upwards shift along the Qz direction. These results indicate that the Ge film deposited at higher temperature has lower defect density and reduced compressive strain.
Figure 8.
XRD (004) reciprocal space maps of the Ge films deposited at (a) 300°C, (b) 400°C, and (c) 500°C.
Micro-Raman spectra were used to investigate the structural property of the surface layer in the Ge samples deposited on Si at 300°C, 400°C, and 500°C. The penetration depth of the laser in the Ge layer was limited within the top 20 nanometers by using the wavelength of 514 nm excitation source [36]. As shown in Figure 9, the Ge films exhibit peaks centered around 300 cm−1 corresponding to the Ge-Ge optical vibration modes [37]. All the Ge films deposited at various temperatures exhibit peaks positioned at a higher wavenumber than the bulk unstrained Ge, suggesting compressive strains in the films. With increasing substrate temperatures, the peak positions of the Ge films shift to lower wavenumbers toward that of the bulk Ge indicating decreased compressive strain in the films [38], which is in agreement with the XRD results.
Figure 9.
Raman spectra of the Ge films deposited on Si at 300, 400, and 500°C.
The reduction of compressive strain with increasing substrate temperature might be due to the difference in linear thermal expansion coefficients between Si and Ge. The thermal expansion coefficient of Ge is Δa/a (Ge) = 5.8 × 10−6 ΔT (°C), which is larger than that of Si, Δa/a (Si) = 2.6 × 10−6 ΔT (°C) [39]. The Ge films, which are nearly fully lattice-matched to the Si substrate at the growth temperature experience tensile strain when cooling to room temperature [40]. This is because the perpendicular lattice parameter of the Ge films shrinks more easily during cooling process than the in-plane lattice which is influenced by the underneath Si substrate with lower thermal expansion coefficient.
Figure 10 shows the cross-sectional TEM images of Ge samples deposited at 300°C in (a) bright and (b) dark field, deposited at 400°C in (c) bright and (d) dark field, and deposited at 500°C in (e) bright and (f) dark field. As shown in Figure 10(a) and (b), the Ge film deposited at 300°C exhibits very high TDD which is estimated to be of the order of 1010 cm−2. The high TDD might be owing to the reduced diffusion length of Ge at low temperature. With increasing substrate temperature, the TDD decreases and some planar defects are observed in the Ge film deposited at 500°C as shown in Figure 10(c)–(f). The density of the planar defects is particularly high in the vicinity area of the Ge/Si interface and most of them are restricted to that region and do not extend to the film surface which is consistent with previous report [41]. The TDD of the Ge film deposited at 500°C is in the order of 109 cm−2, one magnitude order lower than that deposited at 300°C. The improved crystallinity with increasing substrate temperature agrees well with the XRD results.
Figure 10.
Cross-sectional TEM images of Ge samples deposited at 300°C in (a) bright and (b) dark field, deposited at 400°C in (c) bright and (d) dark field, and deposited at 500°C in (e) bright and (f) dark field.
5. Epitaxial growth of Ge on Si at low temperatures by one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization
The aluminum-induced crystallization (AIC) of Si, Ge and SiGe on foreign substrates has been extensively studied by several groups to obtain polycrystalline material at a low temperature [42, 43, 44, 45]. The a-Ge/Al/c-Si structure has been investigated and epitaxial SiGe alloys were obtained [46]. The aforementioned conventional AIC includes two steps: (1) depositing a stacked Al and amorphous Ge layer on the Si substrate, (2) postdeposition annealing to induce the layer exchange process. The postdeposition annealing introduces the diffusion of Si into the Ge layer resulting in formation of SixGe1−x alloy. In order to achieve epitaxial growth of pure Ge on Si through Al at low temperature, one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization is developed.
The novelty of one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization of Ge epitaxy on Si lies in the elimination of the postdeposition annealing step [47]. This process simply requires sequential depositions of Al and Ge films via magnetron sputtering in the same chamber without breaking the vacuum. By applying an in-situ low temperature (50–150°C) heat treatment in between Al and Ge sputter depositions, the epitaxial growth of Ge on Si is achieved. This low temperature process has a low thermal budget and can fabricate pure Ge layer compared with SixGe1−x alloy as obtained in the conventional process. The effects of Al heating temperature on the properties of the epitaxial Ge films are investigated and the mechanism of epitaxial growth of Ge on Si by one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization is discussed based on observations on samples with various Ge deposition times.
The Al films were sputter-deposited onto Si substrates at room temperature using a 2 inch intrinsic Al target (99.999% purity) at a deposition rate of 3 nm/min. The samples then underwent an in-situ heat treatment for 10 minutes prior to the Ge deposition. The Ge films were then sputter-deposited using a 4 inch intrinsic Ge target (99.999% purity) without further intentional substrate heating at 5 nm/min. The Al heating temperatures were varied at 50°C (Sample ID: 60-50-12), 100°C (Sample ID: 60-100-12), and 150°C (Sample ID: 60-150-12) with Al thickness of 60 nm and Ge deposition time of 12 min to investigate the effect of heating temperature. One control sample (Sample ID: 60-NA-12) did not undergo this heat treatment. Shorter Ge deposition of 1 minute (Sample ID: 60-100-1) and 3 minutes (Sample ID: 60-100-3) were experimented on substrates with 60 nm Al deposition and 100°C heat treatment as well with the aim to investigate the mechanism of Ge epitaxial growth on Si by one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization. The Ge samples were analyzed by XRD, TEM and EDS (Phillips CM200 microscope equipped with an EDAX energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy system) measurements.
5.1. Effects of heating temperature
Figure 11(a) shows the XRD 2θ-Ω diffraction patterns of samples 60-NA-12, 60-50-12, 60-00-12 and 60-150-12. For sample 60-NA-12, the XRD pattern shows a peak at 65.2° corresponding to Al (220) and a strong Si (400) peak at 69.2° from the Si substrate. The Ge film on 60-NA-12 is amorphous due to the absence of a Ge peak. For samples 60-50-12, 60-100-12 and 60-150-12, apart from the Al peak and Si peak, a peak located at 66° is present which corresponds to Ge (400). The absence of any other Ge peaks and the results of X-ray Phi scans indicate the Ge films are single-crystalline Ge (100). Figure 11(b) shows the Si (220) and Ge (220) Phi scan patterns collected from sample 60-100-12 by rotating the specimen with respect to the [110] axis. The four (220) reflections are observed in the Ge Phi scan pattern which suggests the film is with fourfold symmetry about an axis normal to the Si substrate [33]. In addition, the Ge (220) reflections align with the Si substrate (220) reflections indicating the Ge is single-crystalline epitaxy film.
Figure 11.
(a) XRD 2θ-Ω diffraction patterns of samples 60-NA-12, 60-50-12, 60-100-12 and 60-150-12, (b) Si (220) and Ge (220) phi scan patterns collected from the sample 60-100-12 showing the epitaxial relationship between the Ge film and Si substrate. (reprinted from Liu et al. [47], with the permission of AIP publishing).
The Ge peak intensity of sample 60-50-12 is lower than that of sample 60-100-12 as shown in Figure 11(a) due to incomplete Ge crystallization. The drop in Ge peak intensity for sample 60-150-12 might be due to the lower number of Al grain boundaries compared with that of sample 60-100-12. The Al grain boundaries play an important role in the Al-assisted crystallization process as they supply pathways for the Ge atoms to be epitaxially grown from the Si surface [46]. With increasing heating temperature, Al grain size is enlarged and therefore the density of grain boundaries is reduced [48] verified by the following TEM measurements.
Figure 12 shows the cross-sectional TEM images of samples 60-NA-12, 60-50-12, 60-100-12, and 60-150-12. Figure 12(a) shows the absence of Ge crystallization as the Al and amorphous Ge layers on the Si substrate. Figure 12(b)–(d) show the Ge epitaxial growth at selected sites on samples 60-50-12, 60-100-12, and 60-150-12. With increasing heating temperature, the crystallization sites decrease probably due to the decrease in density of Al grain boundaries [48], which are responsible for supplying pathways for the nucleation of the Ge from the Si substrate [46]. An amorphous Ge layer is shown in Figure 12(b) verifying the previous observations that Ge crystallization is in-complete on sample 60-50-12. Although sample 60-50-12 has more nucleation sites, it exhibits more discontinuous Ge layer compared with sample 60-100-12 owing to the incomplete crystallization.
Figure 12.
Cross-sectional TEM images of samples (a) 60-NA-12, (b) 60-50-12, (c) 60-100-12, and (d) 60-150-12. (e) Higher magnification and (f) atomic resolution (with SAED pattern in the insert) images of Ge/Si interface on sample 60-100-12. (reprinted from Liu et al. [47], with the permission of AIP Publishing).
The Ge/Si interface of sample 60-100-12 is magnified and shown in Figure 12(e). The epitaxial growth of the Ge layer on Si is revealed and planar defects are observed at the interface in Figure 12(e). Figure 12(f) shows the continuous alignment of the atoms from the Si substrate to the grown Ge film suggesting successful epitaxy. Furthermore, the electron diffraction pattern taken from the Ge layer shown in the insert to Figure 12(f) indicates the Ge is single crystal [49]. This result is in good agreement with the XRD measurements.
5.2. Mechanism of one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization
To better understand the mechanism of the epitaxial growth of Ge on Si through one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization, EDS mapping of samples that underwent different Ge deposition times (1 minute, 3 minutes and 12 minutes) were carried out. The cross-sectional TEM images (top row), EDS maps of Ge (middle row) and EDS maps of Al (bottom row) of samples 60-100-1, 60-100-3, and 60-100-12 are shown in Figure 13(a)–(c), respectively. They reveal the Ge and Al distributions at different stages of the crystallization process. As shown, the process begins with the Ge nucleating at selected sites at the Si and Al interface. With increasing deposition time, the Ge tends to grow upwards at the initial stage and then grow laterally.
Figure 13.
Cross-sectional TEM images (top), EDS maps of Ge (middle) and al (bottom) of samples (a) 60-100-1, (b) 60-100-3, and (c) 60-100-12. (reprinted from Liu et al. [47], with the permission of AIP publishing.
The mechanism of the epitaxial growth of Ge on Si by one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization is discussed as follows. The covalent bonds of Ge are weakened at the interface with the Al layer as a consequence of a screening effect of the free electrons in the Al layer [50]. These Ge atoms have relatively high mobility and may provide the agent for initiating the crystallization process. These mobile atoms tend to lower the Gibbs energy of the system by diffusing to sites of low energy such as the Al grain boundaries. This diffusion is sometimes called grain boundary wetting that reduces total interface energy by replacing the grain boundary with two interphase boundaries [51]. The diffusion of Ge into the Al grain boundaries forms a pathway to supply the material for crystallization. The crystallization is then driven by the reduction in bulk Gibbs energy when the material changes from amorphous to crystalline [52]. However, this can be counteracted by the increase in interface energy as crystallization proceeds [53]. When a heat treatment is applied, the interface energy at the crystalline-amorphous interface increases, while the interface energy at the crystalline-crystalline decreases [43]. This effectively reduces the energy difference between the crystalline-amorphous and the crystalline-crystalline interfaces favoring the crystallization process. This explains the observed Ge crystallization in the heat treated samples. As studied and discussed in previous work [46], the Al/Si is the preferred interface to Ge/Al for nucleation, as observed on sample 60-100-1 in this work. After the nucleation on Si substrate, the epitaxial growth of Ge continues with further incorporation of Ge atoms though the Al grain boundaries.
6. Conclusions
Epitaxial growth of Ge films on Si has been achieved using magnetron sputtering which is low cost, safe and scalable. The effects of substrate temperature on the properties of the Ge films have been investigated. The surface roughness of the Ge films increases with substrate temperature. Smooth surface with RMS roughness of 0.48 nm can be obtained at 300°C owing to the reduced diffusion length of Ge atoms at low temperature. On the other hand, the crystallinity of the Ge films could be improved by increasing substrate temperature as revealed by XRD and TEM measurements. In addition, the compressive strain in the Ge films decreases with increasing substrate temperature owing to the difference in the thermal expansion coefficients between Si and Ge.
Epitaxial growth of Ge films on Si by magnetron sputtering at low temperature has been achieved through one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization. By applying an in-situ low temperature (50–150°C) heat treatment in between Al and Ge sputter depositions, the epitaxial growth of Ge on Si can be achieved as verified by high resolution TEM and XRD analyses. The mechanism of epitaxial growth of Ge on Si substrate by one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization is discussed based on observations on samples with various Ge deposition times. This method significantly lowers the required temperature for and therefore the cost of epitaxial growth of Ge on Si.
Acknowledgments
This work has been supported by the Australian Government through the Australian Research Council (ARC, grant number DP160103433, LP110201112) and the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) and by Epistar Corporation and Shin Shin Natural Gas Co., Ltd., Taiwan. Responsibility for the views, information or advice expressed herein is not accepted by the Australian Government.
\n',keywords:"germanium, epitaxy, silicon, magnetron sputtering, substrate temperature, one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/59083.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/59083.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59083",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59083",totalDownloads:666,totalViews:222,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"July 27th 2017",dateReviewed:"January 5th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 7th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Epitaxial growth of Ge on Si has received considerable attention for its compatibility with Si process flow and the scarcity of Ge compared with Si. Applications that drive the efforts for integrating Ge with Si include high mobility channel in metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors, infrared photodetector in Si-based optical devices, and template for III-V growth to fabricate high-efficiency solar cells. Epitaxy Ge on Si can be used as a virtual Ge substrate for fabrication of III-V solar cells, which has advantages of superior mechanical properties and low cost over Ge wafers. This work investigates the epitaxial growth of Ge on Si using magnetron sputtering, which is an environment-friendly, inexpensive, high throughput, and simple deposition technique. The effects of substrate temperature on the properties of Ge are analyzed. A novel method to epitaxially grow Ge on Si by magnetron sputtering at low temperature is developed using one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization. By applying an in-situ low temperature (50–150°C) heat treatment in between Al and Ge sputter depositions, the epitaxial growth of Ge on Si is achieved. This method significantly lowers the required temperature for and therefore the cost of epitaxial growth of Ge on Si.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/59083",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/59083",book:{slug:"epitaxy"},signatures:"Ziheng Liu, Xiaojing Hao, Anita Ho-Baillie and Martin A. Green",authors:[{id:"186836",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Ho-Baillie",fullName:"Anita Ho-Baillie",slug:"anita-ho-baillie",email:"a.ho-baillie@unsw.edu.au",position:null,institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"218528",title:"Dr.",name:"Ziheng",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Ziheng Liu",slug:"ziheng-liu",email:"liuziheng126@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"221189",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaojing",middleName:null,surname:"Hao",fullName:"Xiaojing Hao",slug:"xiaojing-hao",email:"xj.hao@unsw.edu.au",position:null,institution:null},{id:"221874",title:"Prof.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Green",fullName:"Martin Green",slug:"martin-green",email:"m.green@unsw.edu.au",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Growth mechanism of Ge epitaxy on Si",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Stranski-Krastanow growth",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Lattice mismatch",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Epitaxial growth of Ge on Si by magnetron sputtering",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Magnetron sputtering",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Experimental details",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3. Results and discussions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Effects of substrate temperature",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Epitaxial growth of Ge on Si at low temperatures by one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.1. Effects of heating temperature",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.2. Mechanism of one-step aluminum-assisted crystallization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hussain AM et al. 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Scripta Materialia. 2006;55(11):987-990'},{id:"B52",body:'Wang Z et al. Fundamentals of metal-induced crystallization of amorphous semiconductors. Advanced Engineering Materials. 2009;11(3):131-135'},{id:"B53",body:'Benedictus R, Böttger A, Mittemeijer EJ. Thermodynamic model for solid-state amorphization in binary systems at interfaces and grain boundaries. Physical Review B. 1996;54(13):9109-9125'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ziheng Liu",address:"ziheng.liu@unsw.edu.au",affiliation:'
School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Martin A. Green",address:null,affiliation:'
School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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1. Introduction
The mankind has relied on different sources of energy during its economic development throughout the centuries. Whereas coal has been the main energy source in the nineteenth century, oil was in twentieth one. The possible scenarios for remediation of greenhouse effect due to carbon dioxide released by energy production and industry are rendered to minimization of emissions and its recycling. The latter is accomplished by the production of energy sources and chemicals of practical importance from carbon dioxide.
The emission minimization consists in two approaches: replacement of the fossil fuels by renewable ones (solar, wind energies, biomass, etc.) or improvement of energy efficiency in all human activities in different ways. The distribution of energy sources for the European Union for the year 2016 is shown in Figure 1. One can see that the share of renewables is bigger than the powerful nuclear energy with a leading role in energy production. The biggest part (more than 60%) of the renewable energy sources is assigned to the biomass and waste utilization.
Figure 1.
Production of primary energy, EU-28, 2016 (% of total, based on tons of oil equivalent). Source: Eurostat (nrg_100a) and (nrg_107a) [1].
One of the ways to cope with the problem of carbon dioxide emissions is to close the carbon cycle using renewable fuels from presently grown biomass, by recycling the released carbon dioxide by the present vegetation by photosynthesis. This is the philosophy of biomass utilization as energy source. The most spread biofuels in the present period are biogas, produced by anaerobic digestion of organic waste, bioethanol, produced from cereals and/or lignocellulosic residues and biodiesel, produced by trans-esterification of lipids with methanol or ethanol.
In this review, we shall concentrate ourselves to the application of biogas as renewable energy source and also as a feedstock for the production of chemicals and other fuels.
2. Biogas production
Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion of organic matter of natural origin [2, 3, 4]. The main advantage of this process consists in the combined environmental and energy effect.
Biogas consists mainly of methane, carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen sulfide and mercaptanes, as well as residual amounts of oxygen and nitrogen. Small amounts of ethane and hydrogen are possible too. Biogas is obtained by anaerobic digestion of organic waste of biologic origin. The most exploited ones are of agricultural origin (manure, poultry litter, hay, and straw) [5], from food industry, stillage from ethanol production [6], landfill gas, activated sludge from wastewater treatment plants, etc. One of the simplest and the mostly spread flow sheets for biogas production and utilization is shown in Figure 2 [7].
Figure 2.
Illustration of biogas cycle, formation, and applications. Scheme taken from [7].
The main fuel in the scheme, shown in Figure 2, is biogas, utilized for energy (thermal one and electricity) or fuel for transport. The carbon dioxide released after combustion is absorbed by the vegetation by photosynthesis, thus closing the carbon cycle. The residual sludge from the digester is rich of organic nitrogen, and therefore, it is suitable for fertilizing the soil.
In the past, biogas has been widely spread as an energy source in the households in the countries of Africa and Asia. Although quite primitive as design, the anaerobic digesters have solved the problems with autonomous energy supply for many households in India, Pakistan, Indo-China, etc.
Later, biogas became very important and essential share as energy source for the countries in Western Europe and Northern America. Besides heating, biogas is now more frequently used for the production of electricity and transport fuel in many municipalities. It is already added to the pipelines for natural gas distribution of household purposes.
A new trend in biogas production and utilization is the so-called biorefinery concept. This concept not only presumes the use of renewable biomass as energy source but also combines it with the production of chemicals, such as plastics, solvents, and synthetic fuels [8]. An example for this is the Danish Bioethanol Concept presented by Zafar [9]. It comprises the ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass with biogas production of the stillage and cellulose waste. The residual cellulose waste is additionally recycled after wet-oxidation for additional conversion into biogas. A detailed review on biogas applications is published recently by Sawyerr et al. [10].
2.1 Some constructions of anaerobic digesters
The variety of anaerobic digesters for biogas production is very broad: from the very primitive pits to most sophisticated bioreactors, such as the floating drum reactor, the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor [11, 12, 13], and multistage bioreactor with separated compartments [14, 15]. The choice for anaerobic digester depends on the origin of substrate, and the intermediates are converted during the consecutive steps of hydrolysis, acidification, acetogenesis, and final methanation. In case an accumulation of fatty acids takes place, the reactor with separated compartments is preferable. The most exploited digester for biogas production from domestic waste, activated sludge, and manure is the UASB reactor.
2.2 Substrates for biogas
The mostly used substrates for biogas production are the manure from cattle, pigs, and poultry litter. This application competes with the traditional use of manure for soil fertilization. When the amounts of manure prevail the demand for fertilization, biogas production is welcome because double problem is solved: on the one hand, the waste is destroyed and removed, and on the other hand, renewable energy is produced saving money and contributing for carbon cycle closing. That is why attention is paid to the utilization of cattle dung, lignocellulose waste, waste from food and beverage processing, activated sludge from wastewater treatment plants, and household solid waste with landfill gas use. The waste treatment is associated with energy production and reduction of the energy demand of the main enterprise.
2.2.1 Biogas from glycerol
Crude glycerol is the main residue from biodiesel production. The amount of this waste product is about 10% from the produced fuel. The poor quality of this glycerol, containing water, potassium hydroxide, and some methanol makes it non-suitable for market purposes even after purification. One alternative utilization of this residual glycerol is in its direct conversion into biogas, thus supplying the biodiesel plant with energy simultaneously. However, as a very simple and digestible substrate, glycerol yields large amounts of organic acids as intermediates, leading to strong inhibition of methanogenic bacteria [16, 17, 18]. That is why glycerol must be used as substrate for biogas production very cautiously with the addition of small amounts, thus making this process with little practical use. It is reported, however, that small additions of glycerol to other basic substrates, i.e. manure, can boost biogas production, as reported by Robra et al. [19] and Astals et al. [20].
Food industry is also a good source for biogas production.
3. Biogas applications
3.1 Biogas for heating
Traditional biogas contains approximately 60% (vol.) methane, almost 40% carbon dioxide, small amounts of ethane and hydrogen (less than 0.5% together), hydrogen sulfide and mercaptanes (some ppm), humidity, and traces of oxygen. Its net energy capacity is ca. 24 MJ/nm3 at methane content of 60% (vol.). The first and most direct use of biogas is for heating purposes for maintenance of the equipment and the farm, where the animal dung is treated. The same applies for its use for domestic purposes, besides heating, e.g., cooking and lighting, as firstly used in Asian and African countries.
Another more sophisticated use of the biogas heating capacity is its utilization as heat energy in beverage and ethanol production. There the stillage remaining after distillation is recycled for biogas production. The resulting biogas is combusted for boiler heating and for energy for operation of distillation columns. Thus, the problems with the treatment of the residual stillage are solved by conversion into biogas, thus mitigating the problems with energy supply and spending. Calculations show that in some cases, stillage utilization as biogas can cover almost the whole energy demand for heating the distillation process. Besides these straightforward applications, biogas is also injected into the grid for natural gas supply for domestic use [21, 22]. For this purpose, a preliminary scrubbing of the carbon dioxide and sulfur compounds is necessary.
3.2 Biogas for electricity
Biogas is suitable for generation of electric power in combination with heat recovery. Usually the gas is combusted in engines with internal combustion coupled to turbine. The released heat (being around 60% of the utilized energy) is used for heating purposes for maintenance of the anaerobic digester or for household needs. This method is widely applied for the treatment of activated sludge, a residue from municipal wastewater treatment plants [23, 24].
Electricity production by gas turbines can be applied by biogas as a fuel, thus replacing the natural gas for small-scale applications (or power within 25–100 kW).
3.3 Biogas for transport
The use of biogas as a fuel for civil transport and road vehicles instead of natural gas is already spread in Western Europe and the United States [25]. There are many vehicles in Sweden operating on biogas in the urban public transport [26].
3.4 Biogas in fuel cells
Another very attractive application of biogas for electricity production is its use in fuel cells. The specialized cells for these purposes are described briefly by O’Hayre et al. [27]. Prior to biogas feed, carbon dioxide and sulfur compounds must be removed by scrubbing to avoid corrosion and catalyst poisoning and to rise the gas energy capacity. A sketch of such a fuel cell is shown in Figure 3, cf. [28].
Figure 3.
Principal sketch of methane-driven fuel cell, from [28].
The classic process for methane-driven fuel cells is to convert catalytically by steam reforming methane into a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen and to use the latter in a traditional hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell to generate electricity. The advantages of fuel cell applications with methane as a fuel compared to the traditional heat power stations consist in their higher efficiency, clean waste gases (containing almost only carbon dioxide), and higher efficiency at low loads than the gas turbine equipment [29]. Moreover, the released heat can be utilized for different purposes; the main one is to maintain the temperature regime in the fuel cell. There are many practical applications of these methods. It is already widely commercialized. A disadvantage of this method is the necessity of consequent reactions of steam reforming and carbon monoxide removal as well as the operation at high temperatures (about 750°C), being harmful for the metal parts of the equipment [30, 31]. Higher temperatures are preferred to avoid coke deposition on the catalyst [31].
There are new efforts to lower the operation temperature to 500°C in order to keep the equipment durability [32, 33]. Another improvement of the technology is to use the mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen as a fuel simultaneously, thus simplifying the whole process, but applying new catalytic process.
The most attractive option is to convert methane (biogas, respectively) into electricity in one step, thus avoiding the steam reforming and carbon dioxide removal. There are some new studies showing direct catalytic oxidation of methane in the anodic space of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), with direct activation of the C-H bonds in the methane molecule [28, 34, 35, 36]. A platinum catalyst was used for this purpose at low temperatures, e.g., 80°C. However, the catalyst deactivates, and the process is limited by methane diffusion in the anodic space. As a result, the power density is still low for practical use.
3.5 Biogas for chemicals
Besides as a fuel, biogas could be used as a feedstock for synthetic organic fuel production. There are studies claiming for biogas recovery as fuels applying catalytic auto-reforming. Another approach is the dry reforming consisting in converting the equimolar mixture of methane and carbon dioxide into synthesis gas (an equimolar mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen).
Afterward, this synthesis gas is converted into a mixture of light hydrocarbons by the catalytic Fischer-Tropsch process. The resulting Fischer-Tropsch process yields liquid hydrocarbon fuels (methanol and dimethyl ether). The intrinsically high-energy density of these fuels and their transportability make them highly desirable. Such synthetic fuels do not contain any sulfur. In addition, methanol (arguably the “simplest” synthetic carbonaceous fuel) is a candidate both as a hydrogen source for a fuel cell vehicle and indeed as a transport fuel, and dimethyl ether is viewed as a “superclean” diesel fuel [36]. It is well known that methanol is a starting material in chemical industry. It is a liquid at room temperature and has much easier storage and transport capabilities than alternatives such as methane and hydrogen. Methanol is used as solvent, gasoline additive, and a chemical feedstock for production of biodiesel and other chemicals of high value. Therefore, the wide application of methanol motivates its large-scale production, which is ever increasing.
However, presently, the dominant technology of methanol is a two-step catalytic process, which is too expensive. A large number of industrial-scale chemical manufacturing processes are currently operated worldwide on the basis of strongly endothermic chemical reactions. The steam reforming of hydrocarbons to yield syngas and hydrogen is a classic example:
CH4+H2O→CO+3H2ΔH298K0=+206.3kJ/molE1
The above, highly endothermic reaction is used worldwide for the high-volume production of “merchant hydrogen” in the gas, food, and fertilizer industries, i.e., other portions of energy have to be spent with the consequent air pollution by carbon dioxide.
At present, a relevant technology for methanol production resides in the transformation of CO2 and CH4 to molecules having industrial added values. Among such technologies, a great attention is focused on the production of synthesis gas (gaseous mixture of CO and H2) that constitutes a versatile building block for subsequent production of methanol or chemical intermediates in petrochemical industries. Methanol is still produced on a world scale from synthesis gas, which is combination of varying amounts of H2, CO, and CO2 (at 200–300°C, 50–100 bar), which is itself product of steam reforming of methane (SRM; at ca. 800°C over Ni-based catalyst), followed by further conversion processes such as Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis. This two-step process incurs high energy and capital demands. Additionally, this process gives many other light and heavy weight co-products along with the methanol product. Therefore, additional energy and cost in the conventional methanol plants are directed to the separation of these coproducts from methanol prior to the final deposition of product.
The direct synthesis of methanol from syngas requires a H2/CO ratio of about 2 [37, 38]. Since the syngas produced by dry reforming of methane (DRM) is too poor of H2 (H2/CO ≤ 1) to be fed to a FT synthesis unit, the bi-reforming of methane (BRM), combining DRM with steam reforming of methane (SRM) (H2/CO = 3) and the utilization of the most important two greenhouse gases CH4 and CO2 with water, may yield a syngas with ratio close to 2, the so-called “metgas”:
3CH4+CO2+H2O⇔4CO+8H2E2
To date, only one plant with the combination of steam and dry reforming has been recently demonstrated by the Japan Oil, Gas, and Metals National Cooperation. No other industrial technology for DRM has been developed because the selection and design of suitable reforming catalyst remain an important challenge. Ni-based catalysts are the most attractive candidates for large-scale industrial applications due to their high activity in DRM and SRM [39, 40, 41, 42, 43], low cost, and wide availability compared to noble metals. However, they are sensitive to deactivation caused by the metal particles sintering and carbon formation at high reaction temperature of reforming processes. Development of selective and coke-resistance modified Ni-based reforming catalysts is a key challenge for successful application of bi-reforming for methanol production. Modifying Ni catalysts with suitable promoters and supported on reducible metal oxide carriers will give the opportunity to develop active and stable catalysts for bi-reforming of methane.
A “super-dry” CH4 reforming reaction for enhanced CO production from CH4 and CO2 was developed [44]. Ni/MgAl2O4 was used as a CH4 reforming catalyst, Fe2O3/MgAl2O4 was used as a solid oxygen carrier, and CaO/Al2O3 was used as a CO2 sorbent. The isothermal coupling of these three different processes resulted in a higher CO production than conventional dry reforming by avoiding back reactions with water. Equation (3) shows the global reaction of this two-step process, in which CO and H2O are inherently separated because of the two-step process configuration:
It is important to note that despite the apparently higher endothermic effect of the super-dry reforming process than conventional DRM (Eq. 1), the required heat input per mole CO2 converted is much lower (110 kJ/mol CO2 compared to 247 kJ/mol CO2). Finally, given the availability of a renewable source of H2, applications are possible where CO and H2 can be combined in different ratios for the formation of chemicals or fuels [45, 46]. Indeed, an efficient and separate production of high purity CO and H2 would further establish the role of syngas as a versatile and flexible platform mixture.
All these methods and techniques are applicable when biogas is available. Some other applications are described briefly below.
3.5.1 Biogas as a feedstock for value-added chemicals
First of all, biogas must be purified for sulfur compounds prior to its use [47]. Afterward, methane and carbon dioxide have to be separated by membrane processes using gas-liquid systems [48] or swing pressure adsorption [49]. Once methane and carbon dioxide are separated, each of them has its own route for further application. Besides the already mentioned applications as a fuel for transport and energy purposes, dry reforming and steam reforming to obtain synthesis gas, the purified methane can be converted into light hydrocarbons, e.g., ethane and ethylene by advanced methods, like the so-called VYJ process [50, 51, 52, 53]. By this method, methane is converted in one step into ethylene by catalytic or electrocatalytic reaction [54, 55, 56].
High yields up to 88% in total are attained [50]. The rest of nonreacted methane is trapped in molecular sieves and recycled to the reactor [50, 53, 54]. In this way, the use of methane reaches 97% with an ethylene yield of 85% [50].
As ethylene is a basic feedstock for the mostly spread polymerizations and many value-added chemicals, it is clear that this way of biogas utilization is quite promising one.
4. Methodologies for energy demand evaluation in biogas production
The usual criteria for the feasibility of an anaerobic digestion technology are the type of digester, the operation temperature, the necessary retention time of the substrate in the reactor, the substrate acidity (the initial pH value), and the presence of certain chemicals in the inlet slurry.
However, the most important one is energy demand for the biogas formation and the energy potential of the produced biogas.
There are two typical temperature ranges for biogas production: mesophilic one (at 30–35°C) and thermophilic one (at 55–60°C). Different genera of methanogenic microorganisms are capable to accomplish the processes in those two cases. The advantages of the thermophilic regime are in the higher production rate and the lack of pathogens in the outlet slurry. However, the energy input for maintenance of this regime is higher than for the mesophilic one.
The question of the energy demand for any industrial process is of crucial importance for its economic reliability. The same applies to biogas production.
There are some methodologies for the estimation of the feasibility of biogas production [57, 58]. They all involve the demand of heat for temperature maintenance and electricity for mechanical operations (stirring, pumping, and transport) and comparison to the energy yield after anaerobic digestion.
Generally, the operations for a certain flowsheet are separated into production processes and support ones. The production processes in the considered case are the reception of the substrate and its storage, pre-treatment of feed (dilution, pH adjustment, acid hydrolysis, etc.), and anaerobic digestion with biogas production. The removal of the digestate and its storage and processing are also included. This set of processes is called as Level 1 [57].
Once biogas is produced, it could be used for direct heat and/or electricity production and supplied to customers or for own use (Level 2). More sophisticated operations, such as gas cleaning, upgrading (i.e., removal of carbon dioxide), and compressing the upgraded gas, are required if the gas will be distributed by the gas distribution grid or for some chemical applications.
The methodologies for energy demand evaluation consist in the inventory of all such processes and auxiliary ones with their energy demand per unit production (i.e., amount of produced biogas with certain energy potential). Then, the overall energy demand is compared to the biogas yield with its energy potential, and the percentage of the energy input to the overall yield is a measure for feasibility of the studied technology.
The structures of the energy demand for different flow sheets and the weight of different subprocesses depend on the substrate properties (particles size, chemical structure and content, moisture, and total solid content) and the amount to be treated, the digester construction and design.
Berglund and Borjesson [58] proposed a methodology based on the life-cycle perspective including the energy required for the production of the substrates (including crop growth, harvesting, transport, etc.). The energy efficiency is defined by the ratio of the energy input to the energy yield of the produced biogas. It was found that the energy input corresponds mainly to 15–40% of the energy content of the produced biogas. The subprocesses of extensive handling of raw materials may lead to considerably increase the energy input and thus to undermine the feasibility of the entire technology.
In case the gas will be used as a feedstock for other chemical applications (e.g., dry reforming and steam reforming), the operational costs of the processes at Levels 1 and 2 have to be compared to the operational costs for the chemical processes and the prices of the produced chemicals or other final products.
5. Residual carbon dioxide
The main disadvantage of biomass produced fuels is the inevitable release of CO2 in the atmosphere after combustion. Therefore, big efforts are made in the recent years for remediation of this adverse effect of greenhouse gas. The best way to cope with this problem is the natural assimilation by the vegetation by photosynthesis, but it is not sufficient due to the very large emissions from industrial sources, energy production, transport, and household. That is why many other methods are proposed and studied in the recent years.
One of them is the direct use of pure carbon dioxide as a solvent in supercritical extraction in the pharmaceutical industry. However, this application is limited and cannot be a substantial solution of the problem. There are many efforts to recycle carbon dioxide to produce different organic chemicals: formic acid, methanol, dimethyl-ether, poly-carbonates, acrylic acid, etc. [59, 60]. All of these methods are applicable for the residual carbon dioxide after separation from biogas. Therefore, not only methane but also carbon dioxide in biogas is valuable source of energy and value-added product.
6. Conclusions
The data presented here illustrate one of the very important biorefinery approaches to produce simultaneous energy and value-added chemicals from biomass, thus reducing the demand of fossil fuels and resulting in overloading of atmosphere by greenhouse gases. The same applies to the water and soil pollution, since those resulting from biomass processing are nature compatible and facilitate the formation of close energy and material cycle. One of the ways to do it is biogas production from such waste.
At the end, we can say that biogas extends its area of application leading simultaneously to protect the environment by waste treatment, natural gas, and fossil fuel saving, as well as to replace, at least partially, the oil as a feedstock for organic value-added products.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science under the National Research Program Eplus: Low Carbon Energy for the Transport and Households, grant agreement D01-214/2018.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"biogas, renewable energy, fuels, fuel cells, chemicals",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70804.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70804.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70804",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70804",totalDownloads:281,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"April 29th 2019",dateReviewed:"November 19th 2019",datePrePublished:"January 13th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The global economic development in the twentieth century has led to extensive use of fossils, such as oil, natural gas, and coal as fuels and chemical feedstocks. This extensive use of fossil fuels has led to enormous emissions of carbon dioxide as final product of combustion. The high absorption rate of infra-red rays by carbon dioxide has led to the so-called “greenhouse” effect. Nowadays, the renewable energy sources based on biomass have become very important with a trend to replace oil consumption at least partially and hence to remediate the emissions of greenhouse gases in atmosphere. Biofuels could be used as alternative raw material for chemical production. One of these biofuels is biogas released at anaerobic digestion of different natural organic waste. Another feature of biogas applications is its utilization as feedstock for the production of synthetic fuels and chemicals being now produced from oil and coal. A new approach is to use biogas as a fuel in fuel cells as a very promising option for energy production from renewable sources. The present review summarizes the applications of biogas for chemicals, starting with dry reforming and Fischer-Tropsch syntheses and as a source of energy, as heat and electricity production by co-generation and fuel cells.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70804",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70804",signatures:"Sonia Damyanova and Venko Beschkov",book:{id:"9184",title:"Biorefinery Concepts, Energy and Products",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biorefinery Concepts, Energy and Products",slug:"biorefinery-concepts-energy-and-products",publishedDate:"October 7th 2020",bookSignature:"Venko Beschkov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9184.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191530",title:"Prof.",name:"Venko",middleName:null,surname:"Beschkov",slug:"venko-beschkov",fullName:"Venko Beschkov"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biogas production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Some constructions of anaerobic digesters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Substrates for biogas",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Biogas from glycerol",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Biogas applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Biogas for heating",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Biogas for electricity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Biogas for transport",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4 Biogas in fuel cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.5 Biogas for chemicals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.5.1 Biogas as a feedstock for value-added chemicals",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Methodologies for energy demand evaluation in biogas production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Residual carbon dioxide",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. 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Institute of Catalysis, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria
Institute of Chemical Engineering, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9184",title:"Biorefinery Concepts, Energy and Products",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biorefinery Concepts, Energy and Products",slug:"biorefinery-concepts-energy-and-products",publishedDate:"October 7th 2020",bookSignature:"Venko Beschkov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9184.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191530",title:"Prof.",name:"Venko",middleName:null,surname:"Beschkov",slug:"venko-beschkov",fullName:"Venko Beschkov"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"172261",title:"Prof.",name:"Hendrik-Tobias",middleName:null,surname:"Arkenau",email:"tobias.arkenau@hcahealthcare.co.uk",fullName:"Hendrik-Tobias Arkenau",slug:"hendrik-tobias-arkenau",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Sarah Cannon Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Challenges of Patient Selection for Phase I Oncology Trials",slug:"challenges-of-patient-selection-for-phase-i-oncology-trials",abstract:null,signatures:"Mark Voskoboynik and Hendrik-Tobias Arkenau",authors:[{id:"68479",title:"Prof.",name:"Hendrik-Tobias",surname:"Arkenau",fullName:"Hendrik-Tobias Arkenau",slug:"hendrik-tobias-arkenau",email:"tobias.arkenau@sarahcannonresearch.co.uk"},{id:"172261",title:"Prof.",name:"Hendrik-Tobias",surname:"Arkenau",fullName:"Hendrik-Tobias Arkenau",slug:"hendrik-tobias-arkenau",email:"tobias.arkenau@hcahealthcare.co.uk"},{id:"172343",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",surname:"Voskoboynik",fullName:"Mark Voskoboynik",slug:"mark-voskoboynik",email:"mark.voskoboynik@hcahealthcare.co.uk"}],book:{title:"Drug Discovery and Development",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-from-molecules-to-medicine",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Immunotherapy in Colorectal Cancer",slug:"immunotherapy-in-colorectal-cancer",abstract:"Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains one of the most common malignancies and the second leading cause of cancer‐related death worldwide; treatment algorithms include surgery, chemotherapy and targeted therapies. Immunotherapy has recently emerged as an effective treatment approach in several types of cancer, including non–small cell lung cancer, melanoma and kidney cancer. In CRC, novel immune‐checkpoint inhibitors such as anti‐CTLA4 and PD1/PDL1 monoclonal antibodies have shown limited efficacy, although ongoing trials in mismatch repair‐deficient CRC have shown significant and promising results. Here, we review the role of immune‐microenvironment in colorectal cancer and current clinical data about therapeutic activity of immunotherapy in the treatment of CRC.",signatures:"Gabriel Mak, Michele Moschetta and Hendrik‐Tobias Arkenau",authors:[{id:"172261",title:"Prof.",name:"Hendrik-Tobias",surname:"Arkenau",fullName:"Hendrik-Tobias Arkenau",slug:"hendrik-tobias-arkenau",email:"tobias.arkenau@hcahealthcare.co.uk"},{id:"178606",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Mak",fullName:"Gabriel Mak",slug:"gabriel-mak",email:"gabriel.mak@hcahealthcare.co.uk"},{id:"185290",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",surname:"Moschetta",fullName:"Michele Moschetta",slug:"michele-moschetta",email:"Michele.Moschetta@hcahealthcare.co.uk"}],book:{title:"Colorectal Cancer",slug:"colorectal-cancer-from-pathogenesis-to-treatment",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Cancer Vaccines",slug:"cancer-vaccines",abstract:"Recent advances in immuno-oncology have allowed for the design of more specific and efficient cancer vaccine approaches. There has been an improvement in molecular biology techniques, as well as a greater understanding of the mechanisms involved in the activation and regulation of T cells and the interplay between the components of the immune system and the escape mechanisms used by cancer cells and the tumour microenvironment. As a result, many interesting developments in therapeutic cancer vaccines are ongoing, with influence on survival still to be proven. The spectrum of tumour antigens that are recognised by T cells is still largely unchartered and, most importantly, dynamically evolving over time, driven by clonal evolution and treatment-driven selection. Vaccine approaches currently in development and tested in clinical studies are based on tumour antigens specifically identified for each tumour type, on tumour cells or dendritic cells, the latter having the potential to be modified to incorporate immunostimulatory genes. However, interplay between the immune system and the tumour and the inhibitory mechanisms developed by tumour cells to subvert immune responses are crucial issues that will need to be targeted in order for efficient therapeutic vaccines to emerge.",signatures:"Carmen Murias Henriquez, Hendrik-Tobias Arkenau, Valérie Dutoit and Anna Patrikidou",authors:[{id:"172261",title:"Prof.",name:"Hendrik-Tobias",surname:"Arkenau",fullName:"Hendrik-Tobias Arkenau",slug:"hendrik-tobias-arkenau",email:"tobias.arkenau@hcahealthcare.co.uk"},{id:"298438",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Murias",fullName:"Carmen Murias",slug:"carmen-murias",email:"carmen.murias@hcahealthcare.co.uk"},{id:"298442",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Patrikidou",fullName:"Anna Patrikidou",slug:"anna-patrikidou",email:"Anna.Patrikidou@hcahealthcare.co.uk"},{id:"299093",title:"Dr.",name:"Valerie",surname:"Dutoit",fullName:"Valerie Dutoit",slug:"valerie-dutoit",email:"Valerie.Dutoit@unige.ch"}],book:{title:"Cancer Immunotherapy and Biological Cancer Treatments",slug:"cancer-immunotherapy-and-biological-cancer-treatments",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"30427",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",surname:"Malemud",slug:"charles-malemud",fullName:"Charles Malemud",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"68491",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",surname:"Hong-Geller",slug:"elizabeth-hong-geller",fullName:"Elizabeth Hong-Geller",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Los Alamos National Laboratory",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"71452",title:"Dr.",name:"Degenhard",surname:"Marx",slug:"degenhard-marx",fullName:"Degenhard Marx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"72854",title:"Mr.",name:"Matthias",surname:"Birkhoff",slug:"matthias-birkhoff",fullName:"Matthias Birkhoff",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172058",title:"Prof.",name:"Paweł",surname:"Kafarski",slug:"pawel-kafarski",fullName:"Paweł Kafarski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institute of Fluid Flow Machinery",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"172059",title:"Ms.",name:"Magdalena",surname:"Lipok",slug:"magdalena-lipok",fullName:"Magdalena Lipok",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172265",title:"Dr.",name:"Carsten",surname:"Wrenger",slug:"carsten-wrenger",fullName:"Carsten Wrenger",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172384",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerallt",surname:"Williams",slug:"gerallt-williams",fullName:"Gerallt Williams",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172418",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",surname:"Jantan",slug:"ibrahim-jantan",fullName:"Ibrahim Jantan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"172734",title:"Dr.",name:"Martina",surname:"Smolic",slug:"martina-smolic",fullName:"Martina Smolic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172734/images/6137_n.png",biography:"Dr. Martina Smolić is an assistant professor of Pharmacology, a program director of Postgraduate Doctoral Study of Biomedicine and Health, and also the head of the Department of Pharmacology at the University of Osijek, Faculty of Medicine. During her postdoctoral training at the University of Connecticut, she investigated the development of prospective agents for the treatment of HCV infection. Her research interests include targeted delivery to hepatocytes, mechanisms of hepatotoxicity, and mineral metabolism disorders. She has received awards from the German Research Foundation, Croatian Ministry of Science, International Society for Applied Biological Sciences, and Croatian Science Foundation and she was elected to “20 best research fellows in Croatia.” She actively publishes original research work and serves as a member of the editorial board of the Journal of Clinical and Translational Hepatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"partnerships",title:"Partnerships",intro:"
IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
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ALPSP
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The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
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OASPA
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The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
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STM
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COPE
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The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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Creative Commons
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Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
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Crossref
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Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
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CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
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Counter
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COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
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DORA
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DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
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iThenticate
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iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
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Enago
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IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
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SPi Global
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SPi Global is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
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Amazon
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Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
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DHL
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IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
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OASPA
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The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
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STM
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The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
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COPE
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The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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Creative Commons
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Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
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Crossref
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Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
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CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
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Counter
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COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
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DORA
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DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
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iThenticate
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iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
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Enago
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IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
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IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
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SPi Global
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SPi Global is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
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Amazon
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Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
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DHL
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IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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