UPF rating of fabric composed of different fibres before and after dyeing with grape pomace extract with and without metallic mordants [58].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1667",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine",title:"A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Veterinary medicine is advancing at a very rapid pace, particularly given the breadth of the discipline. This book examines new developments covering a wide range of issues from health and welfare in livestock, pets, and wild animals to public health supervision and biomedical research. As well as containing reviews offering fresh insight into specific issues, this book includes a selection of scientific articles which help to chart the advance of this science. The book is divided into several sections. The opening chapters cover the veterinary profession and veterinary science in general, while later chapters look at specific aspects of applied veterinary medicine in pets and in livestock. Finally, research papers are grouped by specialisms with a view to exploring progress in areas such as organ transplantation, therapeutic use of natural substances, and the use of new diagnostic techniques for disease control. This book was produced during World Veterinary Year 2011, which marked the 250th anniversary of the veterinary profession. 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Perez-Marin was born in Cordoba (Spain), where he obtained the veterinary degree. In 1996 he was Master in Equine Science and obtained the doctor´s degree in January 2001. He works as teacher in the University of Cordoba (Spain) since 1997 in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery. His teaching and research interests are in Animal Reproduction, with special reference to equine and bovine embryo transfer and preservation, cryopreservation of feline semen and estrous control in small ruminant. He is involved in providing a clinical service in the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of the University of Cordoba and collaborates with some external veterinarian teams. 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Member of The Crop Cultivation Professional Council of the Crop Science Society of China and The Council of the International Forum on Rice Development.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A researcher in rice physiology and ecology, appointed lecturer at the Hunan Agricultural University, China.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A researcher in rice genetic resources was appointed the deputy director of the Key Laboratory of Indica Rice Genetics and Breeding of Hunan Province, China.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"A researcher in farming ecology was appointed the director of the Hunan Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute, China.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"189829",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"min-huang",fullName:"Min Huang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189829/images/system/189829.JPG",biography:"Dr. Min Huang received his bachelor’s degree in Biological Science from Zhejiang Normal University, China in 2005, and obtained his master’s degree and Ph.D. in Crop Cultivation and Farming System from Guangxi University (GXU) and Hunan Agricultural University (HNAU), China in 2008 and 2011, respectively. 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He served as a visiting fellow at the International Programs-College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, USA in 2017 and 2018.",institutionString:"Hunan Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Hunan Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"460053",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiana",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jiana-chen",fullName:"Jiana Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/a043Y00000vBvpbQAC/Co3_Profile_Picture__c%202022-03-10%2009%3A05%3A51.219",biography:"Dr. Jiana Chen received her bachelor’s degree in Agronomy from Hunan Agricultural University (HNAU), China in 2012, and obtained her Ph.D. in Crop Cultivation and Farming System from HNAU in 2017. She worked as a postdoctor in Grass Science at HNAU from 2017 to 2020, and held the position of lecturer at HNAU in 2021.",institutionString:"Hunan Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Hunan Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"460052",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaowu",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"xiaowu-pan",fullName:"Xiaowu Pan",profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/a043Y00000vBvpbQAC/Co2_Profile_Picture__c%202022-03-10%2009%3A04%3A55.386",biography:"Dr. Xiaowu Pan received his bachelor’s degree in Biological Science from Hunan Normal University, China in 2007, got his master’s degree in Crop Genetics and Breeding from Central South University, China in 2010, and obtained his Ph.D. in Seed Science and Technology from Hunan Agricultural University, China in 2016. He held the positions of assistant and associate research professor at Hunan Rice Research Institute, China in 2013 and 2017, respectively.",institutionString:"Hunan Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Hunan Rice Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"460045",title:"Dr.",name:"Haiming",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"haiming-tang",fullName:"Haiming Tang",profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/a043Y00000vBvpbQAC/Co1_Profile_Picture__c%202022-03-10%2009%3A05%3A37.552",biography:"Dr. Haiming Tang received his bachelor’s degree in Agronomy at Hunan Agricultural University (HNAU), China in 2002, got his master’s degree in Crop Genetics and Breeding from HNAU in 2005, and obtained his Ph.D. in Crop Science from HNAU in 2008. He held the positions of associate professor and professor at Hunan Soil and Fertilizer Institute, China in 2011 and 2017, respectively.",institutionString:"Soil and Fertilizer Institute of Hunan Province",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Soil and Fertilizer Institute of Hunan Province",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466998",firstName:"Dragan",lastName:"Miljak",middleName:"Anton",title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466998/images/21564_n.jpg",email:"dragan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. 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Natural dyes also have a significantly lower affinity for fibres resulting in lower dye-exhaustion from the dye-bath on to the fibre surface [7]. Several efforts have been undertaken all over the world to address these shortcomings of natural dyes and find suitable alternative sources in view of the tremendous environmental advantages that they offer. Moreover, the content of the colour component in most natural dyes is a tiny percentage of its total solid weight and large quantities of the dye source are needed to colour small quantities of the textile material. For this, enormous amounts of the dye source has to be procured, which may lead to overexploitation of natural resources; specifically, if they are from the vegetable or animal origin. This would also threaten some endangered vegetal and animal species [8]. In this respect, use of a waste material that are available at no or little cost to dye textiles would expectedly make the process of natural dyeing cost-effective and at the same time bring about increased sustainability in the textile dyeing operations.
\nFibres | \nControl (with dyeing and mordanting) | \nFabric dyed with grape pomace extract without the use of any mordants | \nFabric simultaneously dyed with grape pomace extract and mordanted with aluminium sulphate | \nFabric simultaneously dyed with grape pomace extract and mordanted with ferrous sulphate | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Cotton | \n5 | \n25 | \n40 | \n35 | \n
Wool | \n5 | \n30 | \n50+\n | \n50+\n | \n
Silk | \n2 | \n18 | \n24 | \n40 | \n
Polyamide | \n20 | \n26 | \n40 | \n35 | \n
Acrylic | \n25 | \n30 | \n30 | \n50+\n | \n
UPF rating of fabric composed of different fibres before and after dyeing with grape pomace extract with and without metallic mordants [58].
Conditions of dyeing of silk | \nConcentration of the extracts | \n|
---|---|---|
\n | 3 g/l | \n5 g/l | \n
Only pomegranate peel extract | \n2.4 × 106 (96.1%) | \n2.1 × 106 (96.6%) | \n
Only onion peel extract | \n2.8 × 106 (95.5%) | \n2.5 × 106 (96.0%) | \n
Combination of pomegranate peel and onion peel extracts in the following ratios | \n\n | \n |
25:75 | \n2.0 × 106 (97.1%) | \n1.9 × 106 (97.0%) | \n
50:50 | \n1.4 × 106 (97.7%) | \n1.2 × 106 (98.1%) | \n
75:25 | \n1.7 × 106 (97.3%) | \n1.6 × 106 (97.4%) | \n
Bacterial count (CFU/ml) and percentage reduction of
Data in parenthesis corresponds to the percentage in reduction.
Dye Concentration | \nK/S at λmax\n | \nLF | \nWash Fastness (ISO-II) | \nRubbing Fastness | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | \n | \n | LoD | \nST | \nDry | \nWet | \n
\n | \n8.2 | \n3–4 | \n1–2 | \n4 | \n3 | \n4 | \n
\n | \n2.7 | \n2–3 | \n1 | \n4 | \n4 | \n4 | \n
\n | \n2–3 | \n2 | \n3 | \n3 | \n2–3 | \n\n |
Surface color strength and color fastness properties of pre-mordanted silk fabric exhaust-dyed, dyed by the pad-dry-cure and pad-batch-dry method with purified extract of onion peel.
LF—light fastness, LoD—loss in dept. of shade, ST—extent of staining on cotton
\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
Degummed and alum pre-mordanted silk ( | \n1.00 | \n— | \n— | \n
Variation in | \n\n | \n | \n |
15 min | \n1.8 | \n55.8 | \n49.44 | \n
30 min | \n1.6 | \n11.3 | \n\n |
45 min | \n1.8 | \n26.2 | \n\n |
60 min | \n1.8 | \n17.5 | \n\n |
75 min | \n1.8 | \n23.1 | \n\n |
90 min | \n1.8 | \n6.3 | \n\n |
Variation in | \n\n | \n | \n |
RT °C | \n1.2 | \n67.6 | \n66.37 | \n
40 °C | \n1.5 | \n3.2 | \n\n |
60 °C | \n1.5 | \n1.3 | \n\n |
80 °C | \n1.6 | \n3.6 | \n\n |
100°C | \n2.0 | \n4.4 | \n\n |
Variation in | \n\n | \n | \n |
2 | \n5.9 | \n9.6 | \n109.01 | \n
4 | \n5.2 | \n110.1 | \n\n |
7 | \n2.0 | \n101.9 | \n\n |
9 | \n1.9 | \n3.2 | \n\n |
11 | \n1.3 | \n1.1 | \n\n |
Variation in | \n\n | \n | \n |
1:10 | \n1.2 | \n0.0 | \n5.53 | \n
1:20 | \n1.3 | \n0.3 | \n\n |
1:30 | \n1.5 | \n3.3 | \n\n |
1:40 | \n1.9 | \n1.9 | \n\n |
1:50 | \n1.7 | \n5.6 | \n\n |
Variation in | \n\n | \n | \n |
25% | \n1.2 | \n0.1 | \n4.02 | \n
50% | \n1.2 | \n0.8 | \n\n |
100% | \n1.6 | \n4.1 | \n\n |
200% | \n1.8 | \n0.0 | \n\n |
400% | \n2.16 | \n0.1 | \n\n |
800% | \n2.39 | \n0.5 | \n\n |
Natural dyers have long used numerous parts of trees for dyeing textiles due to their rich tannin content, which can act as a dye or mordant [9, 10]. The use of different parts of a plant/tree to get dyestuff leads to the question of sustainability particularly if the dyestuff-source needs to be renewed and made viable for recurring usage. Production of the plant material for extraction of natural colourants must not compete with farming of crops for food production. Also, at present the production of natural dyes by direct farming, results in substantially high specific cost per kilogram of plant materials and correspondingly per kilogram of the dyed material [11]. The cost can be lowered by the use of by-products from agriculture and food industry, and wastes from forestry. Fruit of trees could be considered the most sustainable in this respect, with new produce grown each year and processed for value-addition and uneatable parts of the fruits like peels and seeds thrown away as waste. Agro-waste such as peels, shells, seeds, etc., are rich sources of pigments and natural dyes can be obtained from them. Sources such as pomegranate peels [12, 13], onion peels [14], leaves of eucalyptus [15], walnut husks [12, 16], walnut shells [6, 17, 18], almond shells [19], peanut shells [20], beetle nut [21], indigo seeds [22], mango seeds [23], tamarind seeds [24], safflower seeds [25], strawberries [26], beetroot [27], discarded/used marigold flowers [28], etc., have been explored for their use as natural colourants. Such studies are however limited and inadequate.
\nUse of fallen leaves and branches having a rich dye content is another sustainable approach. While it’s possible to collect roots and bark from trees without harming the plant, it requires skill and detailed knowledge of a tree’s structural and nutritional needs and thus, is not recommended. A healthier practice would be to collect these items from trees that are already harvested for manufacturing or for timber control.
\nAt the same time, disposal of waste generated as by-products by the agriculture, forestry and industries pose a serious threat to the environment. With the environmental awareness and scarcity of space for landfills, wastes or by-product utilisation becomes an attractive alternative to direct disposal.
\nThus, a promising concept for production of natural dyes with lowered cost could involve the use of plant materials discarded as waste/by-products from different sources.
\nAgricultural wastes are non-product outputs resulting from various
Agro-wastes may include, among other materials, harvest-
Some studies in this area using agro-waste as natural dyes have already been undertaken. Wool yarns have been dyed with sawmill waste of regional dyewoods like Kansas black walnut (
Forestry operations can generate large quantities of brash wood chip, bark, fallen branches and leaves due to deforestation, woodland clearing and firebreaks from plants such as deodar, cedar, jackfruit, walnut and eucalyptus, etc., that can be utilised for textile colouration. Waste is also generated from timber industry in the form of saw dust, timber slash, extracted liquor from timber control and mill scrap. These residues are mostly used as a renewable energy source and in the making of bio-mass fuel and contain natural colouring pigments. Fallen leaves enrich soil, they can pose a threat to the environment as they can decay into harmful methane gas. Many of these leaves contain pigments that can dye textiles.
\nSome studies have been undertaken to dye textiles with forest wastes. Eucalyptus liquid waste from lumber steaming has been used by to dye cotton [51]. Sawmill waste from Kansas black walnut, osage orange, and eastern red cedar timber have been used as dyestuffs for textiles [29]. Waste bark extracts from Turkish red pine (
The food industry produces large quantities of liquid and solid wastes that are potential pollutants with associated disposal problems. These residues are used either as animal feed or are disposed or composted. However, wastes from pressed berries, grapes, distillation residues, wastes and peels from vegetable processing containing dyestuff are available at almost free cost.
\nSome studies on the use of plant waste from the food and beverage industry could be suitable as a source for the natural dyeing of wool fibres [11, 55] have been reported.
\nThere is a need to explore the new sources of natural dyes. Although literature has reported use of agro, forest and industry wastes in dyeing of textile, research in this field is limited, scanty and sporadic. Also a common database on wastes used as natural dyes in dyeing textiles is not available. This chapter thus deals with few wastes that can be used as potential sources for textile colourants. Many of them are associated with multi-functional properties. Research already undertaken by people have been discussed in the form of case studies to provide a clear understanding of the waste source, its related composition and chemistry and effectiveness in imparting colour to textiles, sometimes with additional functional features.
\nKingdom: Plantae; Family: Vitaceae; Botanical Name:
Grapes belong to Vitaceae family and is cultivated mainly in the Mediterranean region, central Europe, south-western Asia, north and south Germany and eastern and northern Iran. About 5000–10,000 varieties of grapes are known of which only a few are of commercial significance and are used for eating (as a fruit) and for wine making. The fruit is classified as a berry and in the wild variety, are 6 mm diameter that ripen to give dark-purple to blackish colour. In cultivated plants, the berries are usually much larger, up to 3 cm long, and can be green, red, or blackish-purple.
\nGrape pomace potentially constitutes an abundant and relatively inexpensive source of polyphenols like phenolic acids, flavonols and anthocyanins and the colouring component in it is tannins (procyanidin, prodelphinidin, glucosylated procyanidin and gallated procyanidin) [56, 57].
\nGrape is one of the world’s largest fruit crops and the world wine manufacturing converts currently 10–25% of raw grapes into residues, known as pomace, mostly comprising of seeds, stalks, grape marcs, lees and stems [58]. Because of a low extraction during wine making, the solid residues still retain high levels of condensed tannins [57]. Though rich in polyphenolic compounds; the use of grape pomace or waste has been restricted to animal feed and fertilisers and in some cases they are simply dumped.
\n\n
\n
Baaka et al. [58] have explored the use of a by-product, pomace, abundantly available at relatively inexpensive costs, to dye natural fibres like cotton, wool and silk; and synthetic fibres like polyamide and acrylic using sulphate salts of alum and ferrous as mordants. Since cotton and acrylic are associated with poor affinity to dyes, they were subjected to additional pre-cationization process prior to mordanting for improving dyeability. Surface colour strength of the dyed fabric was found to improve with use of metallic mordants, and good fastness properties to rubbing (4–5), wash (4–5) and light (4) were obtained. Authors have concluded remarkable improvements in the UPF of the fabric dyed with grape pomace in the presence and absence of metallic mordants (\nTable 1\n).
\n\n
\n
Mansour et al. [59] have optimised the method for extracting natural dye from grape pomace, a winery waste and exhaust-dyeing silk with it using tannic acid (C76H32O46, Aldrich) as a natural mordant using the meta-mordanting process.
\nReporting that hydration of plant materials is important to enhance the overall extraction rate, the authors have used ethanol containing a weak acid like acetic acid to extract the more labile acylated anthocyanin pigment from
Mordanting with tannic acid at 95°C showed an increase in K/S value, but it lowered the L* value. Positive a* and negative b* coordinate values of silk dyed with pomace extract indicates redness and blueness respectively and thus the extract rendered a purple and violet shade to the dyed silk fabric. The use of tannic acid at 85°C however increased the b* coordinate values giving a bronze shade. Due to the ionic character of the –OH groups in anthocyanine, the dye from pomace extract probably reacted ionically with the pronated terminal amino groups of the silk fibre in an acidic pH, giving high surface colour strength. Thus, dyeing at pH 2.5 was considered optimum. The authors have also found that dyeing without any salt gives highest surface colour strength.
\nThrough the use of Box–Behnken model of experimental design in response surface methodology (RSM), the authors have concluded that the optimal depth of shade on silk can be obtained at (a) 2.62 (pH), (b) 83.6°C (dyeing temperature), and (c) 0 gL−1 (salt concentration).
\nThe dyed silk showed good light, wash and rubbing fastness that improved through the use of a mordant. The use of tannic acid as a mordant specifically improved the light fastness of silk fabrics dyed with grape pomace and gave darker shades probably due to the effective cross-links formed between the silk fibres and anthocyanin of the dye facilitated by the high molecular weight phenolic hydroxyl group contained in the tannin (mordant).
\nKingdom: Plantae; Family: Lythraceae; Botanical Name:
Pomegranate belongs to Punica Genus which has two species, the most important being
The edible part of the pomegranate fruit (50%) consists of arils (40%) and seeds (10%). The remaining 50% of the total fruit weight comprises of tough, leathery and yellow or deep pink/red coloured peels.
\nThe colouring matter from pomegranate peels consists of flavonoids (mostly flavan-3-ols or granatonine) and condensed tannins (26% of the total chemical composition) [60]. It also contains complex polysaccharides and many more compounds such as phenols, proanthocyanidin and ellagitannin (punicalagins and its isomers), low amounts of punicalin, gallic acid, ellagic acid, and ellagic acid glycosides [61].
\nThe world pomegranate production amounts to approximately 1,500,000 tons [62]. The peel of the fruit consisting of pericarp/rind/hull comprises approximately of 60% of the weight of the fruit and is considered as an agro-waste though it is a rich source of antioxidants, phenols, flavanoids [63]. Reportedly the peels also possess antibacterial, antifungal, anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory medicinal properties and have mostly been used as cattle feed.
\n\n
\n
Sinnur et al. [40] have used pomegranate rinds as a natural colourant to dye cotton khadi fabric using single and double mordants. They have found that 15% myrobolan (
Through the results of the FTIR and AAS studies, the authors have postulated the possible corresponding reaction mechanism resulting in the formation of large complexes between the mordant, fibre and the dye. The FTIR studies have indicated the presence of aluminium in dyed cotton khadi fabric, thereby confirming the formation of a complex between the cotton fibre, aluminium sulphate mordant and dye from pomegranate rinds together with the presence of some zinc and sulphur.
\nThe dyed cotton khadi fabric shows medium to good level of ultraviolet protection as the UPF rating increases from 5 for the control untreated sample, to 15–20 for the cotton dyed with pomegranate rinds.
\n\n
\n
For ease in use, transportation and storage, extracts can be concentrated either by evaporation of the aqueous extract or by membrane concentration techniques. The former evaporation technique uses considerable amounts of energy and the latter membrane concentration technique calls for a huge capital investment.
\nTo overcome both the disadvantages of source-substitution and poor dye-concentration, Ali et al. [14] have used agro-waste like pomegranate peels, onion peel and Canadian goldenrod in the form of concentrates prepared by energy-friendly precipitation method to dye wool yarn, cotton jersey and flax fabric. Extracts of these dyes from agro-waste have been precipitated as Al-based dye lakes/concentrates using alumnium sulphate. On an average, the precipitate yielded 5% of the original plant weight as dry lake, the concentration of total phenolics (TPH) in this dry solid mass ranged between 20 and 40% and aluminium content varied between 3 and 5% (w/w).
\nThe authors have shown how these Al-based dye lakes that are soluble in oxalic acid, can be used as direct dyes in the presence of aluminium-salt or iron-salt as mordants. Though the associated colour strength/depth of colour of the lakes was found to be lower, but the chroma of the dyeings (chromaticity) was higher. The authors have assigned the reason for the production of darker and more brilliant dyeing (higher b* coordinate values) by the direct use of precipitated extracts to the use of purified condition of the extract that contains more colour in the same amount of plant material.
\nKingdom: Plantae; Family: Amaryllidaceae; Botanical Name:
Onion, botanically known as
The main colouring component found in the outermost dry skin of onion is quecertin (C15H10O7), a flavonoid, proto-catechuic acid, kaempferol, anthocyanadine and some tannins [64].
\nThe outer layer of onion, i.e., the onion peel accounting for 10–25% (w/w) of the total weight are essentially removed before usage and thus forms a natural by-product of the food industry. With 22.43 million tons of onion produced by India as the second largest producer in the world [26], significant quantities of onion peel is generated as a waste.
\n\n
\n
Singh and co-workers [64] have used extract of peels of fruits and vegetables discarded as wastes (outer scaly peels of onion and rinds of the pomegranate fruit) to impart antibacterial functionality to degummed silk fabric dyed with the extract. Aqueous extraction of colour, from both the sources was done separately, and each solution was further purified through soxhlet distillation method. About 3 and 5 g/l of the both the extracts were applied on silk fabric as a mixture in a combination of 50:50, 25:75 and 75:25.
\nAbout 5 g/l concentration in the combination of 50:50 of the both the colourants gave the most optimised results and rendered a reduction of 98.1% in the bacterial count as evident from \nTable 2\n. Higher concentration of the dye when applied singly increases the antibacterial effect and higher proportion of pomegranate peel in the mixture has a slight improved edge over onion peel in rendering this effect.
\n\n
\n
Natural dyeing is generally done at higher temperature that adds to the cost of the final dyed product. Singhee and Dhanania [44] have explored the challenge and provided solutions.
\nThe authors have optimised conditions of aqueous extraction of colour from onion skin at (a) 5 (pH), (b) 1:20 (MLR) and (c) 80 min (time) and (d) 90°C (temperature). Use of 10% (owf) alumnium sulphate (mordant) by the pre-mordanting process was found optimum with respect to minimum strength loss maximum surface colour strength of the treated silk fabric. 80% (owf) dye concentration at pH 4 using MLR 1:40 at 60°C for 40 min gave optimum results with respect of surface colour strength and fastness properties of the dyed silk fabric. Strict control of pH, temperature of the dye-bath and dye concentration would result in uniform dyeing of silk with onion skins extract as indicated by high dispersion in the CDI values of silk dyed under variable conditions. These three have been identified as the predominating dyeing process parameters for dyeing silk fabric with onion peel.
\nTo bring down energy costs, dyeing was carried out are room temperatures by the pad-dry-cure and pad-batch-dry methods. In the pad-dry-cure method, silk was treated with purified onion peel extract (extracted in ethyl alcohol and toluene solvents using soxhlet apparatus) at room temperature and then padded on a two-bowl padding mangle at 80% pick-up by 2 dip-2 nip process followed by drying at 90°C for 5 min. For the pad-batch-dry method, the padded silk fabric was rolled on a glass rod, covered with a plastic sheet and kept at room temperature for 24 h. Among both these two simpler dyeing processes that uses less water and fuel, the pad-batch-dry method gave highest K/S values which was higher than even that obtained when aqueous extract of the dye is used (\nTable 3\n). Colour fastness properties to wash and rubbing though were found be lower for pad-batch-dry method.
\nSamples dyed with aqueous extract of onion peel were subsequently treated with UV-absorbers (benztriazole, benzophenone and MEK) for improving light fastness, and dye fixing agents (Tinifix WS Conc., cetrimide and CTAB) for improving wash fastness properties by both exhaust process and pad-dry-cure method. UV-absorbers like benztriazole and benzophenone gives ½ to 1 grade improvement in the light fastness; while among the different dye fixing agents used, CTAB (cetyl trimethyl-ammonium-bromide) shows higher degree of improvement in the wash fastness when applied by the pad-dry-cure process on silk fabric dyed with aqueous extract of onion peel than by the exhaust method.
\nKingdom: Plantae; Family: Juglandaceae; Botanical Name:
The walnut is edible fruit and belongs to the Juglandaceae family. The two most commercially important species are
The colouring component present in walnut shell is juglone (CI 75500), a napthoquinone (5hydroxy-1, 4-napthoquinone) which imparts brown shade to textile substrate [66].
\nThe walnut shells comprises 67% of the total weight of the fruit and as of 2009, the worldwide production of walnut was approximately 2.2 million tons. With this, around 1.5 million tons of walnut-shells is generated as agro-waste [67]. Farmers mostly dispose the agro-waste residues including the shells, husk, stalks, etc., by burning them. But this is associated with serious environmental problems.
\n\n
\n
Shahmoradi et al. [65] have exhaust-dyed wool fabric pre-mordanted with metallic mordants with aqueous extracted walnut shells and pomegranate peels. The effect of the mordants, alumnium sulphate, copper (II) sulphate, iron (II) sulphate, iron (III) sulphate, potassium dichromate, tin (II) chloride and tannic acid, on colorimetric and antibacterial properties has been studied. Assigning the occurrence of –OH and C=O in the tannins present in the dye, the authors have reported improved colour strength in the dyed and mordanted wool fibre due to formation of a complex between the metal salt of the mordant and the dye.
\nK/S values appeared to be dependent on the concentration of the colourants in the solution from the two sources, and lower dye concentration though resulted in brighter shades (high L* value), but the shades were less red (lower a* coordinates). Among the various mordants studied, iron (II) and (III) sulphate and copper sulphate significantly improved K/S values of the dyed fabric.
\nWashing fastness of all samples treated with both the colourants was high, regardless of the type of mordant used, though light fastness ranged from excellent to poor. The authors have assigned the cause of poor light fastness to oxidation reaction of tannins in the dyes in the presence of light. If the dye-fibre bond promotes transfer of excitation energy from dye to fibre macromolecule, it makes it stable to light thereby improving light fastness. The authors have used this explanation to elucidate the role of chrome and copper salts as mordants in imparting dyeings with higher light fastness for both the dyes.
\nPomegranate peel rendered better antibacterial activity against gram-negative bacterium (
\n
\n
Mirjalili et al. [16] have used soxhlet extract of walnut shells to dye polyamide fabrics using 3% (owf) of different mordants (potassium aluminium sulphate, cupric sulphate, and ferric sulphate) by simultaneous mordanting and dyeing process. They have reported considerable increased in dye absorption leading to higher 𝐾/𝑆 values in case of mordanted samples compared with unmordanted ones, with ferric sulphate giving the highest colour strength.
\nUse of mordant also imparted higher antibacterial activity and here again ferric sulphate was more effective against
Kingdom: Plantae; Family: Rosaceae; Botanical Name:
Almond, a shrub or tree of the
Almond shells are rich in lignin and other phenolic compounds and the major flavonoids present are (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin, kaempferol, and isohamnetin. HPLC analysis has also revealed presence of quercetin, isorhamnetin and morin [30].
\nAlmonds are consumed as a valuable food and its production generates millions of tons of residues (shells, hulls, pruning, leaves, skin and inedible kernel disposition), the bulk of which are the almond shells (35–75% of the total fruit weight). Three million tons of almonds was globally produced annually as of 2014 and with this about 10.5–22.5 million tons of shells are generated and generally discarded [68].
\n\n
\n
Use of natural renewable and sustainable sources to dye textiles is one of the solutions as an environmentally safe technology that will expectedly conform to ecological legislations and limits. Keeping this in view, Ismal and co-workers [17] have dyed wool with extract of the outer green hulls of the almond fruit using metallic mordants as well as natural bio-mordants. Valex (acorn of
Among the metallic mordants, copper (II) sulphate gave highest K/S in case of all of mordanting process types (pre, post and simultaneous). Also, simultaneous-mordanting with any of the metallic mordant studied followed by dyeing with almond hull extract rendered lowest K/S value to the wool fibre. Baring valex, all bio-mordants increased the corresponding K/S values of the wool simultaneously mordanted with the bio-mordant and dyed with almond hull extract in contrast to when they were used individually in comparable concentrations. Valex when used alone, gave the highest colour yields among the bio-mordants and its K/S value for all concentrations was higher than that of the control sample. Relatively higher b* value for valex resulted in a significant increase in yellow nuance of simultaneous bio-mordanted and dyed wool. The authors concluded that colour yields with bio-mordants can compete with metallic mordants barring copper sulphate when used through one-bath simultaneous dyeing and mordanting process.
\nMost bio-mordants can themselves be a source of colour and can dye fibres. The authors have also tried to study the synergistic effect on shades developed by natural bio-mordants when used in conjunction, at various concentration levels, with the dye from almond hull. Rosemary, valex and pomegranate bio-mordants show a synergistic effect with respect to the redness of the combined shade; their individually low redness value expectedly reduces the redness of the combined shade. Contrarily in case of thuja, the redness value of the combined shade is higher in spite of the lower redness value of thuja itself. Synergistic effect with respect to the blueness value can also be observed when valex, pomegranate and thuja are used in combination with almond hull extract; the blueness of the combined shade is higher than that of the control sample dyed only with almond hull extract or with the individual bio-mordant. L values of combination dyeing are always higher as compared to individual dyeing with almond hull extract for any of the bio-mordants under study, barring rosemary.
\nWash fastness properties of wool simultaneously dyed with almond hull extract and bio-mordants improves slightly, but the corresponding values are lower when wool is mordanted with only with the bio-mordant without dyeing. Among the bio-mordants, valex and pomegranate rinds improve the light fastness of the wool when applied simultaneously with the dye from almond hulls.
\n\n
\n
Deepali and Shraddha [19] have used almond shells waste that is available abundantly and at almost no cost, to dye crepe silk fabric and have optimised process condition parameters (time, temperature, pH, material to liquor ratio and dye concentration) for pre-mordanting with 25% (owf) aluminium sulphate and exhaust-dyeing degummed crepe silk fabric with aqueous extract of the almond shell. The optimised extraction condition with respect to the highest optical density at maximum wavelength for onion peel has been established at (a) 25% owf (mordant concentration), (b) 80°C (extraction temperature), (c) 15 min (extraction time), (d) 1:30 (MLR), (e) 11 (pH).
\nThe optimised dyeing condition with respect to both surface colour strength and fastness properties for dyeing silk crepe fabric using almond shell extract was established at (a) 100°C (dyeing temperature), (b) 60min (dyeing time), (c) 1:40 (MLR), (d) 2 (pH) and (e) 800% (dye concentration). CDI values of the dyed samples are widely dispersed for variations in temperature and pH indicating that special care should be taken with respect to the control these dyeing process parameters while dyeing protein fibres like silk with almond shell extract (\nTable 4\n). Dyeing under acidic pH gives darker shades and the fastness (wash and rubbing) properties of the dyed samples range from moderate to good.
\nKingdom: Plantae; Family: Fabaceae; Botanical Name:
Peanut is a legume and oil crop grown worldwide and classified as
Peanut skin have high content of phenolic compounds and contains eight different types of flavonoids along with and two alkanoids [70], phenolic acids, procyanidins dimmers, oligomers and some tannins. The main colouring components in peanut skin are vanillin, catechin and epicatechin (polyphenolic compounds) [71].
\nSubstantial amounts of by-products (peanut meal, skin, hull and vines) are generated in the process of peanut harvest, peanut oil extraction and making of peanut butter, peanut oil, peanut confections, roasted snack peanuts, extenders in meat product formulations, soups and desserts [72]. Though they contain appreciable amount of polyphenols. Only a portion of these by-products are used as animal feed or as fertilisers. A large portion of the waste is discarded, incinerated or lands up into landfills.
\nThe peanut shells are obtained as agricultural by-product when graded peanuts are passed through shelling machines to obtain the kernels. The production of peanut shells has been estimated to be 230–300 g of peanut shells per kg of peanut [73].
\nAbout 35–45 g of peanut skin being generated per kg of shelled peanut kernel and the annually worldwide production of peanut skin, as a by-product of the peanut processing industry is over 0.74 million metric tons [74]. In India, 3.0 lakh kg is available annually and can approximately dye 4.0 lakh kg of the fabric. Thus, a good source of dye from agro-waste associated with good sustainability is available at lost cost.
\n\n
\n
Peanut skin discarded as waste from food processing industry contains tannins and thus Pandey et al. [20] have dyed cotton, silk and wool fabrics with aqueous extract of peanut skin without using any mordants by both the conventional exhaust method and new method using microwave energy. Peach shades were obtained on all fibres dyed with peanut skin extract and the colour yield on silk was higher than wool; it was least on cotton. Increase in temperature of dyeing yielded better K/S values and dyeing at 90°C gave highest results on all fibres. Microwave dyeing gave good results, but the surface colour strength of the dyed fabric was less than exhaust dyeing at 90°C except in case of wool. The tenacity of the fabric decreased notably when dyeing was carried out using microwave energy.
\nGood light (6) and wash (4) fastness, excellent rubbing fastness (4–5) and good perspiration fastness (4) was observed on most dyed fibres. Peanut skin extract rendered excellent sun-protective function (UPF) to the dyed silk and wool fabric.
\n\n
\n
Chhipa et al. [73] have used peanut pods to dye cotton using 10% (owf) metallic mordants (alum, copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate) using pre, post and simultaneously mordanting and dyeing processes. Authors have reported higher surface colour strength with increase in dye concentration irrespective of the process of mordanting used except in case of the pre-mordanting process, which indicates a decrease in the K/S values. In all cases, alum as a mordant gave better colour yield (K/S) and ferrous sulphate the least. Simultaneous mordanting and dyeing gave higher colour strength on cotton in all cases except when the cotton fabric was dyed by the post-mordanting process using copper sulphate.
\nIrrespective of the sequential process of dyeing and mordanting used, light, wash and rubbing fastness was reportedly good for cotton dyed with aqueous extract of peanut pods.
\nKingdom: Plantae; Family: Fabaceae; Botanical Name:
\n
The tamarind fruits are bean-like, irregularly curve and bulged pods that usually vary from 2 to 7 cm in length. The pods are initially green and turn brown or greyish-brown as the fruit ripens. The pod-skin becomes brittle and the pulp inside dehydrates naturally to a sticky paste that encloses a few coarse strands of fibre extending along the length of the stalk.
\nThe tamarind seed-coat contains 38–40% water soluble matter, 80% of which is a mixture of tannins, polyphenolic compounds [76] as condensed tannins and colouring matter (procyanidin trimer, procyanidin B2 and epicatechin) [77].
\nThe reddish or purplish brown seeds rich in tannins [76] are generated as a by-product by the tamarind pulp industry. Also after removal of the pulp, the pods are mostly discarded. India alone produces about 0.3 million tons of tamarind annually.
\n\n
\n
Umar et al. [76] dyed cotton and silk with aqueous extract, and purified methalonic and ethanolic extract of dried pod-skin of the tamarind fruit using alum, copper sulphate, ferrous (II) and (III) sulphate as mordants. All three methods of pre, post and simultaneous mordanting were used for comparison purpose.
\nCotton and silk dyed with the aqueous extract of the tamarind pods, showed excellent to good light except when the sample was dyed with alum by the simultaneous mordanting process. All the dyed samples showed fair to good wash fastness with negligible staining. Rubbing fastness was also found to range from excellent to good, except when post mordanting process was used. Fastness to alkaline perspiration fastness was good (4–5) except in case of silk when iron (II) sulphate was applied by the simultaneous mordanting process or in case of cotton when copper (II) sulphate was applied by the post-mordanting process.
\nFor cotton and silk dyed with methanolic extract of the purified dye, excellent to good light fastness was observed in all cases except when both cotton and silk were pre-mordanted with alum. The wash fastness of the dyed samples was found to be fairly good and negligible staining was observed. Rubbing fastness was found to range from excellent to good, while the perspiration fastness was fair.
\nFor cotton and silk dyed with ethanolic extract of the purified dye, excellent to good light fastness was observed negligible colour staining. The wash fastness was fairly good (3–4) for cotton and silk. Perspiration fastness test was fairly good (3–4) in both acidic and alkaline medums, except in case of pre-mordanting process using iron (II) and iron (III) sulphates, where some loss in colour depth was visible specially when treated in an acidic medium. The extent of staining for both acidic and alkaline mediums was negligible.
\n\n
\n
Tepparin et al. [77] have dyed cotton,
The colour fastness to washing of all the dyed fabrics ranged from good-excellent level and was stable even after five washing cycles. Colour extracted from sour tamarind seed-coat rendered a higher colour strength on cotton and silk than that obtained when sweet tamarind seed-coat extract was used under comparable conditions. Sour tamarind seed-coat yield redder, yellower and more intense shades than the sweet tamarind seed-coat.
\nKingdom: Plantae; Family: Musaceae; Botanical Name:
\n
The holocellulose of banana pseudo-stem contain tetrahydroxyflavone (flavonoids) also known as luteolin and some tannins as the colouring components [49].
\nBanana accounts for about 16% of the total world organic production [80]. After harvesting, almost 89% of banana plant (floral stem, outer part of pseudo-stem, peels, peduncle, underground parts, leaf stalk and leaves) remain as a waste.
\n\n
\n
Repon et al. [49] have retrieved sap from fresh banana floral stem using roller squeezer machine and used it to dye cotton by the exhaust method at varying temperatures. 100°C gave best result in term of the colour yield (K/S), colour levelness (ΔE), brightness index and colour fastness to wash, rubbing and perspiration. Assigning the role of temperature in boosting swelling of fibres to promote easier penetration of dye into interior of the fibre, the authors have explained the achievement of colour levelness at higher temperatures.
\nExcept light fastness, all other colour fastness (washing, rubbing and perspiration) value ranged between 3 and 5, i.e., good to excellent. Wet rubbing properties were found to be lower than dry rubbing. Increase in temperature slightly improved the overall colour fastness properties. With increase in temperature, specimens showed a slight improvement in overall colour fastness properties. Authors have assigned poor light fastness of the dye to both lower photo stability of the natural pigments and also to the weaker dye-fibre interaction between the cotton fibre and the natural pigments in the banana floral stem sap.
\n\n
\n
Saleh [79] have extracted pigment from banana leaves using alkaline and acetone medium to dye Egyptian cotton fabrics in the presence of ferrous sulphate, copper sulphate and potassium dichromate as mordants. Dyeing of pre-mordanted cotton with the alkaline extracts of banana leaves was done at 80°C for 90 min at pH 9 using MLR 1:40; while dyeing with acetone extracted solution was carried out at 56°C for 5 min using MLR 1:40.
\nHigh performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) of the extracts identified pigment compounds, luteolin and apigenin in the alkaline extract and chlorophyll a, b and β-Carotene in the acetone extract. Though the K/S values for all dyeing were high, mordanted cotton displayed higher K/S value than unmordanted cotton irrespective of the mordant used. Mordanting with iron (ferrous sulphate) gave higher colour difference (ΔE) with yellowish brown colour probably due to a stable complex formed between iron and luteoline, a phenolic compound. Copper sulphate rendered a greener shade, while chromium produced pale yellow shades on cotton. Light fastness of the dyed samples was moderate, but good wash and rubbing fastness were obtained which improved when mordants were used.
\n\n
\n
Salah et al. [47] extracted colour from banana peels using 0.1% NaOH. The extracted dye was applied to the ferric sulphate pre-mordated bleached and mercerized Egyptian cotton fabrics. The HPTLC analysis indicated the presence of pigment, Luteolin, in crude alkaline extract of banana peels.
\nFe is known for its ability to readily chelate and form coordination complexes and several natural dyes. The authors have assigned the formation of a stabile complex between Fe of the mordant and luteoline of the colouring pigment in banana peel as the reason for maximum ΔE and corresponding lower L* values of the pre-mordanted cotton fabric dyed with the alkaline extract of the peel. Interestingly they have denoted the cause of higher dye uptake by the pre-mordanted cotton fibre to the formation of a ternary complex between the mordant, dye and the fibre. The coordination numbers of iron causes some coordination sites to remain unoccupied when it interacts with cellulose of cotton and these unoccupied sites are taken over by the colour component in the dye thereby enhancing the interaction between the fibre and the dye.
\nTransformation of cotton from cellulose I to cellulose II during mercerization involves partial destruction of intermolecular bonds due to alkali-swelling. This allows the dye to penetrate the swollen amorphous region of the cellulose where they form hydrogen bonding with the fibre cellulose. This explains the better dyeability and corresponding higher dye uptake of the mercerized cotton compared to unmercerized cotton. Iron from the mordant also plays a role in increasing the dye uptake and shifting of the colour for mercerized cotton due to respective formation of a chelate with the sodium cellulose and sodium alcoholates and a complex formation with luteoline of the dye. Correspondingly the L*, a*, and b* change for mercerized cotton.
\nThe data obtained showed that the mercerized cotton have excellent antibacterial activity both in terms of zone of inhibition and quantitatively in terms of percentage reduction in bacteria. Swelling of cotton with its resultant shrinkage during mercerization causes reduction in the fabric interstices/porosity and this restricts the consequent UV transmittance giving high UV protection in terms of UPF to mercerized cotton. The UPF of the mercerized cotton fabrics was found to 64 compared to 18.0 for the unmercerized cotton.
\nThe obtained results were also subjected to statistical analysis according to Sendcor and Cochran [82]. The experiments were in randomised complete design (RCD) with three replicates. Means were compared using the significant difference (LSD) at 5% level probability.
\nKingdom: Plantae; Family: Asteraceae; Botanical Name:
Marigold plant, a small perennial shrub that can grow up to 60 cm height belongs to Asteraceae family. It abundantly bears flowers varying in colour from yellow and gold to orange, red and mahogany depending on the species during the flowering season. Marigolds have been cultivated all over the world mostly South Asia [83].
\nMarigold flowers contain compounds called carotenoids containing lutein (C40H56O2) and patulinin, a flavonoid. Lutein and patulinin are the two natural pigments responsible for colouring of textiles. Lutein is present along with its isomer, zeaxanthin also known as oxycarotenoids [84].
\nMarigolds, yellowish-orange coloured flowers are used in many religious ceremonies and offered in huge quantities to deities in temples throughout India. Most of them are thrown in to the neighbouring ponds, lakes and rivers or simply dumped around the temple to decay naturally. This adds to pollution in and around most temples and has an undesirable effect on the river ecology [28, 81].
\n\n
\n
Vankar et al. [28] have used temple waste comprising of tagetus flowers collected from the Kanpur city to dye cotton, silk and wool. NMR and mass spectra analysis of the crude extract from the flower identified the presence of patuletin as the flavanoid as the colouring matter present in
Cotton (additionally pre-treated with tannic acid), silk and wool were pre-mordanted with different mordants (alum, copper sulphate, ferrous sulphate, stannic chloride and potassium dichromate) and then dyed with the purified ethanolic extract of the dye. Though the fastness properties improved with the use of metallic mordants, it rendered a slight change in the hue of the dyed fabric from yellow to yellowish-green to brown. Among the mordants used, ferrous sulphate gave the highest K/S on all fibres. Also the percentage of dye exhaustion due to metal mordanting varied with the different fabrics used; for cotton it varied between 45 and 52%; for silk it was 38–46% and for wool it ranged from 37 to 51%.
\n\n
\n
Teli et al. [82] have dyed soyabean protein fibre (SPF) with marigold extract using natural mordants derived from tamarind seed-coat,
The concentration of the dye also impacted the K/S values, which improved with increase in the dye concentrations. Results also indicated that use of mordant improves fastness properties that were comparable for all natural and metallic mordants used in the study. Though the antibacterial properties of the samples dyed with marigold extract without mordanting was low, it improved after mordanting and all the three natural mordants rendered similar overall antibacterial activity. The antibacterial finish reduced on washing, but it was within the acceptable limit of 70% after 30 washes. Among the natural mordants, tamarind seed-coat and
As ecological considerations become important factors in the selection of consumer goods all over the world consumers want quality product with no harm to the ecology, use of wastes from various sources for dyeing textiles can prove to be attractive for two reasons. One, they provide novel sources for dyeing textiles at lower costs. Two, they provide sustainable solution to the management of waste disposal.
\nThough a number of studies have been carried out to explore alternative source for natural dye, more specifically from wastes, more needs to be done in a systemic and scientific manner. Systematic collection of waste from the source and suitable alternatives to convert the waste into concentrates and appropriate recipes for dyeing to produce reproducible shades needs to be explored.
\nThis chapter deals with the worldwide and local resources of challenging (or low-grade) biomass feedstocks available for the production of energy and chemicals. It aims to highlight the potential of different sources of low-grade biomass and make aware of their content of impurities, mainly ash-forming elements (e.g., Na, K, Ca, Si, P, S, and Cl) and nitrogen (N). It also suggests what kind of utilization techniques, such as combustion, pyrolysis, and gasification render the best yields and the least problems in industrial conversion systems.
Biomass is a renewable resource and a short-term carbon sink [1]. The carbon cycle explains how carbon atoms continuously travel from the atmosphere to the ground and then back again as carbon dioxide or methane into the atmosphere. The biomass on earth both binds and emits greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. When dead biomass degrades, it becomes humus (soil), water, and carbon dioxide. In anaerobic conditions, every second of carbon dioxide will form methane, a 28 times more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide [1].
Carbon dioxide and methane are the two most dominant greenhouse gases from anthropogenic emissions [1]. Emissions lead to increasing concentrations in the atmosphere and cause the Earth’s temperature to rise. Therefore, the focus must be on all unutilized and low-quality biomass feedstocks available worldwide. These low-grade biomass feedstocks are present in different forms and have the potential to replace fossil-based feedstocks for energy and chemicals production. If they are not utilized for energy or chemicals production, they will inevitably contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter aims to shed light on different low-grade biomass feedstocks for energy and chemicals and discusses the concentrations and roles of impurities in the thermal conversion of the feedstocks.
Agriculture and forestry give rise to a large amount of non-used biomass [2]. Only a small fraction of the field crop ends up as food or some other product, maybe as little as 10–20% [2] of the total above-ground mass of biomass. Some of it finds use in farming or as a soil fertilizer. In forestry, only the trunk of a tree is of industrial value. The rest 30% of the above-ground biomass of a tree neither becomes timber nor fiber [2]. Non-utilized sidestreams from agriculture and forestry are important biomass feedstocks for energy and chemicals. Some of these are challenging due to their content of impurities.
Industrial processes also render large amounts of biomass feedstocks as side-streams. The largest sidestreams come from industries producing food and beverage, textile and fibers, liquid biomass fuels and wood, pulp, and paper. Sometimes, an industrial biomass feedstock contains large concentrations of impurities, but just as often, it is only slightly processed and quite low in biomass impurities.
The last sector to produce large amounts of low-grade biomass feedstocks is the household consumers and the service sector businesses. These produce biomass feedstocks in several aspects such as gardening and park managing waste, construction demolition of wood and furniture waste, packaging and food waste, and municipal solid waste. Finally, via the sewage system, it produces biomass sludge from the wastewater treatment plants.
In a circular economy [3], the waste hierarchy model states that the first goal is to prevent or minimize the formation of waste. The most significant potential to do so for biomass waste is within the households and in the service industry. In the forestry and agricultural sectors and the manufacturing industry, the prevention or minimization of biomass waste is not possible without compromising the volume of food and materials production from biomass.
The next step in the waste hierarchy is to reuse or recycle the waste material. Reusing means, for instance, renovating an old sofa or using milk cartons as plant pots, whereas recycling constitutes the conversion of waste streams into new products and chemicals. Returning the biomass back to the soil as a fertilizer is also a way of recycling the biomass; the only problem is that half of the biomass will form carbon dioxide, and some of this also forms methane if it is done in an uncontrolled way.
The last option in the waste hierarchy is the recovery of the organic fraction of waste streams as energy, and the very last option is landfilling the waste material. The European Union has banned the landfilling of any organic material in all its member states since 2018 [4]. The best option for waste biomass feedstocks is to utilize them for energy and chemical production and return the final residues as fertilizer to the soil.
The final residues, mainly the impurities, from utilizing the low-grade biomass feedstocks for energy and chemicals should be returned to the soil to complete the nutrient cycle and in part for carbon storage. One interesting way of long-time storage of the carbon bound in biomass feedstocks is to produce biochar for use as a soil fertilizer for growing crops. The biochar also serves as a way of carbon sequestering and storage.
The biomass feedstocks considered challenging for thermal conversion can be categorized as agricultural residues, e.g., wheat and rice straws and husks; industrial by-products such as rapeseed oil cake, molasses, vinasse, and black liquor; herbaceous energy crops, e.g., miscanthus, switchgrass, and reed; forestry by-products including forest residues and wood barks; and municipal solid wastes. Compared to wood, these feedstocks are of low quality and several challenges are associated with them for utilizing in thermal conversion processes. The challenges are primarily due to the high levels of impurities in the feedstocks. The impurities are mainly ash-forming elements (e.g., Na, K, Ca, Si, P, S, and Cl) and nitrogen (N). Figure 1 shows the concentrations of the impurities in these feedstocks and woody biomasses from refs. [5, 6, 7, 8]. As seen from the figure, most of the industrial side streams and agricultural residues contain the highest total concentration of impurities, followed by herbaceous energy crops, forest residues, and wood barks. However, the woody biomasses contain the least, indicating that they are less problematic for thermal conversion systems. The main thermal conversion problems caused by the impurities are ash-related problems (e.g., corrosion and ash-deposit formation) and air emissions (NOx and SOx). These problems are discussed in Section 5 of this Chapter.
Concentration of impurities in the woody and low-grade biomass feedstocks.
The causes for the high levels of impurities in the low-grade feedstocks are very variable and versatile. The main ones are (1) type of feedstock, (2) application of chemical fertilizer(s) to the soil, (3) contamination during collection and handling of the feedstock, (4) environmental factors including soil type, water quality, and climatic conditions, and (5) type of the industrial process generating the feedstock and chemical additives used during the industrial process. The influences of these factors on the concentration of impurities in the feedstocks are briefly described below, one after the other.
The majority of the low-grade feedstocks described above originated, one way or another, from plants (woody or herbaceous). These plants require impurities as nutrients for their growth, and the degree of nutrient uptake from the soil depends, among others, on the type of the plant. For example, high concentrations of Si in rice plants, and thus in the rice straw and husk given in Figure 1, are ascribed to the presence of a gene,
Apart from feedstock type, it is well established that the different parts of a plant have different levels of impurities. For example, in the woody biomass samples used in the work by Werkelin et al. [11], the concentrations of the impurities are mostly higher in the leaves, shoots, needles, and twigs of the biomasses than in their stems (woods). This is likely one of the reasons why forest residues, which are mainly composed of tree branches, leaves, and tops, have higher levels of impurities than the woods shown in Figure 1.
Another factor for the high levels of impurities in the low-grade feedstocks is the type and amount of chemical fertilizers applied to the soil. This is especially true for agricultural residues and industrial byproducts, e.g., wheat and rice straws and husks, rapeseed cake, and molasses originating from the production of food crops where chemical fertilizers are used to enhance soil fertility (or productivity). The chemical fertilizers are mostly applied to the soil in the form of nitrates (for N), phosphates (for P), and potassium salts, mainly potassium sulfate and chloride (for K and S). The extent to which these minerals are taken up by the crops partly depends on the amount of chemical fertilizers applied to the soil.
Contamination is a typical cause for the high level of impurities in a low-grade feedstock. It occurs primarily when the feedstock comes in contact with soil during harvesting and transporting. Feedstock contamination with soil is often the case with agricultural and forest residues and herbaceous energy crops, where mechanical harvesting techniques by swathing or raking [12] are used. However, according to Bakker and Elbersen [10], feedstock contamination during storage is less common.
The environmental conditions in which plants grow play a dominant role in determining the mineral (impurity) contents of the feedstocks. These environmental factors include soil type, warm or cold weather conditions, rain or irrigation water supply, and location (latitude, longitude, or altitude). For example, switchgrass grown on clay soil has shown higher Si contents than that grown on sandy soils.
The high level of impurities in the vinasse, given in Figure 1, is mainly due to the influence of the industrial process used. Figure 2 shows a simplified schematic diagram of the integrated sugar-ethanol production process. The concentrations of impurities in the crushed sugarcane and byproducts, i.e., bagasse, filter cake, molasses, and vinasse, from the integrated process are as shown in Figure 1. Detailed descriptions of the integrated process and the fate of impurities in the process are available from Dirbeba et al. [8]. Here, the influence of the process steps on the concentrations of the major impurities in the various byproducts is described.
Simplified schematic diagram of the integrated sugar-ethanol process.
As seen from Figure 1, vinasse > filter cake > molasses > crushed cane > bagasse in terms of the total concentration of impurities. These variations in the concentration of impurities in the cane and byproducts from the integrated process arise mainly from the sugar and ethanol production process steps shown in Figure 2. The influences of the process units are summarized as follows: (1) The low total concentration of impurities in the bagasse is due to the leaching of most of the impurities from the crushed cane by the imbibition water added during the milling and extraction process step. (2) The raw juice treatment involves first heating the juice, then liming and sulfiting it with quick lime (CaO) and SO2 gas, respectively, and finally sedimenting and filtering the treated juice to remove soils, sediments, and other suspended solids in it as a filter cake. This and the removal of most of the CaO and SO2 added for the juice treatment with the filter cake as sulfites and phosphates of calcium make the concentration of impurities in the filter cake considerably high. (3) Vinasse, the final byproduct from the integrated process, has the highest concentration of impurities. There are two main process-related causes for the high level of impurities in the vinasse: First, most of the impurities (ash-forming elements) left in the treated juice end up in the vinasse while the organic fractions in the juice are removed as products, sugar, and ethanol, leaving the vinasse concentrated with the impurities. Second, other chemicals such as H2SO4, UREA, and DAP are added during the molasses fermentation stage. These chemicals contain some impurities, S, N, and P, that are partly removed with the vinasse.
Another example of an industrial process where the process steps influence the concentration of impurities in the by-product is a pulp mill. In a pulp mill, the pulp is the main product and black liquor is the sidestream. As seen in Figure 1, the total concentration of impurities in the black liquor is very high, whereas the levels of the impurities in the input feedstocks, woody biomasses, for pulp mills are low. The high concentration of impurities in the black liquor is due to the addition of wood pulping chemicals, NaOH and Na2S, during the wood digestion process.
Low-grade biomass feedstocks from primary production like agricultural residues, clearing and thinning residues, and energy crops are largely available in many parts of the world [2]. The utilization of these feedstocks for energy and chemicals involves large-scale industrial processes. Despite their availability in large quantities and at low prices, their low energy densities and high moisture contents decrease their availability in practice. This is because of the high transportation costs and long distances involved with the centralized processing of these feedstocks.
The biomass feedstocks from industrial sidestreams are food or material industry by-products. The forest industry produces sawdust and bark or more processed feedstocks like black liquor or tall oil. These types of feedstocks are already inside the fence of a production site, and they pose severe waste-related problems if not utilized. However, there are still some challenges. Heat, steam, or electricity production is not always in the interest of the industry where the feedstocks are generated, or there might be a lack of competence or experience to utilize them for energy and chemicals production.
Table 1 shows the 2019 world production of the top 10 crops and estimates of the crop residues they generated in the field during harvesting and after they were processed on industrial sites. The estimates for the crop residues were made based on the data obtained from The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) [2]. As seen from the table, close to 15,000 million metric tons of agricultural residues were generated, indicating the high availability of these feedstocks for energy and chemicals production.
Crop type | World annual production | Harvest residues from each crop (by residue to crop ratio, RPR) | Process residues from each crop (by residue to crop ratio, RPR) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Million tons | % of total | Residue | RPR kg/kg | Million tons | Residue | RPR kg/kg | Million tons | ||
Top 10 crops in the world | Sugarcane | 1955 | 20 | Tops | 0.3 | 587 | Bagasse | 0.33 | 645 |
Maize | 1141 | 12 | Stalks | 2 | 2283 | Cob/Husks | 0.473 | 540 | |
Wheat | 765 | 8 | Straw/husk | 1.75 | 1339 | ||||
Rice, paddy | 749 | 8 | Straw | 1.757 | 1316 | Husk | 0.267 | 200 | |
Oil palm fruit | 416 | 4 | Fibre/Shell | 0.435 | 181 | ||||
Potatoes | 355 | 4 | |||||||
Soybeans | 336 | 3 | Straw | 2.5 | 841 | Pods | 1 | 336 | |
Cassava | 299 | 3 | Stalks | 0.062 | 19 | Peelings | 0.015 | 4 | |
Sugar beet | 281 | 3 | Pulp | 0.075 | 21 | ||||
Cotton | 250 | 3 | Stalks | 2.755 | 689 | ||||
Sum | 6548 | 66 | 7072 | 1927 | |||||
Total production | 9862 | 100 | Estimate: | Estimate: |
In the Nordic countries, residues from primary production like wheat straw and logging residues find their way to the local heat and power plants for conversion by combustion to district heating and electricity. Only a certain distance from the heat and power plant is suitable for collecting these biomasses; too long distances make the transportation costs too high [14].
It is mainly the demand for heat in the winter that makes this feasible. The Nordic countries have systems for district heating in all cities and even in smaller municipalities. In most countries globally, there is no market or infrastructure for district heating. Instead, converting the biomass into high-grade chemicals for materials and fuels for transportation is a sustainable alternative to replace fossil-based raw materials for these commodities.
Low energy density is the result of low bulk densities (100 kg/m3), high moisture contents (typically 40%), and low heating values (about 20 MJ/kg dry solids) of the feedstocks. This results in low energy densities, around 1000 MJ/m3. Compared to crude oil, 35,000 MJ/m3, and bituminous coal, 25,000 MJ/m3, biomass feedstocks should not be transported long distances without first upgrading.
The oxygen content of the biomass feedstocks is high; a typical empirical formula for biomass is CH2O. The maximum available thermal energy per kilogram from these feedstocks is 20 MJ, which is obtained when they are fully oxidized to CO2 and H2O [15]. This is relatively low compared to other primary energy sources, like natural gas, crude oil, and bituminous coal, which are 55, 45, and 30 MJ/kg, respectively.
High porosity is due to the vascular structure of biomass. It leads to the overall low density: maximum 900 kg/m3 for dry solid hardwood, but typically much lower bulk densities: 30–170 kg dry solids per cubic meter, kgD.S./m3 [13]. Higher bulk densities usually include moisture, which is of no value for its utilization for energy and chemicals.
Biomass feedstocks are naturally hygroscopic and contain some 20% moisture in equilibrium with air humidity. It dries further by applying heat and may obtain close to zero moisture content before utilization. Fresh biomass from newly harvested feedstock contains over 50% of moisture. Each percent of moisture content lowers the effective heating value by 1.125%; i.e., moisture content of 40% reduces the effective heating value of the biomass by 45%, expressed as energy released per kilogram biomass combusted.
Biomass feedstocks from industrial by-products such as rapeseed oil cake, molasses, vinasse, and black liquor are much easier to access since these biomass feedstocks are already inside the industry gate. The challenge is if the industries where these feedstocks are generated do not find use(s) for them and if there are no proven techniques to have them processed.
The pulp and paper industry have a long tradition of utilizing all the sidestreams it generates. The largest sidestream is the spent liquor from wood pulping: black liquor. Its utilization has a long history in Scandinavian countries, but the primary purpose of processing it further within the pulp mill is to recover the inorganic cooking chemicals, which are contained in the black liquor. For every ton of pulp, seven tons of black liquor are produced. After concentrating the black liquor to a dry solid content of about 75%, it is burned in a chemical recovery boiler to produce heat and electricity for the pulp mill, which is often self-sufficient in energy. Roughly 195 million metric tons of black liquor are produced annually as a by-product from all the Kraft pulping processes in the world [16].
The integrated sugar-ethanol industry produces molasses and vinasse as by-products. The amount of molasses produced annually is about 70 million metric tons with a thermal energy value of approximately 225 TWh [17]. For every liter of ethanol produced, 10–15 liters of vinasse form as a by-product. In Brazil alone, 370 million cubic meters of vinasse is generated annually [18]. There is not yet a sustainable use for these by-product streams. They are both potential biomass feedstock for the production of energy and chemicals.
There are two main energy production routes from biomass: biochemical and thermochemical (herein referred to as thermal) conversion routes. Biochemical conversion of biomass involves the production of liquid (ethanol) or gaseous (methane) fuel using microorganisms, which break down the organic fraction of biomass into ethanol or methane depending on whether fermentation or anaerobic biodigestion process is used. According to Christofoletti et al. [19], biochemical conversion processes are mentioned to be slow and expensive and produce other harmful gases, such as hydrogen sulfide. Moreover, these processes generate effluents, such as vinasse, that are difficult to treat and have potential environmental pollution. However, a review of the applicability of low-grade biomass feedstocks to biochemical conversion is beyond the scope of this chapter.
On the other hand, the second option, the thermal conversion route, uses heat to disintegrate biomass into often solid, liquid, and/or gaseous fractions depending on the type of thermal conversion used. The main biomass thermal conversion processes are combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, and hydrothermal liquefaction. These processes are described briefly and discussed more in detail below in connection with the utilization of the challenging biomass feedstocks.
Combustion is a well-established and most commonly used thermal conversion technology for the production of heat and power from biomass. It is also a proven means for waste disposal. In the latter case, combustion is often referred to as incineration. In addition to eliminating wastes that otherwise would cause environmental damage(s), incineration also produces heat utilized, for example, for district heating. Among the available technologies for biomass combustion, the fluidized bed (FB) combustion is the most advanced and efficient technology for heat and electricity production from biomass feedstocks containing low levels of impurities. There are two types of FB combustion technologies: bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) and circulating fluidized bed (CFB).
BFB and CFB technologies that utilize some low-grade biomass feedstocks have been developed and operating in some European countries. Table 2 lists some examples of these technologies, designed and supplied by Valmet [20], along with their capacities and locations as well as the type of challenging feedstocks used.
Company name | Type | Capacity | Location | Challenging feedstock used |
---|---|---|---|---|
Termomeccanica Ecologia | BFB | 2x30 MWth | Calabria, Italy | RDF |
Borås Energi och Miljö | BFB | 2x20 MW | Borås, Sweden | RDF, SRF |
Stora Enso Langerbrugge nv | CFB | 125 MWth | Gent, Belgium | RDF |
Mälarenergi AB | CFB | 155 MWth | Västerås, Sweden | RDF, SRF |
Lahti Energia Oy | CFB | 2x80 MW | Lahti, Finland | RDF, REF, SRF |
Some examples of BFB and CFB boilers using low-grade feedstocks for heat and power production [20].
As seen from the table, solid recovered fuel (SRF), refuse-derived fuel (RDF), and recycled fuel (REF) are the main problematic feedstocks used in the FB boilers. These feedstocks are obtained after crushing and pretreating their sources—recycled wood, MSW, and industrial and commercial wastes. The pretreatments, e.g., removing mechanical or coarse impurities such as plastic wastes, minimize the ash-related problems (discussed in the next section) that would have been caused by utilizing these feedstocks in FB boilers. In addition to the pretreatments, special design features are incorporated in these boilers to partly offset the adverse impacts of the impurities contained in the feedstocks. For example, the use of highly alloyed steels for the construction of superheater tubes of the boilers and placement of the superheater tubes in the flue gas path where the flue gas temperature is lower are some technological options for alleviating the adverse impacts of the impurities.
Another well-developed combustion technology to burn a specific challenging biomass feedstock is the Kraft recovery boiler. As discussed in the previous section, this boiler is solely designed for burning black liquor from pulp mills. It generates not only heat and electricity from the black liquor for the pulp mills but also recovers the wood pulping chemicals. However, efforts to combust a similar challenging fuel-vinasse in a recovery boiler have not been successful so far. This is in part due to the higher levels of K and Cl in the vinasse than in the black liquor as shown in Figure 1. Nevertheless, a recent Ph.D. thesis work by Dirbeba [21] suggests a recovery boiler-type system with a simpler lower furnace than that of the black liquor for vinasse combustion. Such a system could decrease the ash-related problems (see next section) while at the same time allowing most of the ash in the vinasse to be recovered for use as fertilizer. However, this system will inevitably produce steam with low temperatures and pressures, ultimately leading to low electrical power efficiency.
Gasification is one of the promising routes for biomass thermal conversion due to its potential for providing high energy efficiency cycles [22]. The primary product from biomass gasification is syngas, which is composed of mainly CO and H2. The syngas can be combusted to produce heat and power, or it serves as a feedstock for the production of liquid fuels and other value-added chemicals via, for instance, the Fischer-Tropsch process.
A novel gasification technology that has been demonstrated for low-grade biomass feedstocks is a CFB gasifier coupled with a syngas cleaning system and subsequently combustion of the clean syngas in a boiler as shown in Figure 3. Here, the syngas cleaning system removes impurities released during the gasification of the biomass feedstock in the CFB gasifier. As a result, combusting the clean syngas in the boiler enables to obtain higher steam parameters (and thus higher energy efficiencies) than the steam parameters that would be obtained from direct combustion of the feedstock [23]. A commercial-scale plant of such a process has been installed in Lahti, Finland, by Valmet [20]. The plant uses SRF as a feedstock, and it has a capacity to gasify 250,000 tons of SRF per year, which is equivalent to 150 MW of combined heat and power supply.
Schematic of low-grade biomass feedstock gasifier coupled with syngas cleaning and combustion systems. Adapted with permission from [
Another promising gasification technology for low-grade biomass feedstocks is the high temperatures (up to 1500°C) and high pressures (up to 3 MPa) entrained flow gasifier. One of the advantages of this technology is its feedstock flexibility-dried and ground biomass feedstocks or biomass feedstocks with high moisture contents, such as black liquor and vinasse, can be injected into the gasifier with the gasifying agent. Moreover, the smelt (composed of mostly molten ash) from this process can be recovered as an aqueous phase bottom product. A pilot-scale plant of this technology has been demonstrated for black liquor to be economically feasible.
Another form of the gasification process, supercritical water gasification (SCWG), converts wet biomass feedstocks into gaseous fuels, composed of mainly methane (CH4), hydrogen (H2), and carbon monoxide (CO), at temperatures and pressures above the critical point of water. Several studies, e.g., [24, 25], have reported that SCWG is more suitable for biomass feedstocks with very high (≥80 wt.%) moisture contents. This makes challenging biomass feedstocks such as black liquor and vinasse potential feedstocks for SCWG processes. However, SCWG technologies have not yet found their way into commercialization due to the challenges discussed later in Section 5.
Pyrolysis is a thermal conversion process where a feedstock is heated under inert gas conditions, i.e., in the absence of oxygen, to produce solid, liquid, and gaseous products often referred to as biochar, bio-oil, and non-condensable pyrolysis gases, respectively. Based on how fast the feedstock is heated to the pyrolysis reaction temperature and on the type of the final product sought to be maximized, there are mainly two types of pyrolysis processes: slow and fast pyrolysis. Slow pyrolysis, also known as conventional pyrolysis, is characterized by slow heating rates, long residence times of the pyrolysis products in the pyrolysis reactor, and biochar is the target product. In the fast pyrolysis processes, however, the feedstock is rapidly heated to the reaction temperature, at heating rates of as high as 104°C/s, and the pyrolysis vapors are rapidly withdrawn from the pyrolyzer and cooled to maximize the bio-oil yield.
In recent years, more emphasis is given to research in fast pyrolysis compared to that of the slow, as shown in Figure 4. This is because the fast pyrolysis bio-oil has attracted interest for use as a renewable fuel and as a feedstock for the production of chemicals. In addition, reduced storage and transportation costs and higher energy density make the bio-oil more advantageous than the original biomass feedstock from which the bio-oil is produced. Besides the bio-oil, there are growing market interests in the biochars from the fast pyrolysis: biochars can be used as a soil conditioner/fertilizer, and they have the potential to substitute fossil-based industrial carbons (e.g., activated carbon). Moreover, returning biochars to the soil as fertilizers serves as CO2 sequestration, thereby contributing to greenhouse gas emission reduction [26].
The number of yearly publications on slow and fast pyrolysis. The data was retrieved from SciFindern with the key search words “slow” and “pyrolysis” and “fast” and “pyrolysis”. The types of publications considered for the data were journal articles, review papers, conference papers, books, and dissertations.
Technologies for fast pyrolysis that utilize woody biomass as a feedstock have been introduced as the first demonstration plants. For instance, a 30 MWth Savon Voima’s (formerly Fortum’s) fast pyrolysis process has been built integrated with a CHP plant in Joensuu, Finland [23], and other industrial-scale plants are under construction [27]. However, commercial-scale fast pyrolysis technologies for low-grade biomass feedstocks have not been developed so far.
Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), also known as direct liquefaction, is similar to SCWG: water is used as a solvent (or reaction medium) in both processes, and wet biomass feedstocks do not require drying for liquefaction. However, liquefaction is distinct from SCWG in the following aspects. (1) Unlike SCWG processes whose products are gaseous fuels, bio-oil is the main product from liquefaction systems. (2) HTL processes are carried out under subcritical water conditions and at moderate temperatures, 250–350°C. Although there are some pilot-scale HTL processes, as listed in [28], for low-grade biomass feedstocks, none of them have been developed into a commercial-scale technology so far.
As discussed in the previous section, the utilization of low-grade biomass feedstocks in thermal conversion processes has started to show a green light in some cases. However, there are still versatile challenges for marketizing these feedstocks-based thermal conversion technologies. Table 3 lists these challenges. The challenges can be categorized into process- and product quality-related challenges. Both types of challenges are primarily due to the type and level of impurities (ash-forming elements) present in the feedstocks.
Thermal conversion process | Challenges | Opportunities/remedies |
---|---|---|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Challenges and opportunities/remedies for thermal conversion of low-grade biomass feedstocks.
The process-related thermal conversion problems associated with the type and concentration of impurities in the feedstocks include ash-deposit formation, corrosion, bed agglomeration (hence bed defluidization), fouling, and slagging [29, 30]. These problems often limit heat transfer in thermal converters, lower electrical power efficiency, decrease plant availability due to unplanned shutdowns for maintenance, and even cause irreversible damage(s) to the installations, leading to permanent loss of capital investment.
Moreover, several reports, e.g., [31, 32, 33], show that the impurities in the biomass feedstocks considerably influence the quantity and quality of products from thermal conversion systems. For example, alkali and alkaline earth metals in the feedstocks decrease the yield and quality of bio-oils from fast pyrolysis and HTL processes. These metals are known to render the bio-oils unfavorable physicochemical characteristics such as acidity, corrosivity, inhomogeneity, phase separation, instability, low heating value, and high solids, water, and oxygen contents. These unfavorable physicochemical properties make the direct utilization of the bio-oils as a transport fuel and a feedstock for the production of high-quality value-added chemicals unsuitable.
Nevertheless, Table 3 also lists some opportunities or remedies for the challenges arising from the thermal conversion of low-grade biomass feedstocks. The solutions involve both technological innovations and political (regulatory) commitments. Some examples of the former case include extensive efforts in designing and developing technologies for syngas cleaning, bio-oil upgrading, and minimizing corrosion and bed-agglomeration-related problems via the use of high-quality metal alloys and bed additives, such as kaolin. The latter (or policy) option requires commitments from governments and incentives for businesses to utilize low-grade biomass feedstocks. A typical example is the adoption of circular economy, at least by most European countries, where companies implementing the policy are incentivized, climate change challenges are tackled, and dependence of economies on depleting natural resources is minimized. In this regard, the fast pyrolysis of low-grade biomass feedstocks seems promising. According to a recent review paper by Oasmaa et al. [27], using low-grade biomass and waste feedstocks including waste plastics as input for fast pyrolysis processes is environmentally and economically sustainable. Moreover, the EU renewable energy directive (EU RED II) [34] lists and promotes low-grade biomass and waste feedstocks for bio-oil production. Upgrading of the fast pyrolysis oils to transportation fuels through, for example, catalytic fast pyrolysis and hydrodeoxygenation are increasingly gaining attention and attracting interest from the industry. Moreover, the biochars from the fast pyrolysis processes have not only the potential to replace the non-renewable chemical fertilizers but also minimize greenhouse gas emissions via carbon sequestration. Thus, the future of utilizing challenging biomass feedstocks in thermal conversion systems appears encouraging.
This book chapter sheds some light on the use of low-grade biomass feedstocks as a sustainable and renewable source for the production of energy and chemicals through thermal conversion processes. The chapter assesses the availability of the feedstocks for thermal conversion and provides the sources of impurities (ash-forming elements) contained in them. Also, it emphasizes that the main challenges associated with the utilization of the feedstocks in thermal conversion systems are related to the type and concentration of the impurities in the feedstocks. Furthermore, it details the challenges of low-grade biomass combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, and liquefaction and the potential alternative options to address them. Evaluation of the existing information on the thermal conversion of these feedstocks reveals that the fast pyrolysis process is a promising thermal conversion route for these feedstocks. The pyrolysis oils from this process can be upgraded to transportation fuels or can be used for the production of high value-added chemicals. Moreover, the fast pyrolysis biochars can be returned to the soil for use as fertilizer and at the same time minimize CO2 emission through carbon sequestration. Overall, this work provides useful information for the design and development of state-of-the-art thermal conversion technologies for challenging biomass feedstocks.
This work has been carried out at the Laboratory of Molecular Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, as part of the activities at the Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre (PCC). The authors are grateful to Svenska Kulturfonden and PoDoCo (Post Docs in Companies) for the grant for Dr. Meheretu Jaleta Dirbeba under the project “Role of feedstock impurities in novel pyrolysis based technologies for low-grade biomass and waste feedstocks” (PoDoCo application no. 173788). Support from Valmet Technologies Oy is also gratefully acknowledged.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"56330",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69932",title:"Russian Scientific Trends on Specific Language Impairment in Childhood",slug:"russian-scientific-trends-on-specific-language-impairment-in-childhood",totalDownloads:1956,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"In Russia, there are many decades of experience in the scientific study of the problem of impaired language development in children. Today, the term “Systemic speech-and-language underdevelopment (SLU)” has firmly established in Russian science and practice, implying a complex developmental disorder of speech and language in children with a primary normal hearing and a conserved intellect, in which the main components of the language system are violated: vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, and, as a consequence, dialogic and monologic speech. Traditionally, a differentiated level-by-level analysis of the speech and language abilities of children is used. The variability of the manifestations and severity of speech-and-language disorders were initially systematized and characterized in four levels of underdevelopment: from the complete absence of phrase speech to the availability of simple and complex sentences with lexico-grammatical errors. Effective algorithms of speech therapist work with SLU are introduced. The effectiveness of the application of these models and algorithms on the material of various language groups is proved.",book:{id:"5957",slug:"advances-in-speech-language-pathology",title:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology",fullTitle:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology"},signatures:"Tatiana Tumanova and Tatiana Filicheva",authors:[{id:"204529",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana Volodarovna",middleName:null,surname:"Tumanova",slug:"tatiana-volodarovna-tumanova",fullName:"Tatiana Volodarovna Tumanova"},{id:"208704",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana Borisovna",middleName:null,surname:"Filicheva",slug:"tatiana-borisovna-filicheva",fullName:"Tatiana Borisovna Filicheva"}]},{id:"36452",doi:"10.5772/38931",title:"Qualitative Research Methods in Psychology",slug:"qualitative-research-methods-in-psychology",totalDownloads:35906,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:null,book:{id:"1997",slug:"psychology-selected-papers",title:"Psychology",fullTitle:"Psychology - Selected Papers"},signatures:"Deborah Biggerstaff",authors:[{id:"123274",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Biggerstaff",slug:"deborah-biggerstaff",fullName:"Deborah Biggerstaff"}]},{id:"56560",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70235",title:"The Role of Speech and Language Therapist in Autism Spectrum Disorders Intervention – An Inclusive Approach",slug:"the-role-of-speech-and-language-therapist-in-autism-spectrum-disorders-intervention-an-inclusive-app",totalDownloads:2377,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"The chapter describes the possibilities of involving a speech-language therapist in the assessment of the pragmatic level of communication in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), where one of the most frequently impaired areas is communication pragmatics. These difficulties lead to a disruption of social interaction, which might be one of the obstacles to speech-language intervention in these children. The text is based on an originally developed testing material aimed at selected pragmatic-oriented communication situations relating to everyday activities and real life. Based on a comparison of domestic and international resources in this area, as well as mediated and own empirical experience, our assessment approach is based on the conclusion that pragmatics can be understood in different contexts and perspectives. The text presents the results of a partial survey comparing the performance of children with ASD and children with typical development. The assessment focused on the children’s election of the correct picture of a pair of pictures that represent usual communication and social situations. The results of the research suggest fewer incorrect responses in children with ASD and in different areas compared with children with typical development. However, the results of a qualitative analysis indicate a necessity to expand the assessment of communication pragmatics by adding an individually specific qualitative analysis of children’s performance.",book:{id:"5957",slug:"advances-in-speech-language-pathology",title:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology",fullTitle:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology"},signatures:"Kateřina Vitásková and Lucie Kytnarová",authors:[{id:"203061",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kateřina",middleName:null,surname:"Vitásková",slug:"katerina-vitaskova",fullName:"Kateřina Vitásková"},{id:"212035",title:"MSc.",name:"Lucie",middleName:null,surname:"Kytnarová",slug:"lucie-kytnarova",fullName:"Lucie Kytnarová"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73271",title:"Social Media and Its Effects on Beauty",slug:"social-media-and-its-effects-on-beauty",totalDownloads:3088,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Beauty is concerned with physical and mental health as both are intimately related. Short-term decisions to alter one’s body structure irrespective of genetic, environmental, occupational and nutritional needs can leave medium- and long-term effects. This chapter analyzes the role of social media and its effects on the standards of beauty. The researchers have summarized the literature on how social media plays a role in affecting beauty trends, body image and self-esteem concerns. There is support that social media affects individuals negatively, in pushing them to engage in life threatening beauty trends due to social compliance and acceptance in society. The aim was to review social networking sites’ impact on perception of standards of beauty and newer unrealistic trends gaining popularity that could alter opinions and also cause harm to individuals in the long run. This is an emerging area of research that is of high importance to the physical and mental health in the beauty, health and hospitality industry with the latter being manifested in depression, anxiety and fear of non-acceptability and being seen as a social gauche.",book:{id:"7811",slug:"beauty-cosmetic-science-cultural-issues-and-creative-developments",title:"Beauty",fullTitle:"Beauty - Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments"},signatures:"Mavis Henriques and Debasis Patnaik",authors:[{id:"320016",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mavis",middleName:"Lilian",surname:"Henriques",slug:"mavis-henriques",fullName:"Mavis Henriques"},{id:"320978",title:"Dr.",name:"Debasis",middleName:null,surname:"Patnaik",slug:"debasis-patnaik",fullName:"Debasis Patnaik"}]},{id:"60564",title:"Ageing Process and Physiological Changes",slug:"ageing-process-and-physiological-changes",totalDownloads:7024,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Ageing is a natural process. Everyone must undergo this phase of life at his or her own time and pace. In the broader sense, ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"27237",title:"Emotional Intelligence",slug:"emotional-intelligence",totalDownloads:5779,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"679",slug:"emotional-intelligence-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Emotional Intelligence",fullTitle:"Emotional Intelligence - New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Adrian Furnham",authors:[{id:"85492",title:"Prof.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Furnham",slug:"adrian-furnham",fullName:"Adrian Furnham"}]},{id:"70731",title:"Theoretical Perspective of Traditional Counseling",slug:"theoretical-perspective-of-traditional-counseling",totalDownloads:1610,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter discusses the theoretical perspective of traditional counseling from an African context. Traditional counseling involves a broad perspective that enhances learning for transformation and integration of sociocultural values that are peculiar to each human society. A cursory review of the literature suggests that the concept of traditional counseling is rooted in traditional systems of knowledge and sociocultural customs and practices, and it promotes a collective approach to problem identification, resolution, and management. The traditional counseling process centers on four aspects: traditional counselor, client, family, and community. The key elements that inform the theoretical framework of traditional counseling from an African perspective are: cultural context, collective belief system, and initiation rituals Traditional systems of knowledge deemed essential for each generation are passed on successively to the next generation by elderly people who do not only have the necessary wisdom and experience, but are also adorned with social competences and skills.",book:{id:"9136",slug:"counseling-and-therapy",title:"Counseling and Therapy",fullTitle:"Counseling and Therapy"},signatures:"Hector Chiboola",authors:[{id:"314172",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Chiboola",slug:"hector-chiboola",fullName:"Hector Chiboola"}]},{id:"55388",title:"Beauty, Body Image, and the Media",slug:"beauty-body-image-and-the-media",totalDownloads:7775,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter analyses the role of the mass media in people’s perceptions of beauty. We summarize the research literature on the mass media, both traditional media and online social media, and how they appear to interact with psychological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image disturbances. There is a strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and music videos) affect perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender body type as ideal or beautiful. Rather than simply being passive recipients of unrealistic beauty ideals communicated to them via the media, a great number of individuals actually seek out idealized images in the media. Finally, we review what is known about the role of social media in impacting society’s perception of beauty and notions of idealized physical forms. Social media are more interactive than traditional media and the effects of self‐presentation strategies on perceptions of beauty have just begun to be studied. This is an emerging area of research that is of high relevance to researchers and clinicians interested in body image and appearance concerns.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue",authors:[{id:"202110",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mills",slug:"jennifer-s.-mills",fullName:"Jennifer S. Mills"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"21",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83170",title:"Understanding Happiness in the Pacific Islands: A Qualitative Study with University Staff in Fiji",slug:"understanding-happiness-in-the-pacific-islands-a-qualitative-study-with-university-staff-in-fiji",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106771",abstract:"The concept of happiness has been the subject of critical analysis throughout the Western philosophical thought. Current conceptualizations focus on the role of cultural traditions and consumerist societal values. However, there is increasing scientific evidence that happiness is a product of multiple factors, the specific pattern of which differs across cultures. Yet, the cross-cultural literature tends to condense this into a Western–individualist versus non-Western-collectivist happiness dichotomy. This overlooks the vast diversity in global collectivist societies and more research is needed from under-represented, indigenous populations. This study aims to provide a qualitative exploration of the definitions, experiences, and outcomes of happiness within a professional sample of Indigenous Pacific Fijian and Indian-Fijian ethnic groups. The data revealed eight inter-related themes that, together, suggest the experience of happiness in Fijians is a product of collectivist cultural and religious structures, individual goals and needs, and the practical environment (housing and land systems) of the Pacific Islands. This model of happiness both supports and extends existing literature from other non-Western populations. Importantly, the mix of indigenous, colonial, and environmental influences which seem to underlie the Fijian understanding of happiness support the call for contextualized analyses and socioecological approaches to happiness and well-being research.",book:{id:"11444",title:"Happiness - Biopsychosocial and Anthropological Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11444.jpg"},signatures:"Annie Crookes and Meg A. Warren"},{id:"82771",title:"Making Sense of a Biochemistry Learning Process and Teacher’s Empathy: Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Using Emoji Symbols",slug:"making-sense-of-a-biochemistry-learning-process-and-teacher-s-empathy-computer-supported-collaborati",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105927",abstract:"Teaching biochemistry concepts can be a challenging task, as it requires learners and teachers to integrate abstract concepts from chemistry and biology. Students struggle to grasp the molecular processes, as they find it difficult to visualize them. Incorporating Information Communication Technology (ICT) implementations during lessons is known to encourage learners’ involvement in a collaborative learning process and is especially effective when training preservice teachers (PSTs). In the current study, we describe an example in which the teacher plays an important role in creating the Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) in this environment to encourage peer learning while coping with complicated material. We believe that one of the important components in guiding such peer work is the teacher’s ability to sense each group’s progress and to employ empathy in the classroom as a tool for coping with the difficulty and challenge of acquiring new knowledge and for creating a productive dialog between groups that disagree. In this example, the process of Information Communication Technology (ICT) implementation encouraged the preservice teachers (PSTs) to create an alternative set of symbols, which eventually served as a “language” and help them understand the biochemical processes.",book:{id:"11443",title:"Empathy - Advanced Research and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg"},signatures:"Dana Sachyani and Ilana Ronen"},{id:"83099",title:"Values-Flow in Contextual Psychotherapy: The ‘What’, ‘Why’, and ‘How’ of Sustainable Values-Based Behaviour",slug:"values-flow-in-contextual-psychotherapy-the-what-why-and-how-of-sustainable-values-based-behaviour",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106594",abstract:"Flow - enjoyed and fully absorbed engagement in meaningful and contextually bounded activities - is widely underutilised in psychotherapy and mental health settings. Two gold standard therapies, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) and Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT), while powerful and effective in many ways, would benefit from systematic models that move from initiating positive change to sustaining meaningful change. This chapter introduces ‘Values-Flow’ – an approach aimed at building commitment and sustainable engagement in psychotherapy and values-based behaviour in working adults struggling with sub-optimal functioning. We first introduce Values-Flow and describe how it may benefit psychotherapy skills practice in everyday life. Next, we discuss why Values-Flow is relevant and enhances the practice of ACT and DBT strategies, helping to sustain engagement and creative practice of values-based actions outside of sessions. We then describe the ‘Values-Flow’ framework, which incorporates VIVA (Virtue, Involve, Vital, Accepting) and ARIA (Attend, Reflect, Inform, Act) tools that develop commitment for values-based practice in daily life. We conclude with a case-example of how Values-Flow can build commitment and sustainable engagement in homework completion in psychotherapy.",book:{id:"11444",title:"Happiness - Biopsychosocial and Anthropological Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11444.jpg"},signatures:"Cedomir Ignjatovic, Margaret L. Kern and Lindsay G. Oades"},{id:"83100",title:"Factors Affecting the Happiness of Korean University Students",slug:"factors-affecting-the-happiness-of-korean-university-students",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106296",abstract:"As of 2020, in Korea, as 72.5% of high-school graduates go on to college and college period has an impact on the social development of Korean youth, it is very important to increase the sense of happiness of college students. However, there are new terminologies to express the situation in which how young people in Korea feel the difficulties in their lives, such as “Hell Chosun, 88-Dollar-Generation, N-Give-up-Generation, and Spoon-Social-Rank.” This chapter summarizes the factors related to the happiness of college students in South Korea, such as depression, interpersonal relationships, and self-efficacy, to suggest educational programs to promote the happiness of young people in Korea.",book:{id:"11444",title:"Happiness - Biopsychosocial and Anthropological Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11444.jpg"},signatures:"Soo-Koung Jun"},{id:"83107",title:"Helping BIPOC LGBTQIA+ Families Through Inclusive Therapy and Advocacy",slug:"helping-bipoc-lgbtqia-families-through-inclusive-therapy-and-advocacy",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106695",abstract:"Families are phenomenological and unique. All families are valuable, but historically, many family types have been underrepresented. Families with members who identify in the BIPOC LGBTQIA+ communities have historically been underrepresented and marginalized. Helping BIPOC LGBTQIA+ families involves both clinical work and advocacy. Advocacy for the professional identity of counseling, marriage and family therapy, and related helpers involves various aspects. These aspects include leadership theory and integration, importance of professional identity, the need to continue to infuse multiculturalism within the counseling and family therapy identities, and continued skills for counselors to learn inclusive advocacy. Skills and implications for advocacy as they relate to clients who intersect among the LGBTQAI+ and BIPOC communities, will be described.",book:{id:"11781",title:"Family Therapy - Recent Advances in Clinical and Crisis Settings",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11781.jpg"},signatures:"Lucy Parker-Barnes, Noel McKillip and Carolyn Powell"},{id:"83027",title:"Coping Strategies and Meta-Worry in Adolescents’ Adjustment during COVID-19 Pandemic",slug:"coping-strategies-and-meta-worry-in-adolescents-adjustment-during-covid-19-pandemic",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106258",abstract:"With the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, several limitations and stressful changes have been introduced in adolescent’s daily life. Particularly, Italian teenagers were the first among western populations to experience fears of infection, home confinement, and social restrictions due to a long lockdown period (10 weeks). This study explores the role of coping strategies (task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance coping) and meta-beliefs about worry as vulnerability factors associated with adolescents’ anxiety. A community sample of adolescents (N = 284, aged 16–18 y.o.) answered questionnaires assessing anxiety symptoms (RCMAS-2), meta-cognitive beliefs and processes about worry (MCQ-C), and coping strategies (CISS). Results show that 37% of participants report clinically elevated anxiety. Emotion-centered coping predicted higher anxiety, whereas task-centered coping resulted associated with decreased anxiety. Cognitive monitoring about their own worry contributes, but to a lesser extent, to higher levels of anxiety. The implications for the intervention are discussed, especially the need to enhance the coping skills of adolescents and mitigate the stress of the COVID-19 pandemic, which could last for a long time.",book:{id:"10671",title:"Adolescences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10671.jpg"},signatures:"Loredana Benedetto, Ilenia Schipilliti and Massimo Ingrassia"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:69},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. Vouros",slug:"deep-multiagent-reinforcement-learning-methods-addressing-the-scalability-challenge",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Multi-Agent Technologies and Machine Learning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11445.jpg",subseries:{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems"}}},{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:61,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. 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