Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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It is intended for molecular biology researchers involved in bioluminescent reactions, molecular engineering of bioluminescent sensor probes, and biomonitoring of environmental toxins.. Field researchers as well as students will also find this volume to be of interest.",isbn:"978-1-78984-785-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-784-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-196-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77783",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",numberOfPages:124,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6902,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:43,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 15th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 15th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 21st 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 20th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"410",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-microbiology-biotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"66251",title:"Biotechnological Advances in Luciferase Enzymes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85313",slug:"biotechnological-advances-in-luciferase-enzymes",totalDownloads:1409,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter explores the history of the bioengineering advances that have been applied to common luciferase enzymes and the improvements that have been accomplished by this work. The primary focus is placed on firefly luciferase (FLuc), Gaussia luciferase (GLuc), Renilla luciferase (RLuc), Oplophorus luciferase (OLuc; NanoLuc), and bacterial luciferase (Lux). Beginning with the cloning and exogenous expression of each enzyme, their step-wise modifications are presented and the new capabilities endowed by each incremental advancement are highlighted. Using the historical basis of this information, the chapter concludes with a prospective on the overall impact these advances have had on scientific research and provides an outlook on what capabilities future advances could unlock.",signatures:"Andrew Kirkpatrick, Tingting Xu, Steven Ripp, Gary Sayler and Dan Close",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66251",authors:[{id:"34168",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",surname:"Ripp",slug:"steven-ripp",fullName:"Steven Ripp"},{id:"89407",title:"Dr.",name:"Tingting",surname:"Xu",slug:"tingting-xu",fullName:"Tingting Xu"},{id:"187444",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",surname:"Close",slug:"dan-close",fullName:"Dan Close"},{id:"256492",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",surname:"Sayler",slug:"gary-sayler",fullName:"Gary Sayler"},{id:"256494",title:"Mr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Kirkpatrick",slug:"andrew-kirkpatrick",fullName:"Andrew Kirkpatrick"}],corrections:null},{id:"66952",title:"Protein-Protein Interaction Assays Using Split-NanoLuc",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86122",slug:"protein-protein-interaction-assays-using-split-nanoluc",totalDownloads:1659,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Protein-protein interaction assays are fundamental to basic biology, drug discovery, diagnostics, screening, and immunoassays. Protein-fragment complementation (PCA) is one of such useful protein-protein interaction assays. PCA when performed using luciferase is a reversible approach, whereas when performed using green fluorescent protein analogs is an irreversible approach. The NanoLuc technology developed in 2012 utilizes a small and structurally robust luciferase that is capable of producing very bright luminescence. NanoLuc PCA has been used to detect many protein-protein interactions and for screening purposes. Methods developed from NanoLuc PCA include the HiBiT technology and NanoLuc ternary technology. These novel technologies are promising in various fields and further developments are anticipated.",signatures:"Yuki Ohmuro-Matsuyama and Hiroshi Ueda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66952",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66952",authors:[{id:"234155",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Ueda",slug:"hiroshi-ueda",fullName:"Hiroshi Ueda"},{id:"234158",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuki",surname:"Ohmuro-Matsuyama",slug:"yuki-ohmuro-matsuyama",fullName:"Yuki Ohmuro-Matsuyama"}],corrections:null},{id:"66940",title:"Biosensors Using Free and Immobilized Cells of Luminous Bacteria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85624",slug:"biosensors-using-free-and-immobilized-cells-of-luminous-bacteria",totalDownloads:818,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The technologies of receiving free and immobilized photobacteria cells for biomonitoring of toxins are considered. The mechanisms of interaction of toxins with photobacteria are observed. The main attention is paid to the immobilized procedures and structures of carriers. Data on poly(vinyl)alcohol (PVA) cryogel immobilization of different strains of photobacteria are presented. It is established that intensity and stability of light emission of PVA cells is competently controlled by: (1) intensity and persistence of a luminescent cycle using bacterial strain; (2) type of the carrier and the composition of the gel-formation medium; (3) freeze-thawing procedures; and (4) physical and chemical conditions of storage and application. The developed technology of cryogenic gel formation has kept the survival of luminous bacteria in the carrier practically at 100% without the introduction of additional cryoprotecting agents and procedures of a light induction. With storage at −80°C, bioluminescent activity remained without changes about 2 years. Using the immobilized preparations of biosensor, the discrete and continuous analysis of heavy metals, chlorophenols, and pesticides is carried out. The sensitivity of free and immobilized cells to the chosen toxicants is approximately identical. The continuous monitoring of toxicant conditions is optimized.",signatures:"Anvar D. Ismailov, Leyla E. Aleskerova, Kristina A. Alenina and Elena N. Efremenko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66940",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66940",authors:[{id:"288106",title:"Prof.",name:"Anvar",surname:"Ismailov",slug:"anvar-ismailov",fullName:"Anvar Ismailov"},{id:"288351",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleskerova",surname:"Leyla",slug:"aleskerova-leyla",fullName:"Aleskerova Leyla"},{id:"288352",title:"Ms.",name:"Alenina",surname:"Kristina",slug:"alenina-kristina",fullName:"Alenina Kristina"},{id:"288353",title:"Prof.",name:"Efremenko",surname:"Elena",slug:"efremenko-elena",fullName:"Efremenko Elena"}],corrections:null},{id:"68274",title:"Ecological and Histological Notes on the Luminous Springtail, Lobella sp. (Collembola: Neanuridae), Discovered in Tokyo, Japan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88321",slug:"ecological-and-histological-notes-on-the-luminous-springtail-em-lobella-em-sp-collembola-neanuridae-",totalDownloads:969,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Some species of springtail (Collembola) are luminous, but it is not known whether light emitted by springtail is due to self-luminescence, feeding on luminous fungi, or accidental infection by luminous bacteria. To address this question, we characterized the luminescence of a luminous springtail, Lobella sp. (family Neanuridae) discovered in Tokyo, Japan. The emitted light was yellowish-green (540 nm) and was found to originate from tubercles on the thorax (segments II and III) and abdomen (segments I–VI) using a low-light imaging system. The luminescence persisted for several seconds but showed occasional oscillations in a laboratory environment. We also observed fat bodies containing eosin-positive granules under the integument of the tubercles in the tergum by hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining that were not present in a nonluminous springtail (Vitronura sp.). The fat bodies in Lobella sp. are presumably photocytes analogous to the firefly lantern, and the eosin-positive granules are the likely source of bioluminescence, which implies that springtails are self-luminescent.",signatures:"Tadasu Sano, Yukimasa Kobayashi, Ikuko Sakai, Katsunori Ogoh and Hirobumi Suzuki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68274",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68274",authors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki"},{id:"297356",title:"Prof.",name:"Yukimasa",surname:"Kobayashi",slug:"yukimasa-kobayashi",fullName:"Yukimasa Kobayashi"},{id:"297357",title:"Ms.",name:"Ikuko",surname:"Sakai",slug:"ikuko-sakai",fullName:"Ikuko Sakai"},{id:"297358",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsunori",surname:"Ogoh",slug:"katsunori-ogoh",fullName:"Katsunori Ogoh"},{id:"297362",title:"Mr.",name:"Tadasu",surname:"Sano",slug:"tadasu-sano",fullName:"Tadasu Sano"}],corrections:null},{id:"66645",title:"Effect of Camera Illumination on Flashing Behavior of Pteroptyx malaccae (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85796",slug:"effect-of-camera-illumination-on-flashing-behavior-of-em-pteroptyx-malaccae-em-coleoptera-lampyridae",totalDownloads:939,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Pteroptyx malaccae is a synchronous firefly that is important in firefly tourism in Thailand. Without well-managed tourism, the fireflies have faced to the problems of shooting camera flashes from tourists. Although the effect of artificial light was well understood, which causes negative impact to firefly courtship, there is no obvious information on the effect of the camera illumination. The experiment of testing four types of camera illumination was set up in laboratory using wild populations of P. malaccae. The flash patterns were recorded by videotaping and analyzed by using TiLIA software. The results showed that all kinds of camera illuminations affect flashing behavior of the fireflies. They prolonged flash interval by increasing pulse duration. The flashes from smartphone camera displayed the strongest effect; however, all flash types did not influence on the firefly life span, mating behavior and oviposition behavior of the fireflies.",signatures:"Anchana Thancharoen and Sirima Masoh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66645",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66645",authors:[{id:"289106",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Anchana",surname:"Thancharoen",slug:"anchana-thancharoen",fullName:"Anchana Thancharoen"},{id:"295154",title:"Ms.",name:"Sirima",surname:"Masoh",slug:"sirima-masoh",fullName:"Sirima Masoh"}],corrections:null},{id:"68446",title:"Biofluorescence in Terrestrial Animals, with Emphasis on Fireflies: A Review and Field Observation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86029",slug:"biofluorescence-in-terrestrial-animals-with-emphasis-on-fireflies-a-review-and-field-observation",totalDownloads:1108,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The mysterious world of biofluorescence in terrestrial ecosystems is mesmerizing. Though not as ubiquitous as in the ocean, it is not a rare phenomenon on land. Fluorescence occurs in all major phyla of terrestrial animals (Platyhelminthes, Mollusca, Annelida, Nematoda, Onychophora, Arthropoda, and Chordata) and their subgroups, with diverse fluorophores and performance. In this chapter, we make a general review on the fluorescence in terrestrial animals first, including their systematic distribution, research history, fluorophores, and proposed functions for each group among several other aspects. A systematic observation on the fluorescence of fireflies is reported for the first time. The co-occurrence of biofluorescence and bioluminescence in luminescent land snails, earthworms, potworms, millipedes, and fireflies is a fascinating issue. Though the biochemical mechanism of photogenesis is not fully understood in many terrestrial animals except fireflies, it appears that biofluorescence and bioluminescence do not have clear interaction during the light production process. However, fluorophores and luminophores are usually biochemically related and are different from the photogenic mechanism of jellyfish and several marine creatures whose ultimate light emission is made through energy transfer from bioluminescence to biofluorescence by green fluorescent protein (GFP) or its variants. The role of fluorescence is disputative. In general, nocturnal animals or animals having cryptic living styles, e.g., in earth or under shelters like tree bark or rocks, tend to exhibit UV fluorescence more frequently than animals that are diurnal or inhabit open environments. This pattern is evident in fireflies wherein only nocturnal and luminescent species exhibit noticeable UV fluorescence (likely from luciferin), which is dim or absent in diurnal or crepuscular fireflies. It is unlikely that occasionally induced UV fluorescence in natural environments can play a significant role in intra- or interspecific communication in fireflies or other nocturnal animals.",signatures:"Ming-Luen Jeng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68446",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68446",authors:[{id:"288568",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ming-Luen",surname:"Jeng",slug:"ming-luen-jeng",fullName:"Ming-Luen Jeng"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"15",series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",issn:"2632-0983",editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}}},tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9655",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Technology and Biology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"26b9e7dade717a5ffdc2dbcfaa1ea43d",slug:"bioluminescence-technology-and-biology",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki and Katsunori Ogoh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9655.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1770",title:"Gel Electrophoresis",subtitle:"Principles and Basics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"279701f6c802cf02deef45103e0611ff",slug:"gel-electrophoresis-principles-and-basics",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1770.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"584",title:"Advances in Applied Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fcc9fab84b820983f2a462d5145d2a0e",slug:"advances-in-applied-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Marian Petre",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/584.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"74654",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",surname:"Petre",slug:"marian-petre",fullName:"Marian Petre"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3404",title:"Environmental Biotechnology",subtitle:"New Approaches and Prospective Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"925d14b19ca0f7945996b169d9836f5b",slug:"environmental-biotechnology-new-approaches-and-prospective-applications",bookSignature:"Marian Petre",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3404.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"74654",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",surname:"Petre",slug:"marian-petre",fullName:"Marian Petre"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2115",title:"Biotechnology",subtitle:"Molecular Studies and Novel Applications for Improved Quality of Human Life",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"07ebd9c0af07dd6b0649bc67ae612b1e",slug:"biotechnology-molecular-studies-and-novel-applications-for-improved-quality-of-human-life",bookSignature:"Reda Helmy Sammour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2115.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32232",title:"Dr.",name:"Reda",surname:"Sammour",slug:"reda-sammour",fullName:"Reda Sammour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1910",title:"Oxidative Stress",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Biological Effects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5fc01580caefb2637f31d59b377032a",slug:"oxidative-stress-molecular-mechanisms-and-biological-effects",bookSignature:"Volodymyr Lushchak and Halyna M. 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1. Introduction
The landslides often cause disasters and damage to people and their properties at the mountainous areas around the world; these disasters cause casualties and economic losses, such as housing, infrastructure, public services, roads, bridges, hospitals, etc., and the interruption of the normal activities of the region, such as agriculture, livestock, commerce, tourism, financial transactions, etc. A fundamental problem to solve is to make the investments for reconstructing and rehabilitating the destroyed places, which must be obtained from other social investment programs, donations from other countries, and/or sources of external financing that lead to indebtedness and impoverishment of communities, regions, or countries [1].
The first step to establish adequate strategies for prevention, reduction, management, and risk mitigation is to assess landslide hazard, vulnerability, and risk, the latter in terms of casualties and economic losses. The rational solution to landslide problem is to relocate exposed and vulnerable people to secure sites, but acquiring land in mountainous regions is very difficult; besides the majority of population is rooted to its origin place, and it cannot be relocated so easily.
1.1. The landslide problem
Landslide is a failure through a surface in which shear resistance has been exceeded; it is featured by the movement of slope materials that slide downhill.
Landslides can occur due to natural and human factors (intrinsic and trigger factors); although many landslides are triggered by natural phenomena (heavy rains, earthquakes, volcanism, freezing and thawing, erosion and scouring, etc.), it can be estimated that many of those that have caused deaths and injuries can be attributed to human activity impact.
The landslide material may include from a simple rock that falls to a great slide of several hundreds or thousands of cubic meters of material dragged in an avalanche or in a debris flow. They also range in extent some affect only a very small area while others entire regions. The distance that the material travels during movement can also differ significantly, with displacements ranging from a few cm to many km in length, depending on the volume of material, its water content, and the slope inclination. The velocity of a landslide may range from a slow, almost undetectable, gradual movement that remains active for a long period of time (displacements of a few cm per year), to sudden rapid collapse.
1.2. The landslide disasters
Landslides are increasingly affecting our planet, like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, floods, avalanches, etc., amplifying their intensity by different human activities that modify the delicate balance in nature.
In some mountainous regions at Central and South America, there are many communities belonging to ethnic groups that inhabit areas classified as high and very high poverty, whose features, among others, include localities of less than 2500 inhabitants, illiterate population in a large percentage, very low income, precarious social infrastructure, and houses built with fragile materials such as plastic, cardboard, and/or wood. In other places, there also are displaced populations due to social conflict, forcing them to move and take refuge in very vulnerable areas. In all these places, usually natural phenomena cause real disasters to impact on highly vulnerable communities [2].
2. Landslide instability factors
Landslide instability factors can be divided into two large groups—intrinsic and triggers—the first ones depend on the internal properties of slopes material and have a close relation with the type of failure and the susceptibility of the slope to a specific movement. The second ones, known also as external factors, are directly influenced by the climatic conditions, by extreme events such as earthquakes and volcanism, and the impact by human activities [3, 4].
3. Risk analysis
In order to assess the risk, a detailed analysis of the landslide hazard and the vulnerability of exposed people is required. Figure 1 shows a sequential scheme that summarizes the different steps to be taken into account; a brief description is given below [5].
Figure 1.
Sequential scheme to assess landslide hazard, vulnerability, and risk [5].
3.1. Hazard
Historical records of landslides in the study area, including their geographical location, magnitude, intensity, degree of affectation or damage, and their frequency, must be investigated. From these data, a catalog or inventory of landslides that includes the type of movement and the intrinsic and trigger factors of the instability is elaborated [6].
3.2. Vulnerability
The authors of this chapter propose to evaluate the population vulnerability from the exposure level (EL) and the expected damage degree (EDD): the first value according to the height of the slope and the safety factor obtained from the geotechnical stability analysis and the second based on the type of structures constructed (degree of fragility) and velocity of landslide [7, 8].
3.3. Risk
The risk assessment should result in the number of people affected and the cost of damages caused by the occurrence of the phenomenon under study [9].
4. Slope stability analysis
The landslides and slope instability are among the most common failure of earth masses or rocks. The weight of the land mass and their water content is the main force that produces the failure, while the shear strength of the terrain, diminished by the water pressure, is the main strength. Analysis of the slope stability is a problem of plastic equilibrium; when the mass is about to fail, the forces that produce the movement have become equal to the resistance that opposes the mass to be moved. A slight increase in forces is sufficient to produce a continuous deformation that can end in the general failure.
4.1. Quantitative stability assessment
The classical quantitative analysis of slope stability gives the safety factor and the location and geometry of the failure surface, using the parameters related to the intrinsic characteristics of the hill that depend mainly on its origin and geological formation, including topography, geology, soil mechanics, and groundwater.
4.1.1. Limit equilibrium methods
They rely exclusively on the laws of static to determine the state of equilibrium of a potentially unstable slope. They do not take into account the deformations of the land and assume that the shear strength is fully and simultaneously mobilized along the failure surface. The most commonly used limit equilibrium methods by computer programs are the following: Fellenius, Bishop, Janbu, Bell, Sarma, Spencer, and Morgenstern and Price [10].
4.1.2. Failure surface
The failure surface is the interface zones between the potentially unstable or moving ground or rock mass and the stable or static ground mass of the slope. These surfaces have very variable geometric shapes, but in the particular case of landslides, two main groups can be considered: the curvilinear and concave surfaces characteristic of the rotational landslides and flat or undulating surfaces, typical of translational landslides.
4.1.3. Safety factor
The safety factor (SF) is used to evaluate if a slope is stable under conditions at a given site. The acceptable value of safety factor is selected taking into account the consequences or damages that could cause the slide. In geotechnical slope stability, the values range from 1.2 to 1.5 or higher, depending on the confidence in the geotechnical data (exploration, soil sampling, and laboratory testing), as well as the available information on the intrinsic and trigger factors of instability. Overall the safety factor can be defined as the ratio of natural shear strength to destabilizing forces.
4.2. Qualitative stability assessment
The calculation methods described in Section 4.1.1 allow us to take into account the influence of some of instability factors, and there are powerful calculation programs to stability analysis. In order to take into account most instability factors, a qualitative analysis is necessary through the valuation factors that will be described below.
4.2.1. Valuation factors
The valuation factors are a set of parameters that allow to evaluate the influence of intrinsic and trigger factors (Table 1). The characteristics of each factor should be adequately analyzed to involve its effect on the behavior; one way of doing this is by assigning them a range of weighted values indicating their effect on the slope stability.
The author proposes valuation factor values between 0 and 1 (arbitrarily selected but with common and logical sense); the first corresponds to a null or minimal effect on stability (not influenced or very little) and the second the one with the greatest impact on it (influences significantly). Non-extreme effects are evaluated with intermediate values [11].
4.2.1.1. Morphology and topography valuation factor (Fmt)
The “Fmt” takes into account the morphology and maximum inclination of the slope; its height, although importantly influences stability, is considered in the soil mechanics valuation factors described later. The gravitational effect of a unit weight of the ground (W = 1) is divided into two forces, normal and parallel components to slope inclination (β). The latter component represents the weight of soils or rocks that slide and whose value is proposed as a valuation factor (Eq. (1)):
Fmt=senβ.E1
4.2.1.2. Geology valuation factor (Fg)
The rock geological structure defined by its folding and discontinuities is taken into account because it causes an anisotropic behavior that affects the type of failure and its magnitude. Another important aspect is the material weathering caused by the climatic conditions (temperature, humidity, rain, wind, solar radiation, etc.) that produce physical and chemical alterations of rocks and their minerals, causing a wide range of variation in the geotechnical properties that origin a mixed behavior between soil and rock.
The geology valuation factor (Fg) is presented in Tables 2 and 3 and Figures 2 and 3, in which values include (a) the fold inclination “α” determined from Eq. (2), (b) the fracture of the rock from the rock quality designation (RQD), (c) the chemical and physical weathering from the adequacy of data between weather and weathering processes proposed by Emblenton and Thurner [12], and (d) the physical and mechanical properties of the rock:
Adaptation of graphs between climate and the weathering processes proposed by Emblenton and Thurner [12].
RQD: rock quality designation.
Ds: rock properties from laboratory test (volumetric weight for physical properties and simple compression strength for mechanical properties).
De: reference value considering massive rock (Table 3).
Rock origin
Type
Classification
Volumetric weight (KN/m3)
Compression resistant (MN/m2)
Igneous
Extrusive volcanic
Andesite
21.6–23.0
206–314
Basalt
26.5–28.4
147–211
Rhyolite
23.5–25.5
–
Tuff
18.6–22.5
10–45
Intrusive volcanic
Diorite
26.5–27.9
177–240
Gabbro
29.4–30.4
206–275
Granite
25.5–26.5
167–226
Sedimentary
Detritical
Quartzite
25.5–26.5
196–314
Sandstone
22.5–25.5
54–137
Shale
21.6–25.5
29–69
Siltstone
–
–
Conglomerate
–
–
Chemical
Dolomite
24.5–25.5
88–245
Organic
Limestone
22.5–25.5
78–137
Choral
22.5–25.5
78–137
Metamorphic
Massive
Quartzite
25.5–26.5
196–314
Marble
25.5–27.5
118–196
Foliated
Phyllite
24.5–26.5
98–177
Schist
24.5–27.5
49–59
Gneiss
26.5–29.4
157–196
Table 3.
Physical and mechanical properties of sound rocks.
Figure 2.
Geology valuation factor by chemical weathering (Fg).
Figure 3.
Geology valuation factor by physical weathering (Fg).
The final valuation factor is obtained as an average of the aforementioned.
4.2.1.3. Soil mechanics valuation factor (Fsm)
Soil mechanics valuation factors (Fsm) take into account the type of soil, coarse and fine, according to the Unified Soil Classification System. For coarse soils, their relative compactness defined by internal friction angle φ is the main factor governing their behavior, while for fine soils, the height, the slope inclination, the volumetric weight, and the cohesion as a function of water content are the factors that control their behavior.
4.2.1.3.1. Coarse soils
The stability of a slope formed by coarse soils depends fundamentally on its strength (internal friction angle “φ”) and the slope inclination “β.” The geotechnical safety factor “SF” is determined by the Eq. (3):
SF=tanφtanβE3
Critical stability occurs when the slope angle (β) is equal to the internal friction angle (ϕ); in this case the safety factor SF = 1 and the slope will be in a critical equilibrium condition, so that the soil mechanics valuation factor “Fsm” will also be unitary. When the safety factor (SF) is equal to 1.5 (proposed value as the lower limit), the behavior will be stable, and then the valuation factor is equal to zero (Fsm = 0) (Table 4).
Internal friction angle “φ”
SF = 1.5
SF = 1.4
SF = 1.3
SF = 1.2
SF = 1.1
SF = 1
Fsm = 0
Fsm = 0.2
Fsm = 0.4
Fsm = 0.6
Fsm = 0.8
Fsm = 1
Slope inclination “β”
26o
18o
19.3o
26.7o
22.2o
24o
26o
28o
19.5o
20.8o
22.2o
23.9o
25.8o
28o
30o
21o
22.4o
23.9o
25.7o
27.7o
30o
36o
25.8o
27.4o
29.2o
31.2o
33.5o
36o
41o
30o
31.8o
33.8o
35.9o
38.3o
41o
46o
34.6o
36.5o
38.5o
40.8o
43.3o
46o
Table 4.
Soil mechanics valuation factor for coarse soil (Fsm).
For a slope of cohesive or friction-cohesive soils, both of them homogeneous, the stability depends on its height, inclination, and resistant properties. All these variables are presented in a simple way in equations by the Taylor method for slope stability analysis (Eqs. (4) and (5)):
SF=HcHE4
Hc=Ns∗CγE5
where SF = safety factor, Hc = critical height, H = slope height, Ns = stability number (as a function of internal friction angle “φ” and slope inclination “β”) (Figure 4), C = soil cohesion, and γ = natural volumetric weight.
Figure 4.
Stability number “Ns”.
For a stratified soil profile, authors recommend to use only the properties of the poor quality stratum.
From the above equations, the soil mechanics valuation factors for cohesive and friction-cohesive soils were obtained taking into account the following:
When SF = 1, there is a limit equilibrium, and therefore the height of the slope “H” is equal to the critical height “Hc.” In this case, you will have a valuation factor Fsm = 1 which represents a potential risk condition.
As the safety factor increases, stability improves and the Fsm decreases. When SF = 1.5, which is the minimum acceptable value, there will be a null valuation factor (Fsm = 0).
Therefore, safety factor values between 1 and 1.5 correspond to intermediate values between 1 and 0, respectively, for the valuation factor Fsm.
The soil mechanics valuation factor proposed for cohesive and friction-cohesive soils are presented in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Soil mechanics valuation factor for cohesive and friction-cohesive soils (Fms).
4.2.1.4. Hydrogeological valuation factor (Fh)
The water content has a significant influence on slope stability due to [13] (a) reduction of shear strength of the ground by decreasing the effective tension, (b) increased pressure on traction cracks with corresponding increase of destabilizing forces, (c) increased volumetric weight by saturation, (d) internal erosion by underground flow, (e) weathering and changes in the mineralogical composition of the material, and (f) opening of discontinuities by frozen water.
The hydrogeological valuation factor proposed (Fh) is obtained as a function of the soil saturation degree (Gw), the slope angle (β), and the soil stratum thickness (e), as explained below.
4.2.1.4.1. Soil saturation degree and slope angle
Figure 6 shows “Fh” as a function of saturation degree “Gw” and slope angle “β.”
Figure 6.
Hydrogeological valuation factor by saturation degree (Fh).
4.2.1.4.2. Soil stratum thickness
Authors consider that when the soil thickness is small, it is anchored to the deepest strata by the trees roots. Conversely, for greater soil thicknesses, the sliding surface will be deeper, increasing the risk of failure. Table 5 gives “Fh” as a function of the soil stratum thickness “e.”
Soil thickness (e)
Failure surface
Fh
<1.5 m
Shallow
0–0.075
1.5–5 m
Somera
0.075–0.25
5–12.5 m
Deep
0.25–0.625
12.5–20 m
Very deep
0.625–1
Table 5.
Hydrogeology valuation factor for soil thickness (Fh).
4.2.1.5. Vegetation valuation factor (Fv)
There is evidence of the positive effect on vegetation on slope stability. The vegetation valuation factors (Fv) depend on the type of vegetation, the density of foliage which dampens the impact of raindrops, the covered vegetation area, and the depth of the roots that absorb subsoil water and anchorage the superficial soil to the rock; all of them were obtained from a linear interpolation considering zero value for minimum effect on stability and one for significant effect (Table 6). The final valuation factor is obtained as an average of the aforementioned.
The density of foliage is evaluated as the percentage of sun that passes through the leaves in the area that projects the tree in summer.
4.2.1.6. Rainfall valuation factor (Fr)
Rain is one of the main factors affecting the slope stability; many landslides occur during or after rainy periods, and areas with higher annual rainfall present more stability problems, due to the groundwater with higher flow and more weathered materials. The shallow landslides due to torrential rainfall depend on the combined effect of infiltration and loss of apparent cohesion, which are influenced by the amount of rainfall and the duration of the storm [14]. Rainfall valuation factors (Fr) are determined by linear interpolation from the average annual rainfall data (Table 7).
Characteristics
Rainfall valuation factor (Fr)
Average annual rainfall
<400 mm
400–800 mm
800–1500 mm
1500–3000 mm
3000–4500 mm
Classification
Very low
Low
Medium
High
Very high
Valuation factor (Fr)
<0.09
0.09–0.18
0.18–0.33
0.33–0.67
0.67–1
Table 7.
Rainfall valuation factor (Fr).
4.2.1.7. Earthquake valuation factor (Fe)
Earthquakes are trigger agents that cause deformations and cracks on slopes. Seismic shaking can lead to landslides, flows, and avalanches depending on the intrinsic characteristics of the ground and the magnitude and distance to the epicenter [15]. The earthquake valuation factors (Fe) are determined from a linear correlation with the seismic design coefficients (Cs); these latter are obtained from municipal building codes as a function of the terrain type (hard, medium, or soft), the frequency which the event occurs, and the ground acceleration, the latter depending on the magnitude and intensity of the movement (Table 8).
Seismic zone
Soil type
Seismic coefficient (Cs)
Valuation factor Fe
A
Hard
0.08
0.09
Medium
0.16
0.19
Soft
0.2
0.23
B
Hard
0.14
0.16
Medium
0.3
0.35
Soft
0.36
0.42
C
Hard
0.36
0.42
Medium
0.64
0.74
Soft
0.64
0.74
D
Hard
0.5
0.58
Medium
0.86
1
Soft
0.86
1
Table 8.
Earthquake valuation factor (Fe).
Zone A: very low seismicity; no earthquake in the last 80 years, ground acceleration <10% gravity acceleration.
Zone B: low seismicity; earthquakes not so frequents, ground acceleration <70% gravity acceleration.
Zone C: medium seismicity; earthquakes not so frequents, ground acceleration <70% gravity acceleration.
Zone D: high seismicity; very frequent earthquakes, ground acceleration >70% gravity acceleration.
4.2.1.8. Erosion and scouring valuation factor (Fes)
The erosion and scouring valuation factor (Fes) is obtained from the basin geometric characteristics (length and width), because the basin shape influences the stream hydrograph and the flow rate. The characteristics of the drainage density (Dd = sum of the tributary flows length between the total basin area) were also taken into account, considering that the higher drainage density will have higher flows in the stream [16]. Finally, the characteristics of the ground evaluated according to their infiltration capacity “If” are included. Eqs. (6)–(8) present the “Fes” as a function of the aforementioned:
Fesbasincharacteristics=0.0625∗LWE6
Fesdrainagedensity=0.1∗DdE7
Fesinfiltration=1−0.033∗IfE8
where L = basin length (km), W = basin width (km), Dd = drainage density (km/km2), and If = infiltration rate (mm/h).
4.2.1.9. Human activity valuation factor (Fha)
The relationship between landslides and velocity of urbanization on slopes has been demonstrated; the worst cases have been registered in geotechnical susceptible areas with rapid and disordered urban development. Since human actions directly influence nature, this human activity valuation factor (Fha) is assessed by taking into account cuts or excavations, landfills, building overloads, and deforestation (Table 9).
The human activity valuation factor by overloads was obtained from the average loads or stresses transmitted by the building to the soil foundation and the population density, which both directly impact on the behavior and slope stability (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Human activity evaluation factor by overloads (Fha).
The final valuation factor is obtained as an average of the aforementioned.
The results of geotechnical slope stability analysis are the safety factor (SF) and the location of failure surface; these data are important to know a potential failure; furthermore we suggest taking them into account to obtain geotechnical slope stability factor (Fgss), as a function of the depth of failure surface (superficial, shallow, deep, and very deep) and the value of the safety factor (Table 10).
5. Methodology to select stabilizing construction works
Most techniques and construction works to stabilize unstable slopes or active landslides can be included in the following classification groups: (a) geometric adjusting, (b) drainage, (c) reinforcing structural elements, (d) retaining walls, (e) surface protection, and (f) soil improvement.
The most effective and economical solution is a combination of two or more stabilization techniques [17]. At first glance it could be thought that the quantitative evaluation of stability by geotechnical analysis of equilibrium-limited methods (safety factor and the failure surface) is sufficient to propose and decide the types of construction works to be used. However, it must be taken in mind that many factors influencing stability and construction stabilization works are difficult to model and include in the analysis using the calculation methods and should be evaluated in a qualitative way.
5.1. Methodology description
The methodology uses both quantitative and qualitative analyses, organized in stages as described below:
5.1.1. Data collection from engineering: geological studies
In this stage, the following data are obtained: topography (height and slope inclination), geology (folding, fracturing, and weathering of rocks), soil mechanics (classification and physical-mechanical properties of soils and rocks, thickness of the soil strata, and saturation degree), seismology (classification and seismic coefficient according to local building codes), climatology (annual temperature and average annual rainfall), hydrology (drainage grid and its basin), studies of human activity impact (cuts or excavations, population density, overloads, type of constructions, number of floors of houses, and degree of deforestation), vegetation characteristics (type, foliage density, area covered, and depth of root), and volcanic activity.
5.1.2. Stability analysis before the construction of stabilization works
5.1.2.1. Quantitative analysis: safety factor (SF) and critical failure surface
Slope modeling and geotechnical stability analysis using some of the limit equilibrium methods: Fellenius, Bishop, Janbu, Bell, Sarma, Spencer, or Morgenstern and Price.
5.1.2.2. Qualitative analysis: valuation factors
If the safety factor (SF) obtained from geotechnical stability is lower than the minimum value required as an acceptable limit, it is necessary to use construction works to improve stability. The selection of these stabilizing construction works is made into qualitative way, through the valuation factors that consider the influence of intrinsic and trigger factors.
Once the valuation factors are obtained, it is necessary to establish the influence intervals to assess the level of care required as follows: (a) if valuation factor is <0.5, there will be no stability problems; (b) if the value is between 0.5 and 0.75, it requires attention; and (c) if the value is >0.75, it requires urgent solution.
5.1.3. Selection of construction works and stabilization proposals
In landslide problems, it is common to combine several factors that give rise to a critical behavior, so it is very likely that a combination of construction works is also required to address the problem and avoid a risk condition. Table 11 summarizes the type of problem to be solved, the suitable construction work, and the aims of them.
Problem type
Applicable construction works
Specific objectives
Morphologic
Geometric adjustment
Decreasing acting forces
Geological
Reinforcement, wire mesh
Increasing resisting forces
Soil mechanics
Drainage, reinforcement, and superficial protection
Decreasing pore pressure, increase resistance, and prevent erosion
Hydrological
Drainage and surface protection
Reducing soil saturation and weathering
Vegetation
Surface protection
Avoid erosion and reinforce soil
Rain
Drainage
Decreasing pore pressure, avoid saturation and erosion
Earthquake
Reinforcement and retaining walls
Increasing resistance and retaining potentially unstable material
Vulcanism
Geometric adjustment and retaining walls
Remove unstable materials and contain soil masses
Erosion
Drainage, retaining walls and surface protection
Avoid erosion and protect the hillside foot
Human activity
Reinforcement, retaining walls, and surface protection
Increasing resistance, contain potentially unstable material, and reforest
Failure surface
Geometric adjustment, reinforcement, and retaining walls
Changing location
Safety factor
Geometric adjustment, reinforcement, and retaining walls
Increasing the value
Table 11.
Instability factors and suitable construction works.
5.1.4. Checking over slope stability with the proposed construction works
The selected construction works should ensure that safety factor (SF) is equal to or greater than the required minimum factor, so it is necessary to check that condition, including the works selected in the quantitative stability analysis, which is performed with the same methods that are used to assess geotechnical stability in a quantitative way, but now including these construction works (or their influence) in the modeling stage.
6. Results
The equations, figures, and tables of valuation factors presented in this chapter to evaluate the influence of the intrinsic and trigger factors, as data previously needed to select the construction structures to avoid landslides, are important tools to help different specialists who face the phenomenon. In addition to the above, the following is also required:
6.1. Technical and economic assessment of stabilization proposals
Set up the necessary activities to carry out the stabilizing construction works: resources and their yields [18]. This is essential for the economic assessment of stabilization proposals where it is also important to include the direct costs of materials, labor, and equipment and indirect costs resulting from the expenses technical-administrative necessary for the correct execution of any construction work [19].
6.2. Selection of the stabilizing construction proposal
As shown in Table 11, it is very common that the most effective and even economic stabilization method corresponds to the simultaneous application of two or more stabilization construction works, and sometimes, in addition to the cost factor, esthetic and environmental factors have to be taken into account. It should be noted that the final decision on the construction works to a potentially unstable slope or an active landslide must be in the hands of experienced specialists with broad knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the slope and the specific conditions of the region where it is located.
Nomenclature
α
fold inclination
β
slope inclination
γ
volumetric weight
φ
internal friction angle
C
cohesion
Cs
seismic coefficient
Dd
drainage density
e
soil stratum thickness
EL
exposure level
EDD
expected damage degree
Fmt
morphology valuation factor
Fg
geology valuation factor
Fsm
soil mechanics valuation factor
Fh
hydrogeological valuation factor
Fv
vegetation valuation factor
Fr
rainfall valuation factor
Fe
earthquake valuation factor
Fes
erosion and scouring valuation factor
Fha
human activity valuation factor
Fgss
geotechnical slope stability valuation factor
Gw
soil saturation degree
Hc
critical height
H
slope height
If
infiltration rate
L
basin length
Ns
stability number
W
basin width
SF
safety factor
RQD
rock quality designation
\n',keywords:"landslides, construction works, valuation factors",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57081.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/57081.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57081",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57081",totalDownloads:1505,totalViews:314,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:33,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 26th 2017",dateReviewed:"September 4th 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"February 28th 2018",dateFinished:"October 4th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In landslide areas, after assessing the risk level, the obligatory questions from government authorities, communities, civil protection managers, and researchers are: What can we do? What should we do? What must we do? There are different strategies to reduce the vulnerability and risk: (a) increasing the knowledge of the population, (b) establishing an early warning system, and (c) selecting and constructing structures. The aim of this chapter is to present the methodology to select stabilizing construction works to avoid a landslide, through the “valuation factors,” which are parameters to assess the intrinsic and trigger instability factors (morphology, geology, hydrogeology, vegetation, rainfall, earthquake, erosion, human activity, etc.). The valuation factors are presented in graphs, equations, and tables; based upon them, the different construction works are selected, including (a) geometric adjusting for reducing destabilizing forces; (b) reinforcement elements, anchors, and pile barriers to increase the resistive forces; (c) drainage for eliminating surface runoff water or lowering the hydrostatic pressure; (d) retaining walls to support the horizontal pressure; and (e) surface protection to prevent rock falls and reduce erosion and infiltration. The methodology has been used successfully in several mountainous regions: Puebla, Hidalgo, Chiapas, Baja California in México, and Ocaña in Colombia.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57081",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57081",book:{id:"6213",slug:"risk-assessment"},signatures:"Oscar Andrés Cuanalo Campos",authors:[{id:"215419",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Oscar Andrés",middleName:null,surname:"Cuanalo Campos",fullName:"Oscar Andrés Cuanalo Campos",slug:"oscar-andres-cuanalo-campos",email:"oscarcuanalo@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215419/images/system/215419.png",institution:{name:"Francisco de Paula Santander University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. The landslide problem",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. The landslide disasters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Landslide instability factors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Risk analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Hazard",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Vulnerability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3. Risk",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Slope stability analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1. Quantitative stability assessment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.1. Limit equilibrium methods",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.1.2. Failure surface",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.1.3. Safety factor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.2. Qualitative stability assessment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_4",title:"4.2.1.1. Morphology and topography valuation factor (Fmt)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_14_4",title:"Table 1.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"Table 4.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15_5",title:"Table 4.",level:"5"},{id:"sec_16_5",title:"4.2.1.3.2. Cohesive and friction-cohesive soils",level:"5"},{id:"sec_18_4",title:"Table 5.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_18_5",title:"4.2.1.4.1. Soil saturation degree and slope angle",level:"5"},{id:"sec_19_5",title:"Table 5.",level:"5"},{id:"sec_21_4",title:"Table 6.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_22_4",title:"Table 7.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_23_4",title:"Table 8.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_24_4",title:"4.2.1.8. Erosion and scouring valuation factor (Fes)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_25_4",title:"Table 9.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_26_4",title:"Table 10.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_30",title:"5. Methodology to select stabilizing construction works",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"5.1. Methodology description",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"5.1.1. Data collection from engineering: geological studies",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"5.1.2. Stability analysis before the construction of stabilization works",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_4",title:"5.1.2.1. Quantitative analysis: safety factor (SF) and critical failure surface",level:"4"},{id:"sec_32_4",title:"5.1.2.2. Qualitative analysis: valuation factors",level:"4"},{id:"sec_34_3",title:"Table 11.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_35_3",title:"5.1.4. Checking over slope stability with the proposed construction works",level:"3"},{id:"sec_38",title:"6. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_38_2",title:"6.1. Technical and economic assessment of stabilization proposals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_39_2",title:"6.2. Selection of the stabilizing construction proposal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_43",title:"Nomenclature",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Benson Ch, Clay E. Understanding the Economic and Financial Impacts of Natural Disasters [Internet]. 2004. Available from: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/15025/284060PAPER0Disaster0Risk0no.04.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y [Accessed: 2017-07-07]'},{id:"B2",body:'Bitran D. Características del impacto socioeconómico de los principales desastres ocurridos en México en el periodo 1980–99 [Internet]. 2001. Available from: http://www.cenapred.unam.mx/es/DocumentosPublicos/PDF/SerieImpacto/Impacto1.pdf [Accessed: 2017-07-07]'},{id:"B3",body:'Cuanalo O, Quezada P, Aguilar A, Olivan A, Barona E. Sismos y lluvias, factores detonantes de deslizamientos de laderas en las regiones montañosas de Puebla, México [Internet]. 2006. Available from: http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/730/73000413.pdf [Accessed: 8 July 2017]'},{id:"B4",body:'Cuanalo O, Oliva A. Inestabilidad de la laderas. Factores desencadenantes de deslizamientos. Editorial Académica Española, Germany. 2011; 156 p'},{id:"B5",body:'Cuanalo O, Bernal E, Polanco G. Geotechnical stability analysis, fragility of structures and velocity of movement to assess landslides vulnerability. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Discussions. 2014;2:5689-5720. DOI: 10.5194/nhessd-2-5689-2014'},{id:"B6",body:'Glade T. Quantitative landslide risk analysis: Between local field monitoring and spatial modeling. In: XIth International Mathematical Geology Congress; 3–8 September 2006; Belgium. pp 09-13'},{id:"B7",body:'Cuanalo O, Gallardo R. Fenómenos de Remoción en Masa. Acciones para Reducir la Vulnerabilidad y el Riesgo.162016. p. 30-38, http://vector.ucaldas.edu.co/downloads/Vector11_5.pdf'},{id:"B8",body:'Douglas J. Physical vulnerability modelling in natural hazard risk assessment. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 2007;7:283-288. DOI: 10.5194/nhess-7-283-2007'},{id:"B9",body:'Glade T. Vulnerability assessment in landslides risk analysis. Die Erde. 2003;134:123-146'},{id:"B10",body:'Fang Y. Foundation Engineering Handbook. 2nd ed. Springer Science & Business Media; 1991. 911p. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4757-5271-7'},{id:"B11",body:'Cuanalo O. Metodología para selección de procesos constructivos empleados en estabilizar deslizamientos de laderas [Doctoral thesis]. Cuba: “Marta Abreu” Central University; 2004'},{id:"B12",body:'González L, Ferrer M, Ortuño L, Oteo C. Ingeniería Geológica. Prentice Hall; 2002 715 p'},{id:"B13",body:'Suárez J. Deslizamientos y estabilidad de taludes en zonas tropicales. UIS, Colombia, 1998; 548 p'},{id:"B14",body:'Manzini M, Rabuffetti D. Sensitivity of rainfall thresholds triggering soil slip to soil hydraulic parameter an hillslope geometry. In: International Conference on fast slope movements, prediction and prevention for risk mitigation; 11–13 May 2003; Napoles Italia. Vol 1. Editore Bologna. pp. 349-355'},{id:"B15",body:'Kramer S. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering. Prentice Hall, United States of America, 1996; 653 p'},{id:"B16",body:'Suárez J. Control de erosión en zonas tropicales. UIS; 2001; 555 p'},{id:"B17",body:'Cuanalo O, Oliva A, Gallardo R. Inestabilidad de laderas. Procesos constructivos de estabilización. Editorial Académica Española, Germany, 2012; 188 p'},{id:"B18",body:'Peurifoy R, Schexnayder C, Shapira A. Construction Planning, Equipment and Methods. 7th ed. Vol. 2006. McGraw Hill, Singapore, 768 p'},{id:"B19",body:'Suárez C. Costo y tiempo en edificación. 3th ed. Vol. 2011. Limusa, México; 451 p'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Oscar Andrés Cuanalo Campos",address:"oscarcuanalo@hotmail.com",affiliation:'
Benemerita Autonomous University of Puebla, México
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1. Introduction
Anaesthesia practice remains a challenge in the developing and low-resource or income countries of the world, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa where the growing population and the need for surgical and anaesthesia intervention are overwhelming the insufficient number of trained anaesthesia personnel and available resources [1]. This has been described by some clinicians as problems associated with human, technical, investment, and educational resources [1, 2]. Anaesthesia service delivery has also been negatively affected by poor operation theatre infrastructure, unavailability of equipment, lifesaving drugs, and anaesthetic agents, inadequate clean water supply, transportation, electricity, oxygen, and blood banks services [2]. Thus, easy adaptability and proper utilisation of the available resource remains the keyway to delivering safe anaesthesia services in the low-resource countries. The regular use of a cheap, safe, and accessible drug called “ketamine” in clinical practice in the resource-limited countries has become overwhelming, as a result of the unavailability of anaesthesia equipment, oxygen, lifesaving drugs, and anaesthetic agents. A drug that is frequently described as a “unique drug” because it shows hypnotic, analgesic, and anterograde amnesic effects [3].
Ketamine is used in the operating room during induction and maintenance of hypnosis, with its analgesic property being beneficial for intraoperative and early postoperative analgesia. Its place in procedural sedation and total intravenous anaesthesia is insurmountable. Ketamine is used as an adjuvant together with other drugs during peripheral nerve blocks and neuraxial blocks to prolong the duration of analgesia provided by these techniques of anaesthesia [3].
Developing countries and low-income/resource countries are often used interchangeably. A developing country is a nation with a less developed industrial base and a low Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. The term low-income country is often used to refer only to the economy of the country. The World Bank classifies the world’s economies into four groups, based on Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, and these are high, upper-middle, lower-middle, and low-incomes countries. Low-income countries have a GNI per capita of less than 1026 United State dollars [4, 5]. More than 2 billion of the world’s population reside in low- and middle-income countries. In most of these areas, the healthcare systems suffer from issues that involve institutional, human resources, financial, technical, and political developments. The provision of emergency, essential surgical care, and anaesthesia are quite limited. This area of the world has not been able to meet up with the World Health Organization (WHO) 2007 proposed framework of healthcare systems. World Health Organization proposed that, for a country to have an effective healthcare structure, components, such as service delivery, healthcare workforce, healthcare information systems, medicines and technologies, financing, and leadership/governance must be met. Poor governance, funding, and human resource challenges are linked to ineffective integration of services in resource-limited nations [6].
The clinical role of ketamine in providing anaesthesia in low-income countries with inadequate healthcare infrastructure and equipment has been demonstrated. Despite health care being identified as a strategic priority, relatively little information has been established about the capacity of the health system in low-income countries to deliver essential and safe surgical and anaesthesia services. In many rural hospitals in developing countries, patients undergo surgical procedures on room air or rarely with the delivery of oxygen from the oxygen concentrator. The anaesthesia providers keep the patients’ airway open by simply positioning, chin lift, and jaw thrust. The airway is suctioned by the use of mucus extractors, rubber bulb suction devices, and rarely with foot-pedal manually operated suction machines as a result of lack of electricity. An improvised precordial stethoscope becomes vital in monitoring a patient’s breath sounds, heart rate, and volume. Many of these hospitals do not have anaesthesia machines and the ability to provide inhaled anaesthesia, thus, in such situations, ketamine becomes a lifesaver [3, 7, 8].
2. Anaesthesia practice in low-resource countries
In the years 2000 and 2007, Hodges and co-workers described the state of anaesthesia delivery in low-resource and Sub-Saharan African countries as inadequate, with emphasis that in the twenty-first century, millions of people in this area of the world may not have access to safe anaesthesia and pain relief during surgery and childbirth, which are considered as a basic human right. This is not different from another report by Adamu and co-workers in 2010, which noted the increasing difficulty with the preparation of patients for emergency surgery and getting them to surgical theatre within an acceptable time in limited-resource countries. The delays were related to the constraints in poor health institutional organisation and the socio-economic status of the patients. Thus, a significant portion of the patients waits too long for emergency surgery at the expense of perioperative morbidity and mortality [1, 9, 10].
An estimation of 234 million surgeries is performed every year to alleviate some disabilities and reduce the risk of death from some common medical conditions, and this is achieved with the help of anaesthesia. However, access to safe surgery has been suggested to be 3.5% in the world third poorest countries. An epidemiological study reported that 30% of the world’s population lack access to safe surgery, as well as safe anaesthesia. In most areas of Sub-Saharan Africa, government hospitals provide few supplies for resuscitation, anaesthesia, and surgery, making patients pay out of their pockets or provide materials for their surgical and anaesthesia care. Sometimes, delays in the procurement of these resources and materials often lead to delayed surgical and anaesthesia intervention, with the poor perioperative outcome. Ketamine has been shown to be safe and effective for a wide range of surgical procedures and its suitable in many clinical situations because of its safety profile [8, 11, 12].
The quality and type of anaesthesia services provided during surgery are highly related to perioperative outcomes. Nevertheless, this can be affected by the level of training of the medical personnel, the availability of surgical theatre infrastructure and resources, anaesthesia drugs, unreliable electricity, unavailability of compressed oxygen and other gases, anaesthesia machines, and modern drugs—a problem common with low-income countries. Thus, physician anaesthetists in this environment have learned to adapt and utilise any available resources to provide safe anaesthetic services and save lives. The use of ketamine as the sole anaesthetic agent has been in clinical use for a long period of time and it has been found to be beneficial and cost-effective. Ketamine has a place in the management of acute pain through intraoperative low-dose infusion, even in opioid-tolerant patients. It has likewise been used in low-resource countries after surgery with minimal psycho-mimetic effects [3, 8].
3. Ketamine anaesthesia in low-resource countries
Ketamine has gained lots of credit in surgical practice in low-resource countries. It has also been demonstrated to be vital in global healthcare practice too. Limited resource countries rely heavily on ketamine as a sole anaesthetic agent in the face of the growing need for surgical services. The global burden of diseases preventable by surgery is on the rise and is expected to surpass those of human immunodeficiency virus, tuberculosis, and malaria by 2026. Ketamine has been shown to be the most widely used and safest anaesthetic drug, as reflected by being ‘always available’ according to 92% of anaesthetists surveyed in Uganda [1, 13].
The clinical administration of ketamine has been shown to be very effective in a wide range of surgical procedures, even amongst all age groups. Ketamine can be administered conveniently through different routes. The intravenous route offers the optimal channel of administration, but sometimes it’s difficult to achieve in emergencies, children, and obese patients. Ketamine can be administered efficiently through the intraosseous and intramuscular routes. The intramuscular administration of ketamine during anaesthesia, is associated with a longer recovery time. The oral administration of ketamine has also been documented, even with its mixture with soda to enhance the oral administration, however, this route has a reduced bioavailability [14, 15, 16].
Ketamine anaesthesia provides analgesia, amnesia, immobility, and loss of consciousness. It has been found to have a wide margin of safety when compared with other general anaesthetic agents. In addition, its sympathomimetic effects provide hemodynamic stability, which is beneficial in critically ill and hemodynamically unstable patients. Furthermore, the use of ketamine in pain medicine (multimodal analgesia, chronic pain, and palliative care), critical care (status epilepticus), emergency medicine, and psychiatry (depression) in developing countries with a shortage of trained personnel could not be overemphasised [3, 7, 8]. Nevertheless, the administration of ketamine is associated with some side effects. It causes dissociative anaesthesia, which alters the sensory perceptions of the patients. It can increase the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting, cause transient apnoea especially when administered rapidly, and increases salivary secretions, which may increase the incidence of laryngospasm. The increased salivation can be minimised by co-administration of atropine. Ketamine has been found to provoke imaginative, dissociative states and psychotic symptoms due to its NMDA-antagonistic action, as well as severely impair semantic and episodic memory. It can also cause various emergent phenomena when the patient is awakening from anaesthesia. This has been described as a floating sensation, vivid pleasant dreams, nightmares, hallucinations, and delirium [17, 18].
Most clinicians and nurses involved in anaesthesia service providers understand that they must add benzodiazepines, such as diazepam or midazolam, to combat the hallucinatory effects of ketamine and the emergence phenomenon. Nevertheless, diazepam is readily available and cheap in low-resource countries, thus, ketamine in combination with atropine and diazepam forms a reliable regimen for the conduct of total intravenous general anaesthesia for different modalities of surgery, with room air and minimal equipment [1, 17].
The use of intravenous ketamine at the induction dose of 2 mg/kg in adults or 1 mg/kg in children, followed by an increment of 1–1.5 mg/kg for maintenance of the anaesthesia. While the patients were pre-medicated with intravenous atropine 0.6 mg in adults and 0.3 mg in children plus diazepam 10 mg in adults and 0.45 mg/kg in children was documented in a study conducted in Nigeria, that had the incidence of general anaesthesia with intravenous ketamine of 58.4%. This study involved different varieties of surgeries, such as intra-abdominal operations (herniorrhaphies and herniotomies), perineal, pelvic, and genital surgeries, as well as extremities, chest, head, and neck surgeries. A retrospective study reviewed 295 cases of laparoscopy that were performed over the period of 28 months at a fertility healthcare facility in Nigeria that does not have an anaesthesia machine or trained anaesthesia personnel. They showed that the regimen of atropine-ketamine-diazepam general anaesthesia was safely used for all the patients that had day-case laparoscopy. Elusoji and colleagues also reported the safety of using ketamine anaesthesia in combination with diazepam in 55 patients that had a thyroidectomy in a low-resource country. They reported complications, such as hallucination and postoperative restlessness, which were managed with intravenous diazepam, chlorpromazine, or paraldehyde (Table 1) [19, 20, 21].
Use of ketamine as an anaesthetic compared with basic anaesthetic infrastructure and equipment at facilities in 22 low- and middle-income countries.
Low- and middle-income countries
Ketamine anaesthesia
Current ketamine use exceeds the availability of other anaesthetic options.
Restrictions on ketamine need to consider the larger impact on the global burden of surgical diseases where ketamine is vital in the care of surgical patients.
To assess the type of anaesthesia used for caesarean delivery, the level of training of anaesthesia providers, and to document the availability of essential aesthetic drugs and equipment.
Zimbabwe
Rural setting
100% ketamine utilisation. Shortage of essential drugs for anaesthesia, inconsistent use of recovery area, and insufficient blood supplies.
Training of medical officers and nurse anaesthetists should be strengthened in leadership, teamwork, and management of complications.
To assess the feasibility and safety of ketamine in support of obstetric and gynaecologic surgeries in severely resource-scarce settings when there is no available anaesthetist.
Kenya
Ketamine anaesthesia
Improved provider’s competency due to ketamine raining
Ketamine is safe for use in support of emergency and essential obstetric and gynaecologic surgeries in extremely resource-limited settings when no anaesthetist is available.
To describe the anaesthesia practice at two tertiary hospitals
Sierra Leone
Ketamine anaesthesia
Utilisation rate of 44.7%
Gaps in the application of internationally recommended anaesthesia practices at both hospitals are caused by a lack of resources.
Table 1.
Summary of ketamine in low-resource countries.
4. Anaesthesia service adaptations
4.1 Anaesthesia providers
Anaesthesia is an essential part of healthcare services. In developed countries and some of developing countries, anaesthesia is not merely limited to the operating room, but the services also involve the emergency room, intensive care unit, angiography-catheterisation laboratory, magnetic resonance imaging suite, pain clinics, resuscitative rooms, electroconvulsive therapy room, and other life-saving hospital services. These services require the skill of trained anaesthesia providers, however, in most low-resource countries, there are still no strategic measures for assessing the safe anaesthesia services, particularly in rural areas because of the shortage of anaesthesia personnel. In most of these areas, the health care system is usually overburdened by patients load with limited or no anaesthesia provider.
The number of physician anaesthetists in most low-resource countries is below what is needed to provide a safe and quality anaesthesia service. A study conducted by Davies and co-workers recommended a minimum of four physician anaesthetists per 100,000 population for the provision of reasonable, safe, and standard anaesthesia care for surgical interventions. However, this figure is far-fetched in developing countries with steaming and growing populations [27]. World Federation Societies of Anaesthesiologists (WFSA) workforce survey that was based on the 2015 world population estimated that to achieve a minimum density of 1 per 100,000 physician anaesthetists in all countries, over 8000 additional physician anaesthetists would be required. While over 136,000 additional physician anaesthetists would be required worldwide to achieve 5 per 100,000. Nevertheless, the majority of the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and some in Asia have a physician anaesthetists density of <1 per 100,000 population [28].
Anaesthesia professionals, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, are often poorly remunerated, supported and undervalued. The recruitment process of healthcare personnel often neglects the anaesthesia providers, thus resulting in shortages of anaesthesia physician and their allied personnel, such as nurse anaesthetist, anaesthesia technicians, and anaesthesia attendants. In some low-resource countries, some of the anaesthesia physician support staff are not included and are sometimes poorly placed in the civil service, making it difficult for them to be remunerated. Ho et al. reported in 2019 that 30.4% of the 344 medical facilities they surveyed had no anaesthesia provider at any level (physicians, nurses, or technicians) accessible for patient care [29]. In most low-income countries, anaesthesia services are often provided by unqualified physician personnel, nurse anaesthetists, or anaesthesia technicians who are trained by physician anaesthetists, to use anaesthesia resources to provide safe anaesthesia services. This day-to-day reality of shortage of physician anaesthetists in the operating room coupled with a lack of resources, persuades the available anaesthesia providers to use simple and effective techniques that are not too expensive and readily available.
The properties of ketamine anaesthesia, such as analgesia, amnesia, immobility, and loss of consciousness make it the technique of choice, alongside local and spinal anaesthesia in low-resource countries. In a study reported in the Democratic Republic of Congo, 771 patients had general anaesthesia with ketamine in an operating room that had no physician or nurse anaesthetist, but untrained personnel. They reported that most of their patients were females (85.86%) and 97.4% of the patients who had surgery were classified as ASA II and the intermediate surgical risk was more represented in 82.9%. The adverse event they noted were arterial hypertension (10.2%), salivation (5.5%), respiratory distress (4.8%), agitation on awakening (30.8%), and hallucinations (22.6%), respectively. They did not record any mortality. Indicating ketamine is safe and effective, even in regions where anaesthesia is conducted by untrained anaesthesia personnel [30].
Anaesthesia in Zambia, a low-resource country, is under-developed and under-resourced. The anaesthesia specialty is focused almost exclusively on intraoperative patient care. In small hospitals and hospitals in rural areas, there is lack adequate staffing. A study conducted in this country showed that 80% of anaesthesia cases were performed by non-physicians with little or no formal training in anaesthesia. The reliance of the anaesthesia providers on ketamine is a result of inadequate training, inexperience with, and access to, more advanced equipment like laryngoscope and materials like endotracheal tubes. A limited number of anaesthetists have almost no involvement in emergency medicine and pain therapy [31].
4.2 Shortage of modern drugs and anaesthesia agents
In most areas of developing countries, a shortage of essential drugs used in anaesthesia practice is a common problem. Thus, the anaesthesia providers engage in the use of simple and effective techniques that are not expensive, but readily available. The properties of ketamine make the drug a product of choice, for simplified general anaesthesia like total intravenous anaesthesia, alongside its use as an additive to prolong the analgesic effect of local and neuraxial anaesthesia. In well-equipped health institutions with trained anaesthesia personnel, inhalation anaesthesia is normally the first choice of maintaining hypnosis during anaesthesia; however, ketamine has proved to be useful in settings without recovery facilities, as well as trained anaesthesia providers and in areas where patients need to wake up in their own beds in the various wards, especially in low-income and middle-income countries, and in emergency situations [1, 32]. Ketamine anaesthesia was found to predominate other techniques or modes of anaesthesia in most hospitals evaluated (72.9%), whereas inhalational anaesthesia was only available in 56.2% of the hospitals. Also, techniques of anaesthesia like regional and spinal anaesthesia, were available in 58.9 and 65.9% of hospitals, respectively studied [28].
A study published in Uganda in 2007 stated that drugs used for the conduct of anaesthesia are usually limited in supply. The availability of narcotics is 45%, nondepolarizing muscle relaxants 15%, inhalational agents 38%, and intravenous induction agents 59% [1]. In another study done by Khan in Pakistan, he reported that there is a non-availability of some essential drugs, such as narcotics, inhalational agents, induction agents, and some vasoactive drugs in Pakistan [33].
There are several factors that contribute to the anaesthesia drug shortages, some of them are common in both high-income and low-income countries. For example, regulatory issues, manufacturing problems, raw material acquisition problems, business decisions based upon the profitability of some drugs, and disturbances or faults in the supply chain. The factors that affect low-income countries alone include issues of licensing by healthcare regulatory authorities, imports from abroad, shortage of ingredients for local manufacture, government policies, and drug smuggling to other countries. The implication of anaesthesia drug shortage is that it can result in the cancellation of surgery which may be psychologically traumatic to both patients and their families. The economic implication for both patients and hospitals are incurred from prolongation of hospital stay and higher risk of exposure to hospital-acquired infections [34, 35].
4.3 Shortage of anaesthesia vapours and compressed gases
The anaesthesia gas supply system is designed to provide a safe, cost-effective and convenient system for the delivery of medical gases at the point of use in the hospital. The medical gases used in anaesthesia and intensive care medicine are oxygen, nitrous oxide, medical air, Entonox, carbon dioxide, and heliox. Oxygen is one of the most widely used gases for life-support and respiratory therapy besides anaesthetic procedures. There is a lack of adequate supply of oxygen in most of low-resource countries. In a recent survey of anaesthetic care in 22 low- and middle-income countries, uninterrupted access to oxygen was available in only 46% of the healthcare facilities, while 35% reported no access to oxygen. Ketamine can be administered through various routes and it does not require the availability of oxygen, electricity, anaesthetic equipment, or trained anaesthesia providers, all of which remain scarce in low-resource countries. Hence, ketamine is the most widely used and safest anaesthetic drug in resource-limited environments [13].
5. Conclusion
Ketamine is an example of how an old drug can still be renowned in the practice of medicine. It has been recognised as the sole anaesthetic/analgesic of choice in areas with low resources. Ketamine administration does not require costly equipment or appropriately trained physician anaesthetists, and it is cheap, readily available, and safe, Ketamine is effective in a wide range of surgical procedures, including short painful, long complex, and day-case procedures. The use of ketamine in low-resource countries has enhanced safe anaesthesia and surgical care, thus reducing perioperative morbidity and mortality, as well as improving surgical outcomes. The regular use of this cheap, safe, and accessible drug called “ketamine” in clinical practice in resource-limited countries has become overwhelming, despite the dwindling number of trained anaesthesia providers.
Acknowledgments
I want to express my gratitude to God Almighty, for granting me the knowledge and wisdom to contribute a chapter to this book. Also, for helping me to find my ground in human capacity building in Anaesthesia.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Postoperative pain is also widely undertreated in this environment, mostly due to financial constraints patients and their relatives face and the unavailability of analgesics. Sometimes the physicians face problems associated with their resource-limited working environment, such as unreliable electricity, unavailability of compressed oxygen and other gases, sophisticated machines, and modern drugs. Thus, easy adaptability and proper utilisation of available resources have been described as a resounding quality required of anaesthetists working in developing countries, to thrive and provide anaesthetic services. 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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Anaesthesia practice in low-resource countries",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Ketamine anaesthesia in low-resource countries",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Anaesthesia service adaptations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Anaesthesia providers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Shortage of modern drugs and anaesthesia agents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Shortage of anaesthesia vapours and compressed gases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hodges SC, Mijumbi C, Okello M, et al. Anaesthesia services in developing countries: Defining the problems. Anesthesia. 2007;62:4-11'},{id:"B2",body:'Nnaji CT, Chikwe K. Anesthesia for abdominal myomectomy: A five years audit of a Federal Medical Centre in Owerri, Nigeria. Journal of Anesthesia. 2017;1(1):16-19'},{id:"B3",body:'Mei Gao M, Rejaei D, Liu H. Ketamine use in current clinical practice. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica. 2016;37:865-872'},{id:"B4",body:'O’Sullivan A, Sheffrin SM. Economics: Principles in Action. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall; 2003. p. 471'},{id:"B5",body:'World Economic Outlook (PDF). 2018. pp. 134-135 [Retrieved: 31 October 2018]'},{id:"B6",body:'WHO. Everybody’s Business: Strengthening Health Systems to Improve Health Outcomes. WHO’s Framework for Action. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2007'},{id:"B7",body:'Aroni F, Iacovidou N, Dontas I, Pourzitaki C, Xanthos T. Pharmacological aspects and potential new clinical applications of ketamine: Reevaluation of an old drug. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2009;49:957-964'},{id:"B8",body:'Joshi GP, Onajin-Obembe B. The role of ketamine in low- and middle-income countries: What would happen if ketamine becomes a scheduled drug? Anesthesia & Analgesia. 2016;122(3):908-910'},{id:"B9",body:'Hodges SC, Hodges AM. A protocol for safe anaesthesia for cleft lip and palate surgery in developing countries. Anaesthesia. 2000;55:436-441'},{id:"B10",body:'Adamu A, Maigatari M, Lawal K, Iliyasu M. Waiting time for emergency abdominal surgery in Zaria, Nigeria. African Health Sciences. 2010;10(1):46-53'},{id:"B11",body:'Weiser TG, Regenbogen SE, Thompson KD, Haynes AB, Lipsitz SR, Berry WR, et al. An estimation of the global volume of surgery: A modelling strategy based on available data. The Lancet. 2008;372(9633):139-144'},{id:"B12",body:'Funk LM, Weiser TG, Berry WR, Lipsitz SR, Merry AF, Enright AC, et al. Global operating theatre distribution and pulse oximetry supply: An estimation from reported data. The Lancet. 2010;376(9746):1055-1061'},{id:"B13",body:'Vo D, Cherian MN, Bianchi S, et al. Anesthesia capacity in 22 low- and middle-income countries. Journal of Anesthesia and Clinical Research. 2012;3:207'},{id:"B14",body:'Helm M, Hossfeld B, Schlechtriemen T, Braun J, Lampl L, Bernhard M. Use of intraosseous infusion in the German air rescue service: Nationwide analysis in the time period 2005 to 2009. Anaesthesist. 2011;60:1119-1125'},{id:"B15",body:'Green SM, Roback MG, Kennedy RM, Krauss B. Clinical practice guideline for emergency department ketamine dissociative sedation: 2011 update. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2011;57:449-461'},{id:"B16",body:'Heidari SM, Saghaei M, Hashemi SJ, Parvazinia P. Effect of oral ketamine on the postoperative pain and analgesic requirement following orthopedic surgery. Acta Anaesthesiologica Taiwanica. 2006;44:211-215'},{id:"B17",body:'Ogboli-Nwasor E, Amaefule KE, Audu SS. Use of oral ketamine for analgesia during reduction/manipulation of fracture/dislocation in the emergency room: An initial experience in a low-resource setting. 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Anesthesia practice and perioperative outcomes at two tertiary care hospitals in Freetown, Sierra Leone. Anesthesia & Analgesia. 2016;123:213-227'},{id:"B27",body:'Davies JI, Vreede E, Onajin-Obembe B, et al. What is the minimum number of specialist anaesthetists needed in low-income and middle-income countries? BMJ Global Health. 2018;3:e001005'},{id:"B28",body:'Kempthorne P, Morriss WW, Mellin-Olsen J, et al. The WFSA global anesthesia workforce survey. Anesthesia & Analgesia. 2017;125:981-990'},{id:"B29",body:'Ho M, Livingston P, Bould MD, et al. Barriers and facilitators to implementing a regional anesthesia service in a low-income country: A qualitative study. The Pan African Medical Journal. 2019;32:152. DOI: 10.11604/pamj.2019.32.152.17246'},{id:"B30",body:'Ketha JK, Ilumbulumbu MK, Valimungighe MM, Nzanzu BPF, Bekaert P, et al. Use of ketamine in rural area at the East of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Journal of Anesthesia and Clinical Research. 2019;10(6):1000895'},{id:"B31",body:'Jochberger S, Ismailova F, Lederer W, Mayr VD, Luckner G, Wenzel V, et al. “Helfen Berührt” Study Team. Anesthesia and its allied disciplines in the developing world: A nationwide survey of the Republic of Zambia. Anesthesia & Analgesia. 2008;106:942-948'},{id:"B32",body:'Dobson M, Blockmans D, King M, Joy JS. Anaesthesia at rural hospital, office of studies and research for health promotion, mediaspaul, Kinshasa. 2010. p. 192'},{id:"B33",body:'Khan TH. Availability of essential drugs in Pakistan (Editorial). Anaesthesia, Pain & Intensive Care. 2009;13:1-3'},{id:"B34",body:'ASHP Expert Panel on Drug Product Shortages, Fox ER, Birt A, James KB, Kokko H, Salverson S, et al. ASHP guidelines on managing drug product shortages in hospitals and health. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 2009;66:1399-1406'},{id:"B35",body:'Atif M, Malik I, Mushtaq I, Asghar S. Medicine shortages in Pakistan. A qualitative study to explore current situation, reasons and possible solutions to overcome the barriers. BMJ Open. 2019;9:e027028'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Chimaobi Tim Nnaji",address:"chymaoby@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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These heuristics are essentially based on a commonly used scheduling theory in Jackson’s extended heuristic. We present basic structural properties of the solutions delivered by Jackson’s heuristic and then illustrate how one can exploit them to build efficient heuristics.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Nodari Vakhania",authors:[{id:"202585",title:"Prof.",name:"Nodari",middleName:null,surname:"Vakhania",slug:"nodari-vakhania",fullName:"Nodari Vakhania"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56264",title:"Heuristics Techniques for Scheduling Problems with Reducing Waiting Time Variance",slug:"heuristics-techniques-for-scheduling-problems-with-reducing-waiting-time-variance",totalDownloads:1709,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In real computational world, scheduling is a decision making process. 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The paper will describe both approaches in different domain problems.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Aleksandra Swiercz",authors:[{id:"203032",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Swiercz",slug:"aleksandra-swiercz",fullName:"Aleksandra Swiercz"}]},{id:"55594",title:"Multi‐Objective Hyper‐Heuristics",slug:"multi-objective-hyper-heuristics",totalDownloads:1470,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Multi‐objective hyper‐heuristics is a search method or learning mechanism that operates over a fixed set of low‐level heuristics to solve multi‐objective optimization problems by controlling and combining the strengths of those heuristics. Although numerous papers on hyper‐heuristics have been published and several studies are still underway, most research has focused on single‐objective optimization. Work on hyper‐heuristics for multi‐objective optimization remains limited. This chapter draws attention to this area of research to help researchers and PhD students understand and reuse these methods. It also provides the basic concepts of multi‐objective optimization and hyper‐heuristics to facilitate a better understanding of the related research areas, in addition to exploring hyper‐heuristic methodologies that address multi‐objective optimization. Some design issues related to the development of hyper‐heuristic framework for multi‐objective optimization are discussed. The chapter concludes with a case study of multi‐objective selection hyper‐heuristics and its application on a real‐world problem.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Mashael Suliaman Maashi",authors:[{id:"201702",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashael",middleName:null,surname:"Maashi",slug:"mashael-maashi",fullName:"Mashael Maashi"}]},{id:"55968",title:"On the Use of Hybrid Heuristics for Providing Service to Select the Return Channel in an Interactive Digital TV Environment",slug:"on-the-use-of-hybrid-heuristics-for-providing-service-to-select-the-return-channel-in-an-interactive",totalDownloads:1303,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The technologies used to link the end-user to a telecommunication infrastructure, has been changing over time due to the consolidation of new access technologies. Moreover, the emergence of new tools for information dissemination, such as interactive digital TV, makes the selection of access technology, factor of fundamental importance. One of the greatest advantages of using digital TV as means to disseminate information is the installation of applications. In this chapter, a load characterization of a typical application embedded in a digital TV is performed to determine its behavior. However, it is important to note that applications send information through an access technology. Therefore, this chapter, based on the study on load characterization, developed a methodology combining Bayesian networks and technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) analytical approach to provide support to service providers to opt for a technology (power line communication, PLC, wireless, wired, etc.) for the return channel.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Marcos César da Rocha Seruffo, Ádamo Lima de Santana, Carlos\nRenato Lisboa Francês and Nandamudi Lankalapalli Vijaykumar",authors:[{id:"10493",title:"Dr.",name:"Adamo",middleName:null,surname:"Lima De Santana",slug:"adamo-lima-de-santana",fullName:"Adamo Lima De Santana"},{id:"202549",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Seruffo",slug:"marcos-seruffo",fullName:"Marcos Seruffo"},{id:"202551",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadamundi",middleName:null,surname:"Vijaykumar",slug:"nadamundi-vijaykumar",fullName:"Nadamundi Vijaykumar"},{id:"202552",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Renato",middleName:null,surname:"Francês",slug:"carlos-renato-frances",fullName:"Carlos Renato Francês"}]},{id:"55704",title:"Advanced Particle Filter Methods",slug:"advanced-particle-filter-methods",totalDownloads:1565,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter presents a set of algorithmic methods based on particle filter heuristics. We start with an introduction to particle filters, which covers the main motivation and related works. Then, the generic framework for particle filter algorithm is presented, followed by two important use cases regarding indoor positioning and multitarget tracking; for both problems, modified particle filter algorithms are presented followed by experimental results, implementation remarks, and a discussion. Finally, a short list of conclusion and future work are presented.",book:{id:"5966",slug:"heuristics-and-hyper-heuristics-principles-and-applications",title:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics",fullTitle:"Heuristics and Hyper-Heuristics - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Roi Yozevitch and Boaz Ben-Moshe",authors:[{id:"203049",title:"Prof.",name:"Boaz",middleName:null,surname:"Benmoshe",slug:"boaz-benmoshe",fullName:"Boaz Benmoshe"},{id:"203051",title:"Mr.",name:"Roi",middleName:null,surname:"Yozevitch",slug:"roi-yozevitch",fullName:"Roi Yozevitch"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"549",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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