Typology of sculpture and water elements
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5144",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Big Data on Real-World Applications",title:"Big Data on Real-World Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"As technology advances, high volumes of valuable data are generated day by day in modern organizations. The management of such huge volumes of data has become a priority in these organizations, requiring new techniques for data management and data analysis in Big Data environments. These environments encompass many different fields including medicine, education data, and recommender systems. The aim of this book is to provide the reader with a variety of fields and systems where the analysis and management of Big Data are essential. This book describes the importance of the Big Data era and how existing information systems are required to be adapted to face up the problems derived from the management of massive datasets.",isbn:"978-953-51-2490-0",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2489-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4194-5",doi:"10.5772/61396",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"big-data-on-real-world-applications",numberOfPages:124,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"5c942ece49d87df7900f18463c798f26",bookSignature:"Sebastian Ventura Soto, José M. Luna and Alberto Cano",publishedDate:"July 20th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5144.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14277,numberOfWosCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:49,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 14th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 10th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 9th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 25th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"200722",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:"M.",surname:"Luna",slug:"jose-luna",fullName:"José Luna",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/200722/images/4948_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jose M. Luna received his PhD in Computer Science in January 2014. He has published 17 journal articles in highly prestigious international journals and is the author of the book 'Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms”. Additionally, he has written two book chapters and published almost 30 articles in international and national conferences. 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His research is focused on machine learning, big data, data streams, concept drift, continual learning, GPUs and distributed computing.",institutionString:"Virginia Commonwealth University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Virginia Commonwealth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"575",title:"Data Management System",slug:"information-and-knowledge-engineering-data-management-system"}],chapters:[{id:"51470",title:"Novel Rule Base Development from IED-Resident Big Data for Protective Relay Analysis Expert System",doi:"10.5772/63756",slug:"novel-rule-base-development-from-ied-resident-big-data-for-protective-relay-analysis-expert-system",totalDownloads:2425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Many Expert Systems for intelligent electronic device (IED) performance analyses such as those for protective relays have been developed to ascertain operations, maximize availability, and subsequently minimize misoperation risks. However, manual handling of overwhelming volume of relay resident big data and heavy dependence on the protection experts’ contrasting knowledge and inundating relay manuals have hindered the maintenance of the Expert Systems. Thus, the objective of this chapter is to study the design of an Expert System called Protective Relay Analysis System (PRAY), which is imbedded with a rule base construction module. This module is to provide the facility of intelligently maintaining the knowledge base of PRAY through the prior discovery of relay operations (association) rules from a novel integrated data mining approach of Rough-Set-Genetic-Algorithm-based rule discovery and Rule Quality Measure. The developed PRAY runs its relay analysis by, first, validating whether a protective relay under test operates correctly as expected by way of comparison between hypothesized and actual relay behavior. In the case of relay maloperations or misoperations, it diagnoses presented symptoms by identifying their causes. This study illustrates how, with the prior hybrid-data-mining-based knowledge base maintenance of an Expert System, regular and rigorous analyses of protective relay performances carried out by power utility entities can be conveniently achieved.",signatures:"Mohammad Lutfi Othman, Ishak Aris and Thammaiah\nAnanthapadmanabha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51470",authors:[{id:"178477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Lutfi",surname:"Othman",slug:"mohammad-lutfi-othman",fullName:"Mohammad Lutfi Othman"},{id:"184387",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishak",surname:"Aris",slug:"ishak-aris",fullName:"Ishak Aris"},{id:"184388",title:"Dr.",name:"Ananthapadmanabha",surname:"Thammaiah",slug:"ananthapadmanabha-thammaiah",fullName:"Ananthapadmanabha Thammaiah"}],corrections:null},{id:"50926",title:"Real-World Treatment Patterns and Outcomes among Elderly Acute Myeloid Leukemia Patients in the United States",doi:"10.5772/63758",slug:"real-world-treatment-patterns-and-outcomes-among-elderly-acute-myeloid-leukemia-patients-in-the-unit",totalDownloads:2047,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over half of patients diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) are 65 years or older. Using the linked SEER-Medicare database, we conducted a retrospective cohort analysis to examine patient characteristics, treatment patterns, and survival among the elderly AML patients in routine clinical practice. Out of 29,857 patients with AML in the database, 8336 were eligible for inclusion in the study. The inclusion criteria included a diagnosis with first primary AML between January 1, 2000 and December 31, 2009, >66 years of age, and continuous enrollment in Medicare Parts A and B in the year before diagnosis. Forty percent (N = 3327) of the cohort received chemotherapy within 3 months after diagnosis. The multivariable overall survival analyses showed a lower risk of death among those receiving intensive and hypomethylating agent therapies compared with no therapy. Among the younger cohort, a significant lower mortality was also noted with receipt of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Over the past decade, about 60% of the elderly AML patients remain untreated in routine clinical practice. Use of antileukemic therapy was associated with a significant survival benefit and provides further support that age alone should not deter the use of guideline-recommended therapies particularly because of the high disparities in outcomes between treatment receipt and palliative care in this elderly cohort.",signatures:"Sacha Satram- Hoang, Carolina Reyes, Deborah Hurst, Khang Q.\nHoang and Bruno C. Medeiros",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50926",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50926",authors:[{id:"178750",title:"Dr.",name:"Sacha",surname:"Satram-Hoang",slug:"sacha-satram-hoang",fullName:"Sacha Satram-Hoang"},{id:"184759",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Reyes",slug:"carolina-reyes",fullName:"Carolina Reyes"},{id:"184760",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",surname:"Hurst",slug:"deborah-hurst",fullName:"Deborah Hurst"},{id:"184761",title:"Dr.",name:"Khang",surname:"Hoang",slug:"khang-hoang",fullName:"Khang Hoang"},{id:"184762",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Medeiros",slug:"bruno-medeiros",fullName:"Bruno Medeiros"}],corrections:null},{id:"51173",title:"Introduction to Big Data in Education and Its Contribution to the Quality Improvement Processes",doi:"10.5772/63896",slug:"introduction-to-big-data-in-education-and-its-contribution-to-the-quality-improvement-processes",totalDownloads:3854,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In this chapter, we introduce the readers to the field of big educational data and how big educational data can be analysed to provide insights into different stakeholders and thereby foster data driven actions concerning quality improvement in education. For the analysis and exploitation of big educational data, we present different techniques and popular applied scientific methods for data analysis and manipulation such as analytics and different analytical approaches such as learning, academic and visual analytics, providing examples of how these techniques and methods could be used. The concept of quality improvement in education is presented in relation to two factors: (a) to improvement science and its impact on different processes in education such as the learning, educational and academic processes and (b) as a result of the practical application and realization of the presented analytical concepts. The context of health professions education is used to exemplify the different concepts.",signatures:"Christos Vaitsis, Vasilis Hervatis and Nabil Zary",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51173",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51173",authors:[{id:"178487",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Christos",surname:"Vaitsis",slug:"christos-vaitsis",fullName:"Christos Vaitsis"},{id:"179404",title:"MSc.",name:"Vasilis",surname:"Hervatis",slug:"vasilis-hervatis",fullName:"Vasilis Hervatis"},{id:"179405",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nabil",surname:"Zary",slug:"nabil-zary",fullName:"Nabil Zary"}],corrections:null},{id:"51248",title:"Medical Big Data Analysis in Hospital Information System",doi:"10.5772/63754",slug:"medical-big-data-analysis-in-hospital-information-system",totalDownloads:3529,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The rapidly increasing medical data generated from hospital information system (HIS) signifies the era of Big Data in the healthcare domain. These data hold great value to the workflow management, patient care and treatment, scientific research, and education in the healthcare industry. However, the complex, distributed, and highly interdisciplinary nature of medical data has underscored the limitations of traditional data analysis capabilities of data accessing, storage, processing, analyzing, distributing, and sharing. New and efficient technologies are becoming necessary to obtain the wealth of information and knowledge underlying medical Big Data. This chapter discusses medical Big Data analysis in HIS, including an introduction to the fundamental concepts, related platforms and technologies of medical Big Data processing, and advanced Big Data processing technologies.",signatures:"Jing-Song Li, Yi-Fan Zhang and Yu Tian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51248",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51248",authors:[{id:"16649",title:"Dr.",name:"Jing-Song",surname:"Li",slug:"jing-song-li",fullName:"Jing-Song Li"},{id:"184262",title:"Ms.",name:"Yi-Fan",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yi-fan-zhang",fullName:"Yi-Fan Zhang"},{id:"184263",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu",surname:"Tian",slug:"yu-tian",fullName:"Yu Tian"}],corrections:null},{id:"50883",title:"PESSCARA: An Example Infrastructure for Big Data Research",doi:"10.5772/63815",slug:"pesscara-an-example-infrastructure-for-big-data-research",totalDownloads:2423,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Big data requires a flexible system for data management and curation which has to be intuitive, and it should also be able to execute non-linear analysis pipelines suitable to handle with the nature of big data. This is certainly true for medical images where the amount of data grows exponentially every year and the nature of images rapidly changes with technological advances and rapid genomic advances. In this chapter, we describe a system that provides flexible management for medical images plus a wide array of associated metadata, including clinical data, genomic data, and clinical trial information. The system consists of open-source Content Management System (CMS) that has a highly configurable workflow; has a single interface that can store, manage, enable curation, and retrieve imaging-based studies; and can handle the requirement for data auditing and project management. 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Melanoma is probably the tumor that has achieved the greatest benefit from immunotherapy, considerable improving responses, and survival. These novel therapies have also been gradually added to the adjuvant setting. In addition, clinical research is assessing new treatment combinations, treatments with different mechanisms of action, and different routes of administration, being melanoma one of the most suitable diseases to test intratumoral therapies. However, some important challenges and questions remain unanswered, as to which is the best treatment sequence depending on tumor burden and molecular features, or whether any biomarker (either immunohistochemistry, gene analysis, or imaging biomarkers) may have predictive value to select the most effective treatment.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will perform an overview on how the history of melanoma has changed and will review main treatment guidelines, focusing on main challenges we still face, to finish with a discussion regarding upcoming treatments and those which are still under clinical trials.
\r\n\t
People in a modern city are like rats in a maze The E.C. Tolman’s experiments on the behavior of rats in mazes, performed in the 1940s, proved that both man and animals create a tentative, mental map to recognize and learn environmental relationships. The best known historical spatial form records are the waterside panoramas of numerous cities found in the landscape paintings of the 18th century (e.g. the landscape of Venice, Verona, London and Warsaw painted by Bernardo Bellotto, Canaletto).
Along with spatial expansion of 19th- and 20th-century cities, consequent development of their suburbs and mixture of forms, functions and architectural styles, a chaos crept into cities, defined by S. Chermayeff and Ch. Alexander as “modern space salad”. Modernism, introducing globally unified architectural patterns and inhuman scale urban structures, rejecting traditional harmony and hierarchy, contributed to the sense of disaffection and alienation in a big city. Simultaneously though, the same modern trends started off the revolution in visual arts. Artists’ abandoning lounges for the sake of the streets, freedom of artistic voice and expression of form, inspired a number of research on the processes of artwork perception as well as its social and even political role in the public space (Kwon, 2002).
\n\t\t\tThe paper deals with the theories on urban space recognition and the role of public art in raising the ’imageability’ of urban enclosures as well as their cultural quality and social attractiveness. The author presents the methodology of visual art location in urban public places on example of Poznan city.
\n\t\tThe ground-breaking Edward Chace Tolman’s discovery of the process of constructing and accumulating spatial knowledge, casted a new light on the perception of urban space and laid a groundwork for mental maps construction as a tool of urban structure recognition. The mental mapping method also allowed to discover what kind of attention people paid to particular places and what role artworks played in recognition and identification of urban space.
\n\t\t\tVisual space perception is a psychological cognitive process consisting in mental copying objects and events of the outer world in relation to the processes which take place in human body. The process of perception was a subject of interest for researchers in a variety of fields: psychology (Gibson, 1950; Tomaszewski, 1986; Bańka, 1999), especially behavioural and environmental psychology represented by H.M. Proshansky, T. O’Hanlon, W.H. Ittelson, L.G. Rivlin. (1977) and others, who analysed the use of behavioural maps; anthropology and sociology (Hall, 1966; Sommer, 1967; Lawson, 2001) as well as geography (Wood, 1992), urban environment research and town planning, developed by K. Lynch (1960), O. Simonds (1961), G. Cullen (1961), D. Appeleyard & J.R. Meyer (1964), Ch. Alexander (1977), A. Rapoport (1977), N.L. Prak (1977), Y.F. Tuan (1977), Ch. Norberg-Schulz (1971) and many others. Some of the fields of research interest were also the visual perception of art (Arnheim, 1954; Miles et al. 1989) and media in urban space (McLuhan, 1964; McCullough, 2004). The The theory initiated by the Berlin School at the beginning of 20th c. (German: Gestalt - "form" or "whole") explaining that "The whole is greater than the sum of the parts".
Mental identification is the link between space perception and constructing spatial knowledge. The main achievement has been the discovery of the cognitive scheme which controls the processes of perception, recognition and memorisation of physical space. As a result of these processes, a human mind creates an image of the space called a cognitive map, making it possible to transform and interpret the data. The selection and interpretation of the perceived information is performed by cultural and personal filters (Rapoport, 1977) and referred to established cultural patterns (Alexander et al, 1977).
\n\t\t\t\tAlong with examining the perception processes, scientists analysed a spatial code of the city and urban structure organisation which determine orientation and identification of the space. Many of Polish urban and landscape planners, such as J. Bogdanowski, W. Czarnecki or K. Wejchert conducted research on urban space perception as well as townscape and landscape composition, however, their achievements went unnoticed due to the Iron Curtain. Already in 1950s Władysław Czarnecki analysed the factors influencing landscape composition, which were also seen from the point of an observer in motion e.g. optical illusion, colour, foreground and background, dominants, rhythm, contrast, frames of vantage points, leading lines, dividing and closing surfaces, nodal points, solids, etc. His observations seem to be similar to later Lynch’s conclusions (Böhm, 2004, pp. 41).
\n\t\t\t\tKevin Lynch in his famous book M. Trieb enumerated: roads, borders, central points and direction marks (Stadtgestaltung, Teorie und Praxis, 1970) J. Castex & P. Pannerai singled out: roads/paths, barriers, nodes, zones and landmarks (Notes sur le structure de l’espace urbain, 1971). K. Wejchert selected similar elements of urban composition: streets, regions, border strips, dominants, outstanding elements of landscape, nodal points and distinguishing marks (Elements of Urban Composition, 1984) \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t These discoveries have initiated landscape studies on transportation routes and the research on moving observers’ perception. They also influenced the diversity of spatial arrangement of pedestrian zones and transportation corridors (Appleyard et al, 1981).
In 1970s Michael Trieb proposed a symbolic code of sequential notation of urban plan including privileged location in space, closure, limitation of motion, spatial domination, narrowing as well as context continuation. He also emphasised the role of art and “street furniture” in spatial arrangement of public spaces. Trieb’s sequential notation was developed in 1998 by E. Cichy-Pazder, who suggested an enriched typology of determiners of perceptive identification (nodes, axis, partitions and dominant signs).
\n\t\t\tEnclosure, urban and landscape interior, “outdoor room”(Cullen) as well as “positive outdoor space” (Alexander) – all those terms, relating to the space perception, mean a limited landscape unit, built of walls, floor, ceiling (usually sky) and elements of landscape “furniture”. Aleksander Böhm emphasises the meaning of the term Goodall, B. (1987), Dictionary of Human Geography, Penguin Books, London, p. 152, cited in: Böhm, A. (2004). „Wnętrze” w kompozycji krajobrazu
K. Wejchert has developed the theory of urban enclosures, as the basic structural units of the town. In the early 1950s, on the basis of small urban settlements analysis, he singled out ‘multi-partial enclosures’ (main and added), ‘overlapping’ and ‘centripetal’ as well as illustrated examples of using ‘leading’ and ‘closing’ lines and surfaces, emphasising observation angle, proportions of enclosures and openings. Many of the phrases included in the early works by K. Wejchert, coincide with much later schemes by Motloch (Böhm, 2004, p. 38).
\n\t\t\t\tJohn L. Motloch (1991) expanded on the theory of place and continued studies on examining spatial relations of the form (furniture, sculptures, buildings) and the background (landscape and urban walls). He claimed that a city development, from the space perception, point of view should lead to the intensification of the place sense, its clarity and distinctiveness of form and meaning.
\n\t\t\t\tJ.O. Simonds (1961) remarked that the lack of the sense of interior causes discomfort. He paid attention to feelings (excitement, curiosity, limitation, concentration, relaxation etc.) as well as the possibility of controlling and sequencing the views of various landscape enclosures. (Simonds, 1998).
\n\t\t\t\tThe studies by K. Lynch’ concentrated on the identity and structure of city images. He defined ‘imageability’ as “that quality in a physical object which gives it a high probability of evoking a strong image in any given observer. It is shape, colour, or arrangement which facilitate making of vividly identified, powerfully structured, highly useful mental images of the environment. It might also be called
The behaviouristic psychology research reveals that the attributes of space which are recognised by observers concerning continuity, coherence and uniqueness enable people to identify a place (Bosky et al., 1987). After obtaining comprehensive information about the place, it is not anonymous any longer to the observers (Bańka, 1999), which is not, however, identical with identifying with the place. According to Ch. Norbert-Schulz “being in a place” means something more than localisation but results from identification with the place by feeling its character, which can be “natural”, “human”, or “spiritual”. The phenomenological experience of the character of environment, regarded as The figure of flâneur (city observer) created by Ch. Baudelaire, was adopted and analysed by Walter Benjamin in Passagen-Werk (1921-1940)
Mental maps, which are used in various fields of psychology, education and management, have also been applied in urban and landscape planning as well as architecture and visual arts. Lynch and Appleyars were pioneers in mental mapping studies. Comparing sketches, made by non-professionals, was initially aimed at research on how individuals perceive and navigate through the urban landscape. However, since 1970s this method has been frequently applied to community collaboration in town planning. “The idea that local inhabitants need to stir into the planning process the image they have of places – their personal images – has become standard practice in city planning. A well-known example involved Randy Hester and the town of Manteo, North Carolina. In 1980 […] using a variety of imaging techniques, Hester uncovered a ‘sacred structure’ of the residents’ downtown and made a map of it as a guide for development.” D. Wood: http://www.techkwondo.com/obj/pdpal_msg/PDPal_Denis_Wood.pdf
The growing influence of cyberspace on social, economic and cultural relations has been observed for the last ten years Since 1988 Internet has been made available to the commercial use, however, just ten years ago, it became a popular communication tool.
However, the potential of experimental IT supported programs gives also a chance of “reconstruction of identity” of public places as well as creation of new tools for their recognition and navigation. A popular idea based on space identification process is collaborative mapping. There are many types of collaborative maps (Google Maps, Wiki Maps etc.) which vary in their target use, subject matter and kinds of users. One of them is a popular Open Street Map (Wikipedia) working in collaboration with GPS system. Private users can enter new data items into the existing Internet maps concerning historical urban development and significant cultural events, famous ancient monuments, spectacular contemporary buildings and artworks, shopping centres etc, as well as traffic intensity indicators (Bonenberg, 2009). The recent results in the field of digital techniques enable us not only to describe but also visually model the urban space through hypermedia functions.
\n\t\t\t\tOne of the most difficult challenges is collecting and storing digital data in the place where they come into existence as well as creating an opportunity to use multimedia information on the city in the real space. It is possible thanks to Dataspace The term coined by prof. T. Imielinski, Department of Computer Science Rutgers University, USA
The urban space recognition and mental mapping based on hypermedia may be meant both for action (especially useful for travellers) and for knowledge, as they combine space and mental organisation by relating maps and projects to the images of urban areas, and documents on social history - to their cultural background (Gallet-Blanchard & Martinet, 2002). The information is available through interface elements such as windows, animations, texts referring to urban spaces as well as interchangeable pictures representing historical and contemporary maps or photos taken by users. The social participation in the creation of hypermedia maps is achieved by interactivity of form and contents in these media. Hypermedia programs on urban history like the CD-ROM Georgian Cities (Gallet-Blanchard & Martinet, 2002) or Kyoto Virtual Time-Space The research programme is conducted at the Ritsumeikan University by interdiscyplinary teem Kyoto Art Entertainment Innovation Research within the framework of the 21st Century COE (Center of Excellence) Research Program.
Contemporary hypermedia are a tool of meta-perception. The cyberspace itself, though, constitutes a new virtual maze which requires new tools of recognition.
\n\t\t\tVisual art is an artwork that appeals primarily to the visual sense and typically exists in permanent form, such as traditional plastic art (drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking) and modern visual art like photography, video, filmmaking, computer art etc.) as well as architecture, design and crafts. The term public art (Taborska, 1996; Goldstein, 2005; Finkelpearl, 2000) refers actually to works of art in any media that have been designed and performed with the specific intention of being sited or staged in physical public domain, usually external and accessible to all. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_art
Since the ancient times monuments and memorials have been present in public spaces, emphasising the centrality of important sacral and secular places. However, the public sculptures primarily served representative and propagating goals. The notion ‘public art’, as an alternative to elite gallery art, emerged in 1960s, and its aim was to revitalise urban space. Gradually, the most characteristic feature of public art became an opportunity to express current issues and to communicate with its exposition places (Miles, 1997; Kwon 2002; Rendell, 2006) and its recipients (Lacy, 1995). The example of the Pompidou Centre in Paris (designed by R. Piano, R. Rogers and P. Rice, and constructed from 1971 to 1977), which is a masterpiece itself, proves that both permanent and temporary artworks, like happenings, installations and even street theatres, contribute to the place identity creation. The Street Art, which arose from a need of free artistic expression on the public forum, although not everywhere socially accepted, is also a material of building the image of a place(Schwartzman, 1985). ‘Street artists’ attempt to have their work communicate with common people about socially relevant themes without being imprisoned by aesthetic values.
\n\t\t\t\tDetermining the role of public art requires considering fashions and trends which have influenced it throughout various periods. In the 1970s and 1980s public art intersected with performance art, conceptual art, installation art, land art, process art, community-based art, and site-specific art. Thus, some art interpretations, sometimes quite remote from the Kantian idea of universally recognised beauty, have appeared, such as Suzane Lacey’s ‘new genre public art’ \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLacy, S. (1995). Mapping the Terrain: New Genre Public Art. Bay Press, Seattle.
This and the following paragraphs are partially based on author’s previous publication: Januchta-Szostak A. (2007). Methodology of Visual Art Localization in Public Spaces on Example of Poznan City
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn the 20th century, the time of unification of mass building and cultural patterns, art in the public domain took on a very responsible role of creating the important spatial tags and building identity of the place. Art always stands in opposition to standardization Prof. Włodzimierz Dreszer said that “art is anti-thesis of standard“ in: Dreszer W. (2007) Przestrzenie wyróżnione krajobrazu kulturowego, (in:) Sztuka projektowania krajobrazu, pp. 15-19
The 20th and 21st centuries abound in spectacular examples of architectural icons which have become not only the reference points, but also the aim of cultural tourism (Pearson, 2006), such as artworks by Frank O. Gehry (e.g.: Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao), Daniel Libeskind (the Jewish Museum in Berlin), Peter Eisenman (e.g.: Memorial to the Murdered Jews in Europe, Berlin), Santiago Calatrava (e.g. The City of Art and Science, Valencia), Renzo Piano (e.g.: New Metropolis in Amsterdam, Cultural Centre in Noumea-New Caledonia), Bernard Tschumi (e.g. Park de la Villette, Paris), Enric Miralles (e.g. Iqualada Cementary, Barcelona) and many others. Jane Rendell, in her recent book Art and Architecture: a Space Between, analyses significant works created by both artists and architects that seek to blur traditional boundaries between the fields.
\n\t\t\t\tMany artists claim that it is the lack of function which differs architecture from art. Rendell takes issue with that opinion, saying that “art is functional in providing certain kinds of tools for self-reflection, critical thinking and social change”(Rendell, 2006, pp.3-4). Moreover, there is also architecture without any utilitarian functions – Folly, which is only a decorative accent. Its contemporary example is the Park de la Villette, where Bernard Tschumi in 1982 constructed thirty-five architectural follies.
\n\t\t\t\tSince art has abandoned galleries, it may have gained a range of influence and expression which is comparable to architectural one. An open outdoor space gives the artists freedom of large works creation incorporating even natural environment (e.g. Richard Long, Robert Smithson, Anthony Gormley, Andy Goldsworthy et al.). Permanent works of art integrated with architecture and landscape design were sometimes included in urban development program like in the case of the new city of Milton Keyens in England, designated as a new town at the end of 1960s.
\n\t\t\t\tThe process of shaping the townscape happens on every level of perception: from panorama, dominated by land forms or high-rise objects; through architectural and sculpture compositions organizing space of squares and streets; to human-size sculptures familiar to pedestrians or even urban details. Regardless of its size, the characteristic feature of any artwork is its unique form which makes it stand out from the surroundings. Some forms of visual art are dominant, others constitute only accents in urban enclosure, some carry historical or cultural message, others provoke or intrigue by modern form, raising admiration or consternation, nevertheless, they do individualize the urban space, becoming important spatial tags facilitating orientation and navigation as well as anchor-points on mental maps of the inhabitants and tourists.
\n\t\t\tChritian Norberg-Schultz (1999, p.223) remarks that the purpose of a piece of art is to retain and convey existential meanings while a human, through perception and understanding the symbol, exposes themselves to an act of identification which consequently gives some meaning to their individual existence. He also emphasizes that the meaning revealed by art in a particular place also determines the character of the place.
\n\t\t\t\tThe unique works of famous architects and artists can now be found in every part of the global village. However, not all of them are able to experience genius loci and transform it into art language without losing historical continuity as well as cultural and spatial coherence. Some of spectacular objects, such as Richard Serra’s Tilted Arc Richard Serra’s massive, wall-like steel sculpture was removed from Federal Plaza, New York, in 1989.
Unlike permanent artworks, temporary open air sculpture exhibitions and artistic happenings are transient phenomena, which do not seem to be regarded as permanent points of mental references. However, such short-time but repeatable and intensive events can contribute to building the cultural image and identity of their location places. For example, Pompidou Centre in Paris, or Malta Lake in Poznan are commonly associated with cultural events.
\n\t\t\t\tThe significance of commemorative art, highlighted by many authors (Crinson, 2005), provides the urban space with the historical continuity and integrates local communities. Sculptural architecture of some monuments and memorials, such as the Jewish Museum by D. Libeskind and the Memorial to the Murdered Jews in Europe by P. Eisenman, both located in Berlin – once Nazism’s capital, constitute a worldwide symbol of collective memory. Their expressive form and size is as total as Holocaust and shredded like its victims’ individual tragedies. The spatial arrangement of the memorials allows gathering and alienation at the same time.
\n\t\t\t\tCollective participation in commemoration events builds the feeling of integration based on cultural membership, historical consciousness and social bonds resulting from common moral values. In the post-communist countries like Poland, though, an attitude towards commemorative monuments is ambivalent due to the political changes. The decisive historical transformation of ideology resulted in demonstrations and pulling down monuments, which was a kind of collective manifesto also integrating its participants.
\n\t\t\t\tThe effect of social integration can be achieved via public art by different means: 1) collective participation in commemoration events; 2) spatial arrangement of interactive artworks, which encourages interpersonal relations; 3) social engagement and collaboration on cultural projects.
\n\t\t\tThe ‘site-specific’ art is one of many trends set in the second half of the 20th century, however, it has special significance for urban space recognition and spatial arrangement of public places as it deals with urban context. Most of contemporary architects, landscape architects and urban designers attach a lot of importance to architectural context mapping, while artists emphasise the individual expression, autonomy and universality of art.
\n\t\t\t\tThe art of architecture is always ‘site-specific’, even though some creators, like Rem Koolhaas Refering to Rem Koolhaas\' s slogan: "Fuck the Context"!, in: Koolhaas, R. & Mau, B. (1995) S,M,L,XL. Monacelli Press, pp. 495-516, New York
Miwon Kwon (2002) describes the unstable relationship between location and identity as well as controversies around ‘site-specific’ artworks created by John Ahearn, Richard Serra, and others. It is worth mentioning that in 1970s and 1980s site-specific approaches to public art were promoted and registered within the guidelines of national and state organizations in the United States ”[…] even though site-specific modes of artistic practice emerged in the late mid 1960s – roughly coinciding with the inception of the Art-in-Architecture Program of the General Services Administration (GSA) in 1963, the Art-in-Public Places Program of the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) in 1967, and numerous local and state Percent for Art programs throughout the 1960s – it was not until 1974 that concern to promote site-specific approaches to public art” Kwon, M. (2002), pp. 56-63.
An ecological trend within \'site-specific\' art is also worth mentioning, though it is certainly a subject for a separate publication. Represented by a German artist, Herbert Dreiseitl, it involves creating sculpture and water compositions, introducing rainwater retention, infiltration and recirculation (e.g. Potsdamer Platz in Berlin; Tanner Springs Park in Portland, USA). The variety of water forms and their psychological interactions are also crucial for raising the quality of urban space both in aesthetic and symbolic aspects (Dreiseitl et al., 2001).
\n\t\t\t\tIn 1993 Suzanne Lacy initiated the program “Culture in Action: New Public Art in Chicago”. The new approach, that broke with previous models of ‘site-specificity’, was described by Ch. Sperandio as ‘community-specific’, and by M.J. Jacob as both ‘issue-specific’ and ‘audience-specific’ art. It has changed the meaning of public art from the art-in-public-places into the real public-art focused on freedom of expression and active participation of citizens in the artworks creation. Many artists acting at the intersection of art and cultural activism, such as Helen and Newton Harrison, Suzanne Lacy, Stephen Willats, have been developing new forms of creative dialogue with diverse audiences. For the ‘new genre public art’, aesthetical form was only a medium of socially and politically relevant content.
\n\t\t\tThe mutual relations between the perception of metropolis and the development of media have been frequently studied The subject have been studied by such authos as: McLuhan, 1964; Jenks, 1995; Burgin, 1996; Gallet-Blanchard & Martinet, 2002; McCullough, 2004, Tribe & Jana, 2006 and many others.
In the light of ‘new genre public art’, mass as new media are a perfect tool of communication with the general public. However, some kinds of ‘audience –specific’ art were considered as the art of space unification. Large-size billboards and video installations were often deprived of the name of art as they conveyed the same contents regardless of their localization. Most of west European cities have already solved the problem with billboards located in historical downtowns. In Polish cities, though, there is still an ongoing campaign on exposition area between architecture and sculpture on the one hand and different forms of commercial, advertising art on the other.
\n\t\t\t\tSince the video art was born in 1970s it has been exploring alternative strategies of adopting existing urban forms as sites of artistic intervention. The artworks by pioneers of video installation, such as Nam June Paik, Gary Hill, Tony Oursler, Sam Taylor-Wood, seemed to be as controversial as Marcel Duchamp’s provocative “Fountain“, or Cambell’s “Soup can“.
\n\t\t\t\tHowever, a remarkable progress in digital technology allowed to create large-size, interactive video sculptures, like the Crown Fountain (design by Jaume Plensa, 2004) located in Millenium Park, in Chicago. The fountain is composed of two 15.2 m tall, cubicoid, towers covered with light-emitting-diodes (LEDs) and a black granite reflecting pool placed between them. From time to time the giant LED-screens display enlarged faces of anonymous citizens of Chicago. The Crown Fountain, however controversial in size, is an excellent example of ‘community-specific’ and socially integrating piece of art. It was praised for its entertainment and artistic features as well as highly accessible spatial arrangement of a common gathering place allowing physical interaction between the public, media and the water.
\n\t\t\t\tAt the beginning of 21st century IT specialists and artists noticed an immense creative potential of digital technologies and computer- aided design programs (McCullough, 2004) as well as common accessibility of hyper media. Internet became a new public space for artworks creation, exposition and discussion. The spatial consequence of the approach to creation process and its results is breaking with the monopoly of museums and art galleries as the exclusive places of interacting with art. New Media Art (Tribe & Jana, 2006), as an artistic trend, suggests uniting computer graphics with animation, interactive technologies, computer robotics as well as biotechnology in order to gain new quality in art. The results of work of such artists as Wolf Vostell, John Maeda, Eduardo Kac, show directions of artistic development by means of new media (Bonenberg, 2009).
\n\t\t\tThe subject of research conveyed by the author in Poznan was the quality of public areas and possibilities of making them more attractive by introducing monuments and water elements. The activities of municipal authorities consist only in looking for a decent location for the piece of art. The lack of cultural planning guidance made the author search for the art-location methodology enabling not only to improve the visual quality of public places but also to raise the recognisability and ‘imagebility’ of the city.
\n\t\t\tOne of the first research tasks was creating typology of objects and defining their role in functional and spatial structure of the city. The parallel task was connected with finding the main areas for city image creation. There are three questions frequently arising, which the research was supposed to answer:
\n\t\t\tWhich public places are the most important and suitable ones for visual art location?
How to arrange those areas to raise the significance, aesthetic and functional values as well as social attractiveness of the public places?
What can be the role of visual art forms in different types of urban space?
The process of searching for optimal locations for various types of sculptures as well as spatial arrangement of “outdoor rooms”, was divided into three stages, presented by the scheme (Fig.1)
\n\t\tThe typology of public art, from the perspective of artistic composition, is considerably wider than the one presented below. However, for the purpose of the research on the public
\n\t\t\tThe analysis of possibilities of visual art location in public domain of Poznan city – main tasks and stages of research
places quality improvement, conveyed by the author in Poznan, several different types of sculptures and water objects were singled out. They differ in manner of placing, compositional values, function, size and their social role. That typology is a kind of pigeonholing, which many of artists would rather avoid, but it seems to be important for creating the planning guidelines for cultural mapping.
\n\t\tAs the public works of art engage in a dialogue with the community and the place, the two main criteria: ‘viewing popularity’ and ‘rank of the place’, appeared to be crucial for determining zones of their location. Initially, the entire area of the city was subjected to the analysis, in order to define the most important public places of the city. Because of high concentration of pedestrian zones and location of the main areas of city image creation, the analysis was subsequently narrowed to the downtown.
\n\t\t\t\tThe ‘space recognition map’ was created on the basis of mental mapping method. Students of architecture and citizens of Poznan were asked to select the most frequently visited places as well as the most important ones (in their opinion). As a result, over 120 public places were indicated in the downtown area and subsequently subjected to preliminary selection. The evaluation of public places in accordance with the accepted criteria, was conducted with the use of graphic and statistic methods. The main and sub-criteria, prepared for Poznan city and listed in Table 3, reflect particular aspects of the analysis.
\n\t\t\t\tTable 1. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDetermination of type of object | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||
A. Object placing | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDirection: directed at one side, two sides, multi-side/in the round | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||
Availability: available, unavailable, penetrative | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
Composition: culminating, leading, stopping, closing, framing, scattered | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
Arrangement: enabling gatherings or/and alienation | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
Combination: integrated with building, water element, greenery, urban floor | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
Duration: permanent or temporary exposition | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
B. Form of sculpture and water element | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tone-object, multi-object | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||
compact, diffused, transparent | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
vertical, horizontal, spherical | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
figurative, symbolic, abstract, realistic, transformed, graphical, textual | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
geometric, organic, combined, | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
static, dynamic, kinetic, interactive | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
site-specific, universal, audience-specific | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
sacral, secular | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
C. Function of sculpture elements | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tculture building: commemorative, provocative, self-reflective, socially/politically engaged | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||
compositional, decorative, | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
informative, educational | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
advertising | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
entertaining | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
integrating, disintegrating, | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
D. Function of water elements | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tcomposition, decoration, used for foreground or background exposition | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||
symbolic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
serving active or passive entertainment, | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
integrating, disintegrating/ separating (moat) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
water retention and infiltration | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
ecological | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
climatic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
utilitarian (e.g. water source, ) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
E. Size of the object | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEstimated size of vertical dimension in comparison to human size | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe ratio of height of the object to the height of urban walls | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEstimated size of horizontal dimension | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
XL | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tover 6 m | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVXL | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1: 1 and over | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHXL | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tover 50% of the floor size | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
L | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4 ÷ 6 m | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVL | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1: 1,5 1: 2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHL | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t31 50% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
M | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 4 m | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVM | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1: 2 1: 4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHM | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t11 30% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
S | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 2 m | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1: 5 1: 9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 10% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
XS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tup to 1 m | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVXS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tless than 1: 10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHXS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tless than 1% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Typology of sculpture and water elements
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The use of typology of sculpture an water elements on examples of existing objects
Basic criteria | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSub - criteria | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tElements of functional-spatial structure of the city | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRatio of importance | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Viewing popularity | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tConnection with main transportation routs | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.1. vehicles (transportation arteries, main and collective streets) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO1.1. = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.2. public transport- train, bus and tram stations | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO1.2 = 1,2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
1.3. pedestrians ( main streets, shopping routes) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO1.3 = 1,5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
1.4. important cycling paths | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO1.4 = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
1.5. water ways | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO1.5 = 0,7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Connection with main tourist routes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.1. The Royal-Imperial Track | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO2.1 = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
2.2. Piastowski Route | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO2.2 = 0.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Main areas of services concentration | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.1. the city center | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO3.1 = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
3.2. centers of districts and main shopping streets | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO3.2 = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
3.3. PIF, university campuses | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO3.3 = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Rank of the place | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe zone of historical development | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1. the core of the city | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 1.1 = 2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2. 19th century districts | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 1.2 = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
3. remaining areas (20th century) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 1.3 = 0,5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Main areas of the city image creation | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1. the axis of the city (The Royal-Imperial Track and its zone of influence) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 2.1 = 1,5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
2. the city “gates” (Central Station-PIF, river harbor-historical center, Malta-sport center, airport) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 2.2 = 1,2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
3. the city’s “lounge” – representative streets | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 2.3 = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Quality of urban space | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1. zones of historical structures under law protection | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 3.1 = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
2. high concentration of antique buildings | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 3.2 = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
3. areas of exceptional landscape values | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 3.3 = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Neighborhood of public cultural and administration institutions | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 of international, national and regional importance | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 4.1 = 1,2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
2. of city importance | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 4.2 = 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
3. of district importance | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR 4.3 = 0,7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Multi-criterion analysis for Poznan city
Poznan - areas of the highest viewing popularity – synthesis
Poznan - areas of the highest rank of the place – synthesis
After evaluation and preliminary selection, 60 public places (streets, squares, parks, river banks etc.), located in the zones of the highest importance, were described in “The Catalogue of Public Places in Poznan”. Information about all individual public places included the description of their location, neighbourhood, spatial layout and function, short SWOT analysis as well as the preliminary estimation of their capabilities for locating monuments and water elements. All the public places were evaluated in accordance with the criteria multiplied by the ratio of importance to objectify the decision-taking process.
\n\t\t\t\tMental maps have shown formal and informal paths and nodes, which people value most. The comparison of the areas with the results of unbiased analysis of expositional potential of the downtown made it possible not only to determine the best location sites for artworks, but also for ‘wounded spaces’ whose expositional potential has not been used due to the lack of decision concerning their final spatial shape. These areas of high importance, frequently situated in the very centre of the city, although constitute the key elements of urban structure as well as nodal points of the main tourist routes, have remained neglected and couldn’t be taken into consideration because of low visual qualities. From the social point of view, it was interesting to compare the above schemes (Fig. 13 and Fig. 14) with a map of crisis facts occurrence (e.g. high rate of unemployment, poverty, delinquency, among others), which are commonly observed in the downtown area. The comparison showed that some of the areas which are not eagerly visited and socially degraded are still mentally important and constitute essential reference points in the city’s structure.
\n\t\t\t\tIt is also significant that all the transportation arteries having the best spatial exposure were lined with advertising boards, which depreciate architectural values of the places not only by aggressive colours and unified contents but also by covering valuable views. It would be, therefore, advisable to substitute the advertising objects with sculptures in order to emphasize and individualize the entrances to the city, particularly in transportation nodal points. Considering perceptive capabilities of drivers and the scale of road infrastructure, large size works of art would be recommended.
\n\t\t\tThe comparison of mental map, presenting the main nodes and paths selected by Poznan citizens, and space recognition map, describing spatial quality of the most important areas of Poznan City.
Selected public places having the best expositional values were subjected to spatial and functional analysis in accordance with the detailed criteria described in Table 3. The analysis and evaluation of the quality and ‘imageability’ of urban enclosures covered a variety of aspects and values, namely, historical, cultural, compositional, aesthetical, functional and social ones as well as the transportation and zoning system. Special attention was paid to expositional and compositional values, complexity of spatial structures, the quality of architecture as well as historical and cultural meaning of each place and their social integrating capabilities.
\n\t\t\t\tType of analysis | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDetailed criteria | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSelected illustrations: the case study of K. Marcinkowski Alley in Poznań | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Historical and cultural values: | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\thistorical background: important events and people | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
previous image of a place | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
location of antique objects and their significance | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
cultural institutions and events | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
social integrating capabilities | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
Functionaland social values | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFunctional and transportation zones | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
communicational accessibility and inconvenience | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
social acceptance an problems | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
important public institutions | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
shopping streets and service centres | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
Architectural and aesthetic values: | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tcomplexity of spatial structures | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
spatial layout enabling to localize elements of urban detail | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
quality of urban walls, floor and „furniture” | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
size and proportions | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
visual quality of the enclosure | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
Exposition and compositional values: | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tvisual sequences impression | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
the number of focal points and length of axis | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
potential places for locating visual accents | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
size of exposition field | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
quality of background exposition | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
differences in heights of fields | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
scale and proportions of an object | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The criteria of the analysis and evaluation of the quality and ‘imegeability’ of urban interiors and expositional capabilities for particular public sites
The evaluation of the visual quality and ‘imageability’ of C. Ratajski Square in Poznan
The analysis of the exposition capabilities of C. Ratajski Square in Poznan
The analysis of visual sequences impression and spatial proportions of C. Ratajski Square in Poznan
Majority of the selected urban interiors are situated in the downtown zone of Poznan and constitute the heritage conservation areas. The significance of the places for shaping the city’s image made it necessary to determine specific guidelines for their arrangement, considering the lines of urban walls and building height as well as the material and colours of front elevations, the form of the urban floor, greenery and ’furniture’, which would be synchronised with the artworks.
\n\t\t\t\tThe authorities of Poznan were interested in defining the most suitable type of sculpture and water elements’ composition for each place, which was necessary in order to establish the conditions for architectural or artistic contest for the spatial form of public art elements and to create guidelines for master plans. However, the research project was extended also by analyzing the role of public visual art in urban space recognition and searching for the most appropriate locations for the place-specific and audience-specific art. The comparison of the viewing popularity research results with some elements determining the rank of particular places and their historical significance was the indicator of the suitable locations for various types of artworks. For example, the communication nodes of the main transportation arteries, as the transit corridors, need landmarks in the form of large scale, ‘site-specific’ sculptures adjusted to the perception of moving observers. The city gates, like the airport, bus and railway stations constitute a proper location for the ‘audience-specific’ artworks highlighting the identity of the city. The size of the objects is always dependent on the distance of perception and proportions of particular urban enclosure. Permanent or temporary human-size sculptures, communicating with observers (provocative, entertaining or socially/politically engaged), accompanied by leading or culminating water forms could be located in commercial centres and along the main shopping streets. While the city ‘lounges’ as well as the squares of high historical significance seem to be suitable for commemorative monuments and memorials, which enable gatherings.
\n\t\t\tExemplary concept of localizing a sculpture accompanied by water forms in urban enclosure – C. Ratajski Square in Poznan
Localisation, form and function as well as transfer of contents of artworks play an important role in the process of raising the attractiveness of public spaces and making townscape more individual. It can be a crucial element of visual information system, local community integration factor and the way of building up the identity of public domain.
\n\t\t\tThe presented analysis concentrates mostly on possibilities of artwork location in the most valuable public places. However, another important field of further research seems to be ‘wounded-spaces’ regeneration. In the research on downtown structure only ‘visually-wounded-spaces’ were singled out. A number of ‘socially-wounded-spaces’ suffer from a phenomenon of identity crisis which shows in the lack of identification of their inhabitants with their place of living. According to the research by British and American specialists, public art can be a significant factor of social integration and activation consequently facilitating the way of perceiving urban space by its inhabitants as their own one, anchored on their mental maps.
\n\t\t\tThe process of transferring public life to virtual reality indicates the need for another stage of research which should be creating a hyper-medial map of Poznan as a modern virtual reflection of multi-layer and multi-aspect processes of perception and recognition of the city space (meta-perception). Its interdisciplinary character would allow the insight both into individual layers of urban structure, districts as well as particular places, buildings and significant artworks. Interactive dataspace (with different layers of the urban structure and network of links to information and images of public space in their historical, present and future shape) should make it possible to add and comment on the information by cyberspace users and use the information in real, physical space. Hyper-media map would allow to assess the recognisability of particular areas and their quality, according to residents and tourists, as well as verify their viewing popularity on the basis of page view numbers. It would also allow to evaluate the existing and appraise the designed artworks’ locations in public places thanks to virtual visualisations.
\n\t\tEdentulism is defined as an irreversible condition in the patient’s mouth and the “final marker of disease burden for oral health” [1, 2]. It is still one of the major problems among older adults globally, regardless of its declining incidence. The prevalence of complete edentulism varies among different countries all around the world since it depends on numerous factors such as education, economic and social situations, lifestyle, oral and general health knowledge and views, and attitudes to dental care [3, 4]. The rate of edentulism tends to vary not only among different countries but among different regions within a country too, with wealthier, more industrialized provinces tending to have lower rates than others [5]. A large number of studies confirm the close relationship between edentulism and age and gender of the patients, their educational and income level, activities of daily living, social isolation and poor self-experienced health [6, 7]. These findings should be recognized at the national level of each country and used to create preventive measures identifying older people who are in need of oral care.
Edentulous patients are in need of wearing some kind of prosthodontic replacement to establish lost oral function caused by tooth loss. It occurs because of biologic disease processes and age-related changes, such as dental caries, trauma, periodontal conditions and diseases, as well as poor oral hygiene and oral cancer [8, 9]. Total tooth loss is not only reflected in patients’ inability to chew and speak but to their social behavior and self-image and it has a complex and multidimensional impact on oral health related and general quality of life [10, 11].
A large number of studies have already proven that bone loss represents an ongoing process following tooth loss [12, 13], affecting the mandible four times more than the maxilla [14]. This particularly affects the patients who become completely edentulous and creates a large problem for their future maintenance (Figure 1).
Current condition of the edentulous maxilla and mandible caused by years of toothlessness. The height of the frontal mandibular bone has been measured to evaluate the possibility of implant placement.
For the purpose of better understanding of the existing conditions, analysis of the edentulous jaws, easier diagnosis and therapy determination the American College of Prosthodontists (ACP) has developed a classification system for complete edentulism helping prosthodontists determine appropriate treatments for their edentulous patients [15]. This classification consists of four categories, the first representing an uncomplicated clinical situation with ideal or minimally compromised bone height, inter-jaw relationship, residual ridge morphology and muscle attachments and the fourth, representing the most complex and severely compromised oral conditions significantly negatively affecting the prosthodontic outcome [16].
Toothless residual alveolar ridges in edentulous patients imply the construction of retentive and stable conventional complete dentures [17]. Unfortunately, this can only be achieved in favorable oral conditions that mostly apply to the satisfactory edentulous ridge form and height affecting stability and retention of the dentures in function [18, 19]. It has already been proved that ill-fitting conventional complete dentures can compromise patient’s oral function and therefore cause psychosocial problems and decrease his/her oral health-related quality of life (OHRQoL) [20, 21]. The most often recorded complains among conventional complete denture wearers are pure or fair chewing ability, mostly within the subjects who had lost more than 50% of their estimated original ridge height, correlating the residual ridge resorption with worsening of the complete denture stability during mastication [22, 23].
In the last few decades, implants have been increasingly introduced in prosthodontics to replace patient’s tooth/teeth lost for several reasons including trauma, caries, and periodontal disease as one of the main causes of edentulism occurring in the elderly population [24]. The loss of single, several or even all the teeth in the jaws can be compensated by placing one or more implants and constructing fixed or removable prosthodontic restorations on them [25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
A large number of risk factors related to the implant-prosthodontic therapy are listed in the literature, both at the level of implants as well as of implant prosthodontic restorations [31, 32, 33, 34]. It has already been proved in many studies that poorer bone quality and lack of bone volume may be the one of the main reasons of implant failure [35]. Therefore, numerous classifications assisting the therapist in determination of the proper implant-prosthodontic therapy have been suggested for assessment of the degree of atrophy of edentulous jaws, among which the classification system for jaw bone shape and quality proposed by Lekholm and Zarb in 1985 is very often used [36]. One of the major problems in elderly population certainly is the lack and poorer quality of bone structure (Lekholm and Zarb quality 3 or 4 and quantity C, D, or E), especially in the distal part of the alveolar ridges, offering a great challenge for the placement of multiple implants or immediate implant loading and fixed implant prosthodontic constructions [37, 38]. Therefore, in these patients, having compromised bone conditions, implant-retained overdentures may be the best solution [39].
With an increase of the life expectancy in the following years an increased number of completely edentulous patients will visit dental offices [40]. With a higher standards of their life quality they will expect the same level of standards in prosthodontic treatments demanding improvement in the oral health quality of life, too [40]. With conventional complete dentures relying upon resorbed residual bone ridges of maxilla and mandible and overlying mucosal soft tissues satisfactory retention and stability of the dentures is usually not possible to achieve. Therefore, it is up to the prosthodontics to find new solutions to this issue.
In May 2002, at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, prosthodontic symposium was held where numerous relevant experts who worked in the field of removable prosthodontics stated that the current available evidence suggested the restoration of the completely edentulous mandible using conventional complete denture is no longer the first choice in prosthodontic treatments and instead it should be a two-implant overdenture, regardless of the type of attachment system used (bar, ball or magnet) [41, 42]. According to the available literature patients find mandibular implant-retained overdentures to be superior over conventional ones in retention, ability to chew and speak, comfort, and satisfaction and in oral health related quality of life [43, 44, 45, 46]. In April 2009. In York, UK a further consensus statement created by members of British Society for the Study of Prosthetic dentistry Council was released highlighting that uptake by dentists of implants for completely edentulous patients has still been rather slow [47].
As it is stated in the Consensus Statement, the solution in completely edentulous patient should be maxillary conventional complete denture and mandibular two implant-retained overdenture and this therapy presents a minimum standard that should be sufficient for the most patients, taking into account patient comfort and satisfaction, costs and both clinical and dental laboratory time [41, 47]. According to the Statement, placement of only two implants increases the total cost of the treatment, but it is still low enough (in comparison to the multiple implant-prosthodontic restorations) to be affordable to most edentulous patients [41].
A large number of completely edentulous patients wearing conventional complete dentures are dissatisfied with their prosthodontic restorations [48]. Therefore, implant-retained overdentures were introduced to fulfill a need for maximum support in edentulous dental arches together with the desire to improve esthetic appearance [49]. Consequently, they are indicated in patients suffering from severe morphological destruction of denture supporting regions with significant loss of denture retention and stability (Figures 2 and 3), those with poor oral muscular coordination and low tolerance of soft underlying tissues, having parafunctional habits increasing soreness and instability of the conventional restorations or severe gag reflexes [50].
Three-dimensional measurement of maxillary bone in completely edentulous patient. Notice the extreme resorption of the whole maxillary residual arch.
Three-dimensional measurement of mandibular bone in completely edentulous patient. The resorption of the mandibular residual arch is not so progressive, therefore the placement of 4 implants in the frontal region is indicated.
This type of removable prosthodontic rehabilitation is also strongly recommended in patients with unrealistic conventional prosthodontic expectations and those having psychological problems in wearing removable dentures, even when adequate retention and stability are present in the function [50].
This type of implant-prosthodontic rehabilitation offers several advantages such as need for less implants resulting in lower component costs and less expensive treatments for the patient, easy handling and home care maintenance, achieving extremely high level of facial esthetics by labial acrylic flanges and denture teeth replacing missing bone structure and avoiding parafunctions by removing dentures at night (Figures 4 and 5).
Vestibular view of 2 implant-retained mandibular overdenture.
Oral view of 2 implant-retained mandibular overdenture.
The results of the trial reported in Feine et al. and Grandmont et al. suggested that many patients having the chance to compare both fixed and removable implant-supported mandibular prostheses considered removable types to be a first class treatment [52, 53]. Half of the primarily older individuals monitored in this trial preferred removable over fixed prostheses for easier cleaning and ability to take them out during the night, but reported to be less efficient for chewing [52, 53]. Therefore, this finding should be used by clinicians when choosing the most appropriate type of dentures in completely edentulous patients, too.
It is also important to mention that both clinical and dental laboratory procedures when fabricating implant-retained maxillary and mandibular overdentures do not differ significantly from the conventional on, with the exception of the use of implant transfers, laboratory analogs and individually adjusted trays (Figures 6–8).
Individual tray, functional imporession and laboratory analogs for 4 implant-retained mandibular overdenture.
Open acrylic individual tray and implant transfers ready for impression.
Both vertical and horizontal dimension registration of the future maxillary conventional and 4 implant-retained mandibular overdenture using wax rims.
Implant-retained overdentures are usually indicated in completely edentulous cases with mild to severe bone resorption in certain regions and therefore go with reduced number of implants. The minimum number of implants needed for an over denture is still in debate.
According to the literature in case of maxillary overdenture with both implant and soft tissue support four to six implants are needed for retention and stability [51, 54, 55]. In case of four implants reduction in palatal plate of the denture is reported and recommended (Figures 9 and 10) [56, 57].
Four dental implants in maxilla. Clinical procedure of adjusting locators in 4 implant-retained maxillary overdenture.
Distal reduction of the 4 implant-retained maxillary overdenture palatal plate.
There are many reports in literature on two implant-retained overdentures in maxilla, too, but it is still the subject of debates (Figure 11).
Clinical check-up of the patient five years following the placement of two implants in maxilla and delivery of the 2 implant-retained maxillary overdenture.
Klemetti et al. concluded that using only two implants in the maxilla did not compromise the dentures longevity or patient satisfaction when compared with four implant overdentures on one hand, but many authors claim that this design of implant-retained overdenture may result in a hinging movement and cause discomfort [58, 59, 60].
In mandible, in case of overdenture with both implant and soft tissue support, two implants supported overdenture or single implant retained overdenture is also advisable [61, 62, 63, 64].
According to The McGill Consensus Statement on overdentures mandibular two-implant overdentures (Figure 12) are considered to be the first choice standard of care for edentulous patients regardless of the type of attachment system used [41].
Standard implant-prosthodontic procedure in completely edentulous patient according to the McGilly consensus.
Numerous types of attachment systems supporting implant overdentures have been developed over years, such as bars, balls, magnets, different cylindrical attachments etc., made of different materials, according to different concepts and designs [65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71].
Of the previously listed systems, only bars require mechanically constructed splinting of the implants and the need to connect them via rigid construction or not is still being discussed.
Both splinted and unsplinted overdenture implant attachment systems have unique advantages and disadvantages. Although different in construction, it seems that both systems achieve similar results with regard to marginal bone loss, prosthetic complications and implant survival rate [72]. A systematic research, carried out from 2000. to 2018., investigated the influence of splinted vs. unsplinted designs for 4 implants retained maxillary overdentures in terms of the outcome assessed in implant survival, prosthodontic longevity and patients’ satisfaction. The results revealed no influence of the overdenture design on survival rates of both implants and dentures, as well as on patients’ satisfaction with implant survival rate higher than 97%, overdenture survival rate of 100% and patients’ satisfaction scores higher than 4.5 (on a 1 to 5 Likert scale) for general satisfaction, chewing ability, denture stabilization, esthetic results and speech [73].
Location of the implants in the edentulous jaw serving for the retention and stability of the overdenture as well as each edentulous arch shape highly influence the stress concentration and distribution around the implants and denture bearing area [74, 75].
If it is about splinted overdenture implant attachment systems using bars made from different materials polyetheretherketone (PEEK), titanium and Co-Cr alloys) the question of designing additional distal cantilever arises. Numerous authors confirmed that, if used, the length of the cantilevel should not exceed the anteroposterior span length, with most commonly mentioned length from 7 to 12 mm (Figure 13) [76, 77].
Splinted 4 implant-retained maxillary overdenture with short distal cantilevers.
Although it has already been proven that cantilevering of the bars in this type of implant prosthodontic restoration may increase bone loss around supporting implants, especially around the implant adjacent to cantilever, without cantilevers there is less retention and stability of the dentures in the function [78, 79, 80]. However, not only does the cantilever and its length cause the problems with loss of bone structure around the implants, but increase in bar height can increase stress levels on the peri-implant crestal bone, too [81].
From the technical point of view, unsplinted overdenture implant attachment systems such as Locators, balls or magnets are much easier to construct, provide more prosthodontic space and require up to 1 cm vertical space for the attachments (Figures 14–16) [82, 83].
Radiological assessment of implant osseointegration prior to the delivery of 4 implant-retained mandibular overdenture.
Stone casts with laboratory analogs indicating the position of the locators in the edenetulous mandible.
Titanium housings on the laboratory analogs.
Prosthetic complications with implant-retained overdentures are unavoidable and are mostly mechanical [84]. Compared with conventional complete dentures there is a higher rate of repair and replacement of this type of dentures, mostly regarding their design and type of the attachment system [84].
In cases where implant retained overdenture is not reinforced by the metal framework higher rate of acrylic fractures must be expected, especially in the cases where the patrix size of the attachment system is relatively too large [85].
Different attachment systems require different care. It has been proven that rigid bars connecting 4 implants show lower incidence rate of maintenance such as clip activation or resolving the fracture, than resilient system such as round bars most likely because of its inability to rotate around the fulcrum line during the function [86]. The data also demonstrates an increase in prosthodontic maintenance for ball attachments related to the wear or fracture of the ball head or need for activation of the ball matrix or relining of the denture [87, 88].
Numerous authors reported different types of matrix repairs, too, such as clip fractures or clip activation in the period of 5 years, most commonly in the first year [89, 90].
Furthermore, the longevity of the implant retained overdenture depends on maintaining oral and denture hygiene, as well as frequency of use. It is clear that simpler constructions, away from mucosa, are easier to maintain and clean, such as balls and locators in comparison to the bars, especially if they are in the close relationship with the mucosa [91]. Nocturnal use of this type of dentures has also showed higher incidence of stomatitis due to the excellent retention, less saliva produced and more bacteria to develop in that environment [92].
It is necessary to emphasize that the prosthodontic complications can be reduced to an expected level if a close follow-up protocol is applied (Figures 17 and 18).
4 implant-retained maxillary overdenture follow-up protocol.
4 implant-retained mandibular overdenture follow-up protocol.
We must also not forget that ultimate goal of producing implant-retained overdentures is patient’s satisfaction not only with the esthetics but also with the long-term function of the removable prosthodontic restoration (Figures 19 and 20).
Appearance of 4 implant-retained maxillary and mandibular overdentures - frontal and both lateral views.
Portrait view of the patient with 4 implant-retained maxillary and mandibular overdentures in occlusion and in smile.
Implant-retained overdentures are very attractive implant-prosthodontic treatment because of its relative simplicity in construction and design, easy handling, minimal invasiveness and lower costs. They are particularly suitable to maintain facial support and achieve higher level of esthetics with denture acrylic material when moderate to extreme alveolar ridge resorption is present in patient’s mouth, mainly in the older population. It is very important to emphasize that the implant-retained overdentures are supported by both implants and denture underlying soft tissue and therefore fewer implants are requested compared to the prosthodontic restorations supported only by implants.
This type of overdenture is usually connected with two or four implants, depending on which jaw is involved and on quality and quantity of the residual bone structure. These implants are mainly placed within the alveolar bone on the opposite sides of the completely edentulous arch and connected to the complete denture using different correspondent coupling units placed on the tissue surface of the prosthodontic restoration. When implant and denture attachments are appropriately connected, the complete denture is held in position over the denture bearing area and both implants and mucosa provide support, retention and stability in function. The main advantage of this type of implant-prosthodontic solution over fixed one is that the implant-retained overdenture can be easily removed and cleaned (easy access to both the denture and the implants’ abutments) and therefore provides better oral hygiene and may affect greater longevity of the restoration itself.
The results of this systematic review indicate the superiority of implant-retained overdentures when compared to conventional complete dentures in fully edentulous patients suffering from moderate to severe alveolar bone resorption with regards to efficacy, patients’ satisfaction and quality of their life.
All the cases presented in this chapter were patients from Dental Polyclinic Ars Salutaris, Zagreb, Croatia, and the laboratory work was done in Naturaldent dental laboratory, Zagreb, Croatia.
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Abdul Khalil"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5889",title:"Grasses",subtitle:"Benefits, Diversities and Functional Roles",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"605047fa783d21860951085f83b84f47",slug:"grasses-benefits-diversities-and-functional-roles",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed and Sammera Mohamed Salih Al-Samaraee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5889.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Prof.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"61253",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76359",title:"Bamboo, Its Chemical Modification and Products",slug:"bamboo-its-chemical-modification-and-products",totalDownloads:2647,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Bamboo, a perennial woody grass belonging to Gramineae family and Bambuseae subfamily, is ubiquitous in many parts of the world. This biomass possesses high potential as a substitute for many lignocellulosic and non-lignocellulosic materials in various capacities of applications owing to its chemical composition as well as its physical properties. Its abundance, chemical composition and numerous applications are reviewed in this work. This chapter also examined some investigated chemical modifications through alkali hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis, coupling to enhance properties of bamboo fibre for specialised applications.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez and Joshua Iseoluwa Orege",authors:[{id:"197473",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayowa Akeem",middleName:null,surname:"Azeez",slug:"mayowa-akeem-azeez",fullName:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez"},{id:"249430",title:"Mr.",name:"Joshua Iseoluwa",middleName:null,surname:"Orege",slug:"joshua-iseoluwa-orege",fullName:"Joshua Iseoluwa Orege"}]},{id:"61106",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76485",title:"Review of the Resources and Utilization of Bamboo in China",slug:"review-of-the-resources-and-utilization-of-bamboo-in-china",totalDownloads:1622,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"China has made a breakthrough in the development and scientific cultivation of bamboo. At present, China ranks first in bamboo research worldwide, because of numerous research units and strong technical force. This chapter focuses on the utilization of bamboo resources such as food, roofs and walls of houses, fences, and domestic and agricultural implements such as water containers, food and drink container hats, arrows, quiver, etc. A total of 861 species and infraspecific taxa belonging to 43 genera have been reported and include 707 species, 52 varieties, 98 forma, and 4 hybrids, which are naturally distributed in 21 provinces. The national bamboo forest covers 6.01 million ha, including 4.43 million ha of Moso bamboo and 1.58 million ha of other bamboo species. As the country develops and new economic activities emerge, bamboo production has shifted from harsh processing, such as bamboo basket, to finished machining, such as bamboo flooring. The bamboo industry has attracted new opportunities as a new energy source, particularly renewable energy, and may be considered a lignocellulose substrate for bioethanol production because of its environmental benefits and high annual biomass yield.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Weiyi Liu, Chaomao Hui, Fang Wang, Meng Wang and Guanglu Liu",authors:[{id:"218573",title:"Dr.",name:"Liu",middleName:null,surname:"Weiyi",slug:"liu-weiyi",fullName:"Liu Weiyi"},{id:"218577",title:"Prof.",name:"Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Chaomao",slug:"hui-chaomao",fullName:"Hui Chaomao"},{id:"221875",title:"Dr.",name:"Fang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"fang-wang",fullName:"Fang Wang"}]},{id:"60430",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75626",title:"The Use of Bamboo for Erosion Control and Slope Stabilization: Soil Bioengineering Works",slug:"the-use-of-bamboo-for-erosion-control-and-slope-stabilization-soil-bioengineering-works",totalDownloads:2960,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The potential of bamboo in erosion control and slope stabilization has been proven worldwide. Bamboos are being used as living plants as well as construction material in different soil bioengineering techniques in many countries. The soil and water bioengineering approach is combined with bamboo traits and mechanical properties. The existing accumulated experiences of using bamboo in soil and water bioengineering works, along with the existing standards and design guidelines, make bamboo species an essential and cost-effective material for erosion control and slope stabilization works. In this chapter, all the necessary aspects to be taken into account for an appropriate use of bamboo in soil bioengineering works are addressed, and the design approaches for soil bioengineering works using bamboos are presented.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Guillermo Tardio, Slobodan B. Mickovski, Hans Peter Rauch, Joao\nPaulo Fernandes and Madhu Sudan Acharya",authors:[{id:"221706",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Tardio",slug:"guillermo-tardio",fullName:"Guillermo Tardio"},{id:"225058",title:"Dr.",name:"Slobodan B.",middleName:null,surname:"Mickovski",slug:"slobodan-b.-mickovski",fullName:"Slobodan B. Mickovski"},{id:"225059",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Fenandes",slug:"joao-paulo-fenandes",fullName:"Joao Paulo Fenandes"},{id:"225061",title:"Dr.",name:"Johann Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Rauch",slug:"johann-peter-rauch",fullName:"Johann Peter Rauch"}]},{id:"60797",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76463",title:"A Review of Bambusicolous Ascomycetes",slug:"a-review-of-bambusicolous-ascomycetes",totalDownloads:1550,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Bamboo with more than 1500 species is a giant grass and was distributed worldwide. Their culms and leaves are inhabited by abundant microfungi. A documentary investigation points out that more than 1300 fungi including 150 basidiomycetes and 800 ascomycetous species with 240 hyphomycetous taxa and 110 coelomycetous taxa are associated with bamboo. Ascomycetes are the largest group with totally 1150 species. Families Xylariaceae and Hypocreaceae, which are most represented, have 74 species and 63 species in 18 and 14 genera, respectively, known from bamboo. The genus Phyllachora with a maximum number of species (22) occurs on bamboo, followed by Nectria (21) and Hypoxylon (20). The most represented host genera Bambusa, Phyllostachys, and Sasa are associated by 268, 186, and 105 fungal species, respectively. The brief review of major morphology and phylogeny of bambusicolous ascomycetes is provided, as well as research prospects.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Dong-Qin Dai, Li-Zhou Tang and Hai-Bo Wang",authors:[{id:"219411",title:"Dr.",name:"Dong-Qin",middleName:null,surname:"Dai",slug:"dong-qin-dai",fullName:"Dong-Qin Dai"},{id:"228691",title:"Prof.",name:"Li-Zhou",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"li-zhou-tang",fullName:"Li-Zhou Tang"},{id:"228708",title:"Prof.",name:"Hai-Bo",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"hai-bo-wang",fullName:"Hai-Bo Wang"}]},{id:"55730",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69303",title:"Vetiver Grass: A Tool for Sustainable Agriculture",slug:"vetiver-grass-a-tool-for-sustainable-agriculture",totalDownloads:3060,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Vetiver grass is a densely tufted bunch grass which can be easily established in both tropics and temperate regions of the world. It plays a vital role in watershed protection by slowing down and spreading runoff harmlessly on the farmland, recharging ground water, reducing siltation of drainage systems and water bodies, reducing agro-chemicals loading into water bodies and for rehabilitation of degraded soils. Vetiver grass could tolerate extremely high levels of heavy metals. It could be used as biological pest control. The use of vetiver grass has been regarded as a low-cost technology for soil and water conservation; on- and off-farm land and water sources stabilization and remediation of polluted soils; and enhancement of water quality for irrigation purposes when compared with other soil conservation technologies. It could be a dynamic tool for mitigating environmental and agricultural problems, thereby enhancing crop yield and supporting all-year round agricultural cultivation. Recently, vetiver grass has been used to raise animals of different kinds. Thus, this chapter in the book explores several applications of vetiver grass, its impacts and resultant benefits as a technology that could enhance sustainable agricultural development.",book:{id:"5889",slug:"grasses-benefits-diversities-and-functional-roles",title:"Grasses",fullTitle:"Grasses - Benefits, Diversities and Functional Roles"},signatures:"Suarau O. Oshunsanya and OrevaOghene Aliku",authors:[{id:"175778",title:"Dr.",name:"Suarau",middleName:null,surname:"Oshunsanya",slug:"suarau-oshunsanya",fullName:"Suarau Oshunsanya"},{id:"176082",title:"Mr.",name:"OrevaOghene",middleName:null,surname:"Aliku",slug:"orevaoghene-aliku",fullName:"OrevaOghene Aliku"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"61253",title:"Bamboo, Its Chemical Modification and Products",slug:"bamboo-its-chemical-modification-and-products",totalDownloads:2647,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Bamboo, a perennial woody grass belonging to Gramineae family and Bambuseae subfamily, is ubiquitous in many parts of the world. This biomass possesses high potential as a substitute for many lignocellulosic and non-lignocellulosic materials in various capacities of applications owing to its chemical composition as well as its physical properties. Its abundance, chemical composition and numerous applications are reviewed in this work. This chapter also examined some investigated chemical modifications through alkali hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis, coupling to enhance properties of bamboo fibre for specialised applications.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez and Joshua Iseoluwa Orege",authors:[{id:"197473",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayowa Akeem",middleName:null,surname:"Azeez",slug:"mayowa-akeem-azeez",fullName:"Mayowa Akeem Azeez"},{id:"249430",title:"Mr.",name:"Joshua Iseoluwa",middleName:null,surname:"Orege",slug:"joshua-iseoluwa-orege",fullName:"Joshua Iseoluwa Orege"}]},{id:"55730",title:"Vetiver Grass: A Tool for Sustainable Agriculture",slug:"vetiver-grass-a-tool-for-sustainable-agriculture",totalDownloads:3060,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Vetiver grass is a densely tufted bunch grass which can be easily established in both tropics and temperate regions of the world. It plays a vital role in watershed protection by slowing down and spreading runoff harmlessly on the farmland, recharging ground water, reducing siltation of drainage systems and water bodies, reducing agro-chemicals loading into water bodies and for rehabilitation of degraded soils. Vetiver grass could tolerate extremely high levels of heavy metals. It could be used as biological pest control. The use of vetiver grass has been regarded as a low-cost technology for soil and water conservation; on- and off-farm land and water sources stabilization and remediation of polluted soils; and enhancement of water quality for irrigation purposes when compared with other soil conservation technologies. It could be a dynamic tool for mitigating environmental and agricultural problems, thereby enhancing crop yield and supporting all-year round agricultural cultivation. Recently, vetiver grass has been used to raise animals of different kinds. Thus, this chapter in the book explores several applications of vetiver grass, its impacts and resultant benefits as a technology that could enhance sustainable agricultural development.",book:{id:"5889",slug:"grasses-benefits-diversities-and-functional-roles",title:"Grasses",fullTitle:"Grasses - Benefits, Diversities and Functional Roles"},signatures:"Suarau O. Oshunsanya and OrevaOghene Aliku",authors:[{id:"175778",title:"Dr.",name:"Suarau",middleName:null,surname:"Oshunsanya",slug:"suarau-oshunsanya",fullName:"Suarau Oshunsanya"},{id:"176082",title:"Mr.",name:"OrevaOghene",middleName:null,surname:"Aliku",slug:"orevaoghene-aliku",fullName:"OrevaOghene Aliku"}]},{id:"60430",title:"The Use of Bamboo for Erosion Control and Slope Stabilization: Soil Bioengineering Works",slug:"the-use-of-bamboo-for-erosion-control-and-slope-stabilization-soil-bioengineering-works",totalDownloads:2960,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The potential of bamboo in erosion control and slope stabilization has been proven worldwide. Bamboos are being used as living plants as well as construction material in different soil bioengineering techniques in many countries. The soil and water bioengineering approach is combined with bamboo traits and mechanical properties. The existing accumulated experiences of using bamboo in soil and water bioengineering works, along with the existing standards and design guidelines, make bamboo species an essential and cost-effective material for erosion control and slope stabilization works. In this chapter, all the necessary aspects to be taken into account for an appropriate use of bamboo in soil bioengineering works are addressed, and the design approaches for soil bioengineering works using bamboos are presented.",book:{id:"5812",slug:"bamboo-current-and-future-prospects",title:"Bamboo",fullTitle:"Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects"},signatures:"Guillermo Tardio, Slobodan B. Mickovski, Hans Peter Rauch, Joao\nPaulo Fernandes and Madhu Sudan Acharya",authors:[{id:"221706",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Tardio",slug:"guillermo-tardio",fullName:"Guillermo Tardio"},{id:"225058",title:"Dr.",name:"Slobodan B.",middleName:null,surname:"Mickovski",slug:"slobodan-b.-mickovski",fullName:"Slobodan B. Mickovski"},{id:"225059",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Fenandes",slug:"joao-paulo-fenandes",fullName:"Joao Paulo Fenandes"},{id:"225061",title:"Dr.",name:"Johann Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Rauch",slug:"johann-peter-rauch",fullName:"Johann Peter Rauch"}]},{id:"70724",title:"Effects of Fire on Grassland Soils and Water: A Review",slug:"effects-of-fire-on-grassland-soils-and-water-a-review",totalDownloads:1060,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Grasslands occur on all of the continents. They collectively constitute the largest ecosystem in the world, making up 40.5% of the terrestrial land area, excluding Greenland and Antarctica. Grasslands are not entirely natural because they have formed and developed under natural and anthropogenic pressures. Their importance now is to the variety of ecosystem services that they provide: livestock grazing areas, water catchments, biodiversity reserves, tourism sites, recreation areas, religious sites, wild food sources, and natural medicine sources. An important function of grasslands is their sequestration and storage of carbon (C). Mollisol soils of grasslands have deep organic matter horizons that make this vegetation type almost as important as forests for C fixation and storage. Fire has been and continues to be an important disturbance in grassland evolution and management. Natural wildfires have been a component of grasslands for over 300 million years and were important in creating and maintaining most of these ecosystems. Humans ignited fires over many millennia to improve habitat for animals and livestock. Prescribed fire practiced by humans is a component of modern grassland management. The incidence of wildfires in grasslands continues to grow as an issue as droughts persist in semi-arid regions. Knowledge of fire effects on grasslands has risen in importance to land managers because fire, as a disturbance process, is an integral part of the concept of ecosystem management and restoration ecology. Fire is an intrusive disturbance in both managed and wildland forests and grasslands. It initiates changes in ecosystems that affect the composition, structure, and patterns of vegetation on the landscape. It also affects the soil and water resources of ecosystems that are critical to overall ecosystem functions and processes.",book:{id:"8088",slug:"grasses-and-grassland-aspects",title:"Grasses and Grassland Aspects",fullTitle:"Grasses and Grassland Aspects"},signatures:"Daniel George Neary and Jackson McMichael Leonard",authors:[{id:"40845",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel G.",middleName:"George",surname:"Neary",slug:"daniel-g.-neary",fullName:"Daniel G. Neary"},{id:"276254",title:"Dr.",name:"Jackson",middleName:null,surname:"Leonard",slug:"jackson-leonard",fullName:"Jackson Leonard"}]},{id:"55524",title:"Importance of Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) for Controlling of Aquatic Vegetation",slug:"importance-of-grass-carp-ctenopharyngodon-idella-for-controlling-of-aquatic-vegetation",totalDownloads:1808,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Aquatic plants are beneficial and a necessary part of lakes and reservoirs. Also, some kind of plants are the main food source for aquatic animals. Plants are able to stabilize sediments, improve water clarity and add diversity to the shallow areas of lakes. On the other hand, overgrown plants can become a nuisance by hindering human uses of water and threaten the structure and function of diverse native aquatic ecosystems. This chapter aims to make analysis of using of grass carp to control aquatic vegetation. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
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