Material constants and correlation coefficients -60 °C ≤ T ≤ 23 °C
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6310",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Genotoxicity - A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World",title:"Genotoxicity",subtitle:"A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is designed to provide an overview of the different genotoxicants and their effects on living organisms, including humans. The contributions made by the specialists in this field of research are gratefully acknowledged. We hope that the information presented in this book will meet the expectations and needs of all those interested in the different aspects of the genotoxicity field. The publication of this book is of great importance to those scientists, pharmacologists, physicians and veterinarians, as well as engineers, teachers, graduate students and administrators of environmental programmes, who make use of these investigations to understand both the basic and applied genotoxic aspects of known and new xenobiotics, and to guide them in their future investigations.",isbn:"978-1-78923-419-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-418-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-236-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69556",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"genotoxicity-a-predictable-risk-to-our-actual-world",numberOfPages:122,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"14a0966cec5283fdbc781a6bb47ed4e3",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",publishedDate:"July 11th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6310.jpg",numberOfDownloads:20616,numberOfWosCitations:67,numberOfCrossrefCitations:77,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:153,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:297,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 10th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 31st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 1st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 31st 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 3rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14764/images/system/14764.jpg",biography:"Marcelo L. Larramendy, Ph.D., serves as Professor of Molecular Cell Biology at the School of Natural Sciences and Museum (National University of La Plata, Argentina). Appointed Senior Researcher of the National Scientific and Technological Research Council of Argentina. Former Member of the Executive Committee of the Latin American Association of Environmental Mutagenesis, Teratogenesis and Carcinogenesis. Author of more than 450 contributions, including scientific publications, research communications and conferences worldwide. Recipient of several national and international awards. Prof. Larramendy is a regular Lecturer at the international A. Hollaender Courses organized by the IAEMS and former guest scientist at NIH (USA) and the University of Helsinki, (Finland). He is an expert in Genetic Toxicology and is, or has been, referee for more than 20 international scientific journals. Member of the International Panel of Experts at the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, WHO, Lyon, France) in 2015 for the evaluation of DDT, 2,4-D and Lindane. Presently, Prof. Dr. Larramendy is Head of the Laboratory of Molecular Cytogenetics and Genotoxicology at the UNLP.",institutionString:"National University of La Plata",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"20",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14863/images/system/14863.jpg",biography:"Sonia Soloneski has a Ph.D. in Natural Sciences and is Assistant Professor of Molecular Cell Biology at the School of Natural Sciences and Museum of La Plata, National University of La Plata, Argentina. She is a member of the National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) of Argentina in the Genetic Toxicology field, the Latin American Association of Environmental Mutagenesis, Teratogenesis and Carcinogenesis (ALAMCTA), the Argentinean Society of Toxicology (ATA), the Argentinean Society of Biology (SAB) and the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC). She has authored more than 380 contributions in the field, including scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and research communications. She has served as a review member for more than 30 scientific international journals. She has been a plenary speaker in scientific conferences and a member of scientific committees. She is a specialist in issues related to Genetic Toxicology, Mutagenesis, and Ecotoxicology.",institutionString:"National University of La Plata",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1210",title:"Toxicogenomics",slug:"toxicogenomics"}],chapters:[{id:"57717",title:"In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Cell Viability Assays: Principles, Advantages, and Disadvantages",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71923",slug:"in-vitro-cytotoxicity-and-cell-viability-assays-principles-advantages-and-disadvantages",totalDownloads:14764,totalCrossrefCites:74,totalDimensionsCites:144,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Cytotoxicity is one of the most important indicators for biological evaluation in vitro studies. In vitro, chemicals such as drugs and pesticides have different cytotoxicity mechanisms such as destruction of cell membranes, prevention of protein synthesis, irreversible binding to receptors etc. In order to determine the cell death caused by these damages, there is a need for cheap, reliable and reproducible short-term cytotoxicity and cell viability assays. Cytotoxicity and cell viability assays are based on various cell functions. A broad spectrum of cytotoxicity assays is currently used in the fields of toxicology and pharmacology. There are different classifications for these assays: (i) dye exclusion assays; (ii) colorimetric assays; (iii) fluorometric assays; and (iv) luminometric assays. Choosing the appropriate method among these assays is important for obtaining accurate and reliable results. When selecting the cytotoxicity and cell viability assays to be used in the study, different parameters have to be considered such as the availability in the laboratory where the study is to be performed, test compounds, detection mechanism, specificity, and sensitivity. In this chapter, information will be given about in vitro cytotoxicity and viability assays, these assays will be classified and their advantages and disadvantages will be emphasized. The aim of this chapter is to guide the researcher interested in this subject to select the appropriate assay for their study.",signatures:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57717",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57717",authors:[{id:"211212",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem Sultan",surname:"Aslantürk",slug:"ozlem-sultan-aslanturk",fullName:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk"}],corrections:null},{id:"57350",title:"DNA Damage in End-Stage Renal Disease Patients. Assessment by In Vitro Comet Assay and by Cell-Free DNA Quantification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71319",slug:"dna-damage-in-end-stage-renal-disease-patients-assessment-by-in-vitro-comet-assay-and-by-cell-free-d",totalDownloads:1145,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Inflammation is a common feature in end stage renal disease (ESRD) that might contribute to increase DNA damage. ESRD patients present increased circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA) and different types of DNA injury. The underlying inflammatory process in ESRD may be associated with increased genomic damage and cfDNA contributing to further enhance inflammation. We analyzed the degree of genomic damage in ESRD patients under hemodialysis therapy, using the comet assay and cfDNA quantification. ESRD patients presented significantly higher C-reactive protein (CRP) and cell damaged DNA. The cfDNA correlated with age and inflammatory stage. Nine out of 39 patients died during the one year follow-up period and presented significantly higher cfDNA, than those who persisted alive. At lower CRP values, the increased DNA damage is still within the cell, and at higher CRP the damaged DNA is released in to plasma. The higher degree of genomic damage in ESRD might be a consequence of inflammation and aging, and may contribute to increase cancer and cardiovascular mortality risk. Our data suggest that the comet assay is more sensitive for low-grade inflammatory conditions, while cfDNA appears as a good biomarker for more severe inflammatory conditions, and as a biomarker for the outcome of ESRD patients.",signatures:"Susana Coimbra, Alice Santos-Silva, Elísio Costa and Elsa Bronze-da-\nRocha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57350",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57350",authors:[{id:"56251",title:"Prof.",name:"Alice",surname:"Santos Silva",slug:"alice-santos-silva",fullName:"Alice Santos Silva"},{id:"66774",title:"Prof.",name:"Susana",surname:"Coimbra",slug:"susana-coimbra",fullName:"Susana Coimbra"},{id:"181971",title:"Prof.",name:"Elísio",surname:"Costa",slug:"elisio-costa",fullName:"Elísio Costa"},{id:"212504",title:"Prof.",name:"Elsa",surname:"Bronze-Da-Rocha",slug:"elsa-bronze-da-rocha",fullName:"Elsa Bronze-Da-Rocha"}],corrections:null},{id:"58236",title:"Genotoxicity Induced by Cypermethrin in the Zebrafish Retina",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72434",slug:"genotoxicity-induced-by-cypermethrin-in-the-zebrafish-retina",totalDownloads:1245,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cypermethrin (Cyp), is one of the most common contaminants in freshwater aquatic systems. We evaluated its possible genotoxic effect and oxidative stress in retinal cells of adult zebrafish exposed to 0.3 μg/L and 0.6 μg/L Cyp. Both the histological and immunofluorescence (IF) techniques showed the presence of apoptotic cells in the zebrafish retina after 9 days of treatment with 0.6 μg/L Cyp. Thus, histone γ-H2AX, a double-stranded DNA damage marker, was immunodetected in both the outer and inner nuclear layer after exposure to 0.6 μg/L Cyp for 12 days, while the anti-caspase-3 apoptotic antibody was detected in the outer nuclear layer. Compared with the morphological evidence, the damage index (DI) showed significant differences with 0.3 μg/L from day 9, while with 0.6 μg/L all the stages evaluated showed very significant differences. According to these results, it was verified that the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) increased significantly after exposure to 0.6 μg/L Cyp. The same treatment caused a significant positive regulation of the mRNA levels of both genes. These results indicate that Cyp causes DNA damage and oxidative stress. This pyrethroid also has the potential to induce apoptosis in the cells of the retina.",signatures:"Enrique Valentín Paravani and Víctor Hugo Casco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58236",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58236",authors:[{id:"103103",title:"Dr.",name:"Víctor",surname:"Casco",slug:"victor-casco",fullName:"Víctor Casco"},{id:"212967",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique V.",surname:"Paravani",slug:"enrique-v.-paravani",fullName:"Enrique V. Paravani"}],corrections:null},{id:"60104",title:"Assessment of Potential Carcinogenicity by Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75420",slug:"assessment-of-potential-carcinogenicity-by-quantitative-structure-activity-relationship-qsar-",totalDownloads:1040,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Already in 1978, Elisabeth C. Miller and James A. Miller came with a presumption that electrophilic molecules are predicted to be carcinogens. It is because DNA molecule is reached in nucleophilic centres that may covalently bind to such substances. Rules deduced by Millers are even nowadays irrefutable, and they are used as the basis of testing of the substance for its carcinogenicity potential. Toxicological discipline that emerged from Millers’ research is based on dependence of chemical structure of the substance and their biological activity. Even further, there are strict regularities between molecular structures and activities. The tool used in assessment of biological activity of a substance is known as SAR, an abbreviation from structure–activity relationship. Besides electrophilic centres, in assessment of carcinogenic potential of a substance, the SAR also encounters chemical surrounding (neighbouring functional groups), size of the substance, its lipophilicity, number and position of aryl rings, substitutions of hydrogens, epoxides in aliphatic moieties or rings, resonance stabilisation, etc. To these days, SAR has been upgraded to quantitative SAR (QSAR) which applies multivariate statistical methods quantitatively comparing detected characteristics of “alerts” with biological activity of known carcinogens. Nowadays, chemical industry developing novel active substances is unthinkable without application of QSAR.",signatures:"Davor Zeljezic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60104",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60104",authors:[{id:"14691",title:"Dr.",name:"Davor",surname:"Želježić",slug:"davor-zeljezic",fullName:"Davor Želježić"}],corrections:null},{id:"59362",title:"Genotoxicity by Electromagnetic Fields",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74128",slug:"genotoxicity-by-electromagnetic-fields",totalDownloads:1206,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Modern life implies a constant exposure of living organisms to many sources of radiation, especially electromagnetic fields (EMFs) generated by our technological devices. The question of whether or not EMFs in the non-ionizing extremely low frequency (ELF) range can induce genotoxic effects is currently a subject of interest. People of industrialized societies are commonly exposed to EMFs and waves in a very broad range of frequencies, including power lines, telecommunications, and domestic and industrial equipment. In this review, we present controversial evidence from our research group and others of genotoxicity induced by ELF-EMFs, since scientific community consider EMF devices produce marginal amounts of energy, which does not justify any DNA alterations, together with conflicting laboratory results and few epidemiological studies. However, in 2002 the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) categorized ELF-EMFs as being potential carcinogenic and genotoxic agents to humans. The aim of the present chapter is to discuss the role of ELM-EMFs on human genotoxicity.",signatures:"José Antonio Heredia-Rojas, Ricardo A. Gómez-Flores, Eulogio De la\nCruz-Torres, Omar Heredia-Rodríguez, Eduardo Campos-Góngora,\nPedro César Cantú-Martínez, Laura E. Rodríguez-Flores and\nAbraham O. Rodríguez-de la Fuente",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59362",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59362",authors:[{id:"175049",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo Alberto",surname:"Gomez Flores",slug:"ricardo-alberto-gomez-flores",fullName:"Ricardo Alberto Gomez Flores"},{id:"216613",title:"MSc.",name:"Laura",surname:"Rodríguez-Flores",slug:"laura-rodriguez-flores",fullName:"Laura Rodríguez-Flores"},{id:"232729",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Antonio",surname:"Heredia Rojas",slug:"jose-antonio-heredia-rojas",fullName:"Jose Antonio Heredia Rojas"},{id:"232748",title:"Dr.",name:"Eulogio",surname:"De La Cruz-Torres",slug:"eulogio-de-la-cruz-torres",fullName:"Eulogio De La Cruz-Torres"},{id:"232752",title:"MSc.",name:"Omar",surname:"Heredia-Rodríguez",slug:"omar-heredia-rodriguez",fullName:"Omar Heredia-Rodríguez"},{id:"232754",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Campos-Góngora",slug:"eduardo-campos-gongora",fullName:"Eduardo Campos-Góngora"},{id:"232755",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro César",surname:"Cantú-Martínez",slug:"pedro-cesar-cantu-martinez",fullName:"Pedro César Cantú-Martínez"},{id:"232756",title:"Dr.",name:"Abraham O.",surname:"Rodriguez De La Fuente",slug:"abraham-o.-rodriguez-de-la-fuente",fullName:"Abraham O. Rodriguez De La Fuente"}],corrections:null},{id:"61970",title:"Genotoxic Risk in Human Populations Exposed to Pesticides",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77968",slug:"genotoxic-risk-in-human-populations-exposed-to-pesticides",totalDownloads:1216,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The importance of early detection of genetic damage is that it allows taking the necessary measures to reduce or suppress the exposure to the deleterious agent when it is still reversible, thus decreasing the risk of developing diseases. For this reason, genotoxicity tests should be considered as indispensable tools in the implementation of a complete medical surveillance in people potentially exposed to various environmental pollutants and especially those who live in the same place with people who have already developed some type of neoplasia at early ages in order to prevent the occurrence of tumors of environmental origin and work-related. On the other hand, the application of these tests is useful to detect possible long-term effects of substances that are introduced to the market without knowing exactly their capacity to affect human and environmental health.",signatures:"Delia Aiassa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61970",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61970",authors:[{id:"227002",title:"Dr.",name:"Delia",surname:"Aiassa",slug:"delia-aiassa",fullName:"Delia Aiassa"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"923",title:"Herbicides",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54a8eb808c05a5fe01c676e7047d4576",slug:"herbicides-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. 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Fiber reinforced composite materials have been increasingly used as structural members in many structures such as airplane. The advantages of these materials are derived from their high strength, stiffness and damping together with low specific weight. Low temperature mechanical properties of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy have to be assessed, because of composite materials are subjected to low temperatures in service. Experimental or analytical investigation on the tensile failure behavior of glass/epoxy laminated composite with/or without stress concentration subjected to thermo-mechanical static loadings at low temperatures has not been done yet. In the present work, a model was developed to perform the progressive failure analysis of quasi isotropic composite plates at low temperatures. The initial failure load is calculated by means of an elastic stress analysis. The load is increased step by step. For each given load, the stresses are evaluated and the appropriate failure criterion is applied to inspect for possible failure. For the failed element, material properties are modified according to the failure mode using a non-zero stiffness degradation factor. Then, the modified Newton–Raphson iteration is carried out until convergence is reached. This analysis is repeated for each load increment until the final failure occurs and the ultimate strength is determined. The present method yields results in a reasonable agreement with the experimental data at room temperature and -60
Unidirectional glass fibers have been used in this investigation as reinforcing material, while epoxy resin has been utilized as the matrix material. Hand lay-up method was used to fabricate thin laminates with epoxy resin ML-506 with hardener HA11. Test specimens were cut from laminates according to relevant standard codes. All specimens had a constant cross section with tabs bonded to the ends. The fiber volume fraction of the composites was 55%.
The specimens are tested from beginning to the failure mode both at room and low temperatures. All tests were conducted under displacement control condition using Instron 5582 machine adaptable for cryogenic service by an environmental chamber. The displacement rate was 2 mm/min. Environmental chamber has the ability to cool down the temperature to -196 °C by evaporating liquid cryogenic Nitrogen. During the tests, a pressurizing device is used to control the cooling time from room temperature to -20 °C and -60 °C and maintain an evaporating pressure of 152 kPa. In order to reach thermal equilibrium in mechanical parts of machine one hour prior to first time of testing, temperature of environmental chamber was kept at desired low temperatures. Since composite materials require more time than metal materials to reach thermal equilibrium states in low temperatures, specimens stayed in a constant low temperature for at least an hour prior to start loading. Environmental chamber was equipped with a fan to perform a uniform temperature. A digital thermometer was mounted inside of environmental chamber to monitor active temperature during the tests. Experimental set up for mechanical tests at different temperature is shown in Figure 1.
Experimental setup for mechanical tests at both room and low temperatures
In order to apply progressive damage modeling to a laminated composite, mechanical properties of unidirectional laminates should be assessed. For this purpose test specimens was fabricated for tensile, compressive and shear loading in longitudinal and transverse direction. In this section, for each case, specimen dimensions and experimental results are reported. Also some master curves are illustrated to predict mechanical properties in the assumed temperature range. Finally all of mechanical properties are assessed by a regression function.
The unidirectional glass fiber-reinforced epoxy which composed of ten plies was used in this test; the total thickness of the laminate is 2
Geometry of the specimens for longitudinal and transverse tensile tests at different temperatures
The purpose of the static tensile tests was to determine the low temperature effects on the tensile strength, Young modulus and ultimate strain of unidirectional laminates in longitudinal and transverse directions. Figure 3 show the typical stress-strain behavior of unidirectional laminate under tensile loads in longitudinal direction at room temperature, -20
Typical stress-strain behavior of unidirectional laminate under tensile loads in longitudinal direction at room temperature, -20 °C and -60 °C
Typical stress-strain behavior of unidirectional laminate under tensile loads in transverse direction at room temperature, -20 °C and -60 °C
Figure 4 show the load-deflection curve of unidirectional laminates under tensile loads in transverse direction. The behavior is the same as described in the previous tests. The only difference is that the stress-strain curve in this case showed insignificant nonlinearity before reaching the maximum stress, which is due to the nature of the plasticity of epoxy. It was observed because the composite becomes more brittle in low temperatures, this nonlinearity behavior of matrix decreased by decreasing temperature in Figure 4 and Ref. [37]. Typical results was also reported that both transverse tensile strength and stiffness increased by decreasing temperature from RT for glass-epoxy composites [39].
Failure regions of the composite specimens at different temperatures in longitudinal and transverse directions under tensile loading are shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6 respectively. It is found that in the case of longitudinal tension, the failure mechanism changes with temperature while no significant change was observed on the transverse direction.
Failure regions of the composite specimens at different temperatures in longitudinal direction under tensile loading
Failure regions of the composite specimens at different temperatures in transverse direction under tensile loading
For the longitudinal direction, from a visual inspection of the damage surfaces, a significant change could be observed in the fracture surface at room temperature to -60
The specimens used for compression test had the same material as those of the tensile test except that these specimens were made of fifteen plies so that the total thickness is 3
Geometry of the specimens for longitudinal and transverse compressive tests at different temperatures
In order to determine the effect of low temperature service on the strength and strain to failure of composite specimens in longitudinal and transverse directions, a set of experimental tests were performed. For this reason, a special fixture recommended in ASTM D3410 was used to prevent possible buckling. Figure 8 illustrate typical stress-strain behavior of composite laminate under compressive loading in longitudinal direction at various temperatures. As shown, the stress-strain relation is slightly nonlinear and final failure occurs catastrophically in all cases. The main specific property of longitudinal compressive stress-strain curves is that against other nonlinear stress-strain curves of UD composite in longitudinal or transverse directions, these curves exhibit positive curvature. This may be due to interface bonding between matrix and fibers. Imperfect fiber-matrix bonding is a manufacturing defect that is created during curing process. This defect influences the role of the matrix that supports the fibers when the composite is under compression [28], [29]. From stress-strain curves, it seems that by increasing compression in longitudinal direction, this bonding becomes grater and the role of matrix against microbuckling of fibers is more highlighted. As shown in the figure, significant non-linear deformation was often observed before the maximum load [30], [31], and this behavior was associated to the plastic deformation of the polymeric matrix. Compressive strength in longitudinal direction increases significantly by decreasing temperature (from 570.37
Typical stress-strain behavior of unidirectional laminate under compressive loads in longitudinal direction at room temperature, -20 °C and -60 °C
Figure 9 depict stress-strain curves of unidirectional composite under transverse compressive loading at different temperatures. Again significant increase in strength of composite was observed by decreasing temperature (from 122.12 MPa at room temperature, to 186.22 MPa at -60 °C). Typical behavior was reported by [32] for glass-epoxy composites. But in this case against other directions of loading, by decreasing temperature, transverse compressive stiffness was decreased and strain to failure was increased significantly. The reason of the observed phenomenon in this type of loading is unknown and it is interested to investigate more about this behavior in future works.
Typical stress-strain behavior of unidirectional laminate under compressive loads in transverse direction at room temperature, -20 °C and -60 °C
Figure 10 and Figure 11 show failed specimens under compressive loading in longitudinal and transverse directions at different temperatures, respectively.
Failure regions of the composite specimens at different temperatures in longitudinal direction under compressive loading
Failure regions of the composite specimens at different temperatures in transverse direction under compressive loading
The main failure mode of specimens in this case is micro buckling of fibers in shear or extensional mode. Also, in this case, there is a small amount of tab deboning near the gauge area for room temperature specimens. The change in the mechanical response with decreasing temperature is associated with a change in failure modes. As shown in Figure 11, failure occurred at the middle of specimen under micro-buckling failure mode. The difference is that, in low temperature cases, more fiber pull-out was occurred. Also, extensive deboning between fibers and the matrix was also observed because of weaker fiber and matrix bonding at low temperatures. In this case, only at low temperatures failed specimens fractured in two separate parts. In the case of compression failure in the transverse direction at low temperature, the failure area is much more than the room temperature specimens. Also at room temperature, specimen is not fractured in two separate parts. This is because of major effects of low temperature on mechanical properties of epoxy matrix of composites. In this case, there is no significant change in failure mechanism for specimens at -20
In the following, method of static experiments for characterizing material properties under in-plane shear loading is illustrated. Among numerous testing methods, the three-rail shear test method, described by the ASTM A4255 [3], is a fairly reliable technique. This method is modified by Shokrieh [28]. He developed new specimen by inserting notches into the edges of specimen. The reason behind the insertion of notches at the locations of stress concentrations is to replace a very sharp crack with a blunt crack with much lower stress concentration factor. To increase the stability of the specimen during the test, a [0,90]s configuration is selected in this test. The specimen and the dimension are shown in Figure 12.
Electric strain gauges were used to measure the strains of the specimens during the shear tests. The strain gauges are attached to the specimens in the direction of 45°. The strain gauges and lead wires were manufactured by TML Corporation for low temperature ranges. However, since the changing in temperature would also affect the strain in strain gauges, Wheatstone half bridge circuit has been used to reduce this unfavorable effect.
Geometry of the specimens for in-plane shear tests at different temperatures
Figure 13 show the stress-strain behavior of modified specimen under in-plane shear loadings at room temperature, -20
Typical stress-strain behavior of unidirectional laminate under in-plane shear loading at room temperature, -20 °C and -60 °C
For metallic materials, the linear region of the stress-strain curve corresponds to elastic deformation and the nonlinear region to plastic deformation. However, when working with non-crystalline substances (such as epoxy), the glass transition temperature (
Tested specimens under shear loading at different temperatures
Figure 15 show the experimental values of tensile and compressive strengths for unidirectional laminates at different temperatures in longitudinal and transverse directions with their calculated standard deviations.
Experimental values of the tensile and compressive strengths for unidirectional laminates at different temperature in a) longitudinal and b) transverse directions
In each case in the above figures, by a polynomial curve fitting to experimental data, the increasing trend of strengths by decreasing the temperature is shown. However, the increasing rate of compressive strength by decreasing temperature is more for that of the tensile strength in both longitudinal and transverse directions. Figure 16 show experimental values of tensile modulus for unidirectional laminates at different temperatures in longitudinal and transverse directions. Both longitudinal and transverse tensile modulus increased by decreasing temperature to -60
Experimental values of compressive strength for unidirectional laminates at different temperature in longitudinal and transverse directions
Decreasing temperature, in this case, has lower effect on the final failure mode of the compression tests of the unidirectional plies in longitudinal and transverse directions at various temperatures in comparison with the previous one. Experimental magnitudes of shear strength and modulus at different temperatures are compared in Figure 17. In the case of shear loading, low temperature has major effect on mechanical properties of composites.
Experimental values of shear strength and modulus for cross ply laminates at different temperatures
Temperature effects on mechanical properties of UD composites which are plotted in Figure 15 to Figure 17 can be assessed also using a regression function defined by:
where,
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Longitudinal compressive strength | \n\t\t\t0.0093 | \n\t\t\t1.5706 | \n\t\t\t604.05 | \n\t\t\t0.9575 | \n\t\t
Transverse compressive strength | \n\t\t\t0.0121 | \n\t\t\t0.3784 | \n\t\t\t124.04 | \n\t\t\t0.9678 | \n\t\t
Longitudinal tensile strength | \n\t\t\t0.0098 | \n\t\t\t0.3808 | \n\t\t\t718.52 | \n\t\t\t0.9642 | \n\t\t
Transverse tensile strength | \n\t\t\t0.0010 | \n\t\t\t0.0789 | \n\t\t\t70.390 | \n\t\t\t0.9622 | \n\t\t
In-plane shear strength | \n\t\t\t0.0058 | \n\t\t\t0.0341 | \n\t\t\t65.339 | \n\t\t\t0.9682 | \n\t\t
Longitudinal modulus | \n\t\t\t0.0011 | \n\t\t\t0.0326 | \n\t\t\t22.800 | \n\t\t\t0.9666 | \n\t\t
Transverse modulus | \n\t\t\t0.0007 | \n\t\t\t0.0420 | \n\t\t\t6.1913 | \n\t\t\t0.9920 | \n\t\t
In-plane shear modulus | \n\t\t\t0.0002 | \n\t\t\t0.0184 | \n\t\t\t2.477 | \n\t\t\t0.9769 | \n\t\t
Material constants and correlation coefficients -60 °C ≤ T ≤ 23 °C
Quasi-isotropic lay-up ([0/±45/90]2s) was used in this study for tensile tests at room temperature and -60 °C. For this reason, thin laminate composed of ten plies of reinforcement with epoxy resin were fabricated with considered configuration, giving a laminate approximately 2 mm in thickness. For laminate with stress concentration, a central hole was made by a machine. Woven glass/epoxy tabs with tapered ends were locally bonded on each side of the specimens. These tabs allow a smooth load transfer from the grip to the specimen especially for low temperature test. All specimens had a constant cross section with tabs bonded to the ends. The geometry of the specimen with stress concentration for tensile tests is shown in Figure 18.
Geometry of the specimen with stress concentration for tensile test at room temperature and -60°C
The first component of the PDM is finite element stress analysis. Consider a composite plate with/without stress concentration (Figure 18). The plate has width w = 25 mm, length l =170 mm, thickness t = 2 mm and central hole D = 6 mm (if applicable). The plate is a laminated composite with quasi-isotropic ply orientation. A two dimensional macro code by APDL of ANSYS [33] is developed to perform finite element analysis. In this paper, the 8-node layered element SHELL 99 is adopted to model the laminates, which allows up to 250 different material layers in the thickness direction in each element without much increase of counting time. Mechanical properties of a unidirectional laminate at room temperature and -60°C, which is used as initial values in FEM and listed in Table 2, were tested by the present authors [34].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Longitudinal modulus | \n\t\t\t19.94 | \n\t\t\t28.65 | \n\t\t
Transverse modulus | \n\t\t\t5.83 | \n\t\t\t11.03 | \n\t\t
Shear modulus | \n\t\t\t2.11 | \n\t\t\t4.21 | \n\t\t
Longitudinal tensile strength | \n\t\t\t700.11 | \n\t\t\t784.98 | \n\t\t
Longitudinal compression strength | \n\t\t\t570.37 | \n\t\t\t731.94 | \n\t\t
Transverse tensile strength | \n\t\t\t69.67 | \n\t\t\t75.2 | \n\t\t
Transverse compression strength | \n\t\t\t122.12 | \n\t\t\t186.22 | \n\t\t
Shear strength | \n\t\t\t68.89 | \n\t\t\t91.22 | \n\t\t
Mechanical properties of GFRP at room and low temperatures
In this table, the script x refers to the fiber direction, and y refers to direction perpendicular to the fiber direction. In this study, the stress resultants are defined as follow:
where
In the above equation,
where
and
The second part of PDM is failure analysis. By using finite element results, at layer level in each element, stiffness reduction is carried out considering five types of damages: fiber and matrix in tension and compression and fiber-matrix shearing modes. To detect them, a set of two dimensional stress based failure criterion is selected. The following Hashin criteria [28] are used to detect five different failure modes. The first two of the failure modes are catastrophic and the others are not.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Fiber tensile failure | \n\t\t\t||
Fiber compressive failure | \n\t\t\t||
Matrix tensile failure | \n\t\t\t||
Matrix compressive failure | \n\t\t\t||
Fiber-Matrix shearing failure | \n\t\t\t
Hashin failure criterian
The last component of PDM is material properties degradation. As failure occurs in a unidirectional ply of a laminate, material properties of that failed ply are changed by a set of sudden material property degradation rules. In the present method after failure occurrence in a ply of the laminate, instead of inducing real crack, the failed region of the unidirectional ply is replaced by an intact ply of lower material properties. A complete set of sudden material property degradation rules for all various failure modes of a unidirectional ply under a uni-axial static stress is explained in the following. The rules must be carefully applied to avoid numerical instabilities during computation by the computer program.
Fiber tension failure
Fiber tension failure mode of a ply is a catastrophic mode of failure and when it occurs, the failed material cannot sustain any type or combination of stresses. Thus, all material properties of the failed ply are reduced, as follows:
where
Fiber compression failure
Fiber compression failure mode of a unidirectional ply is a catastrophic mode of failure and when it occurs, the failed material cannot sustain any type or combination of stresses. Thus, all material properties of the failed ply are reduced. Equations 7 and 8 show this degradation rule.
As mentioned, these two modes of failure are catastrophic, therefore if it occurs, the other modes of failure do not need to also be verified.
Matrix tension failure
In matrix tension failure mode of a ply, that is not catastrophic failure, only matrix direction affected, therefore other material properties are left unchanged. (Eq. 9 and 10)
Matrix compression failure
Matrix compression failure mode results in the same type of damage to the composite ply as the matrix tension failure mode. This mode of failure is not catastrophic; therefore, other material properties are left unchanged:
Fiber-Matrix shear failure
In fiber-matrix shearing failure modes of a ply, the material can still carry load in the fiber and matrix directions, but in-plane shear stress can no longer be carried. This is modeled by reducing the in-plane shear material properties of the failed ply, as follows:
The PDM is an integration of the three important components: stress analysis, failure analysis and material property degradation. The model is capable of simulating the first and final failure load of composite laminates with arbitrary geometry and stacking sequence under tensile static loading at room temperature and -60 °C.
A computer program, the algorithm of which is shown in Figure 19, is established to analyze the failure mechanism of composite plates at low temperatures using APDL of ANSYS. All material properties are set to initial values which are experimentally evaluated by present authors [34]. The initial failure load is calculated by means of an elastic stress analysis. The load is increased step by step. For each given load, the stresses at each integration point are evaluated and the appropriate failure criterion is applied to inspect for possible failure. At the point with failure, the material properties are modified according to the failure mode using a non-zero stiffness degradation factor. Then, the modified Newton–Raphson iteration is carried out until convergence is reached. The convergence tolerance is assumed to be 0.001. This analysis is repeated for each load increment until the final failure occurs and the ultimate strength is determined.
Theoretically, the smaller load increment between successive steps, the more accurate analysis result can be achieved. However, a reasonable load increment should be prescribed to avoid too much analysis time and to ensure accuracy. After sensitivity analysis on load increment, 1 KN is applied in the current model.
The algorithm of progressive damage modeling
The specimens are tested under static tensile loading at room and low temperatures. In each case (with or without stress concentration) at room temperature four specimens and at -60 ºC five coupons were tested to show statistic scatter of experiments. By statistical evaluation (mean values and standard deviation) reliability of results were appraised. The experimental setup for low temperature tests using an environmental chamber is shown in Figure 20.
Environmental chamber for low temperature tests
The average tensile properties such as first ply failure (FPF) load, final failure (FF) load and ultimate strain to failure (USF) for quasi-isotropic laminates with/without stress concentration determined based on results of stress–strain curves from experimental tests and numerical analysis are summarized in Table 4.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t | RT | \n\t\t\t-60ºC | \n\t\t\tRT | \n\t\t\t-60ºC | \n\t\t\tRT | \n\t\t\t-60ºC | \n\t\t\tRT | \n\t\t\t-60ºC | \n\t\t
FPF (KN) | \n\t\t\t2.045 | \n\t\t\t6.28 | \n\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t5.75 | \n\t\t\t3.12 | \n\t\t\t5.62 | \n\t\t\t2.15 | \n\t\t\t4.52 | \n\t\t
FF (KN) | \n\t\t\t13.72 | \n\t\t\t18.27 | \n\t\t\t11.96 | \n\t\t\t16.31 | \n\t\t\t15.58 | \n\t\t\t18.53 | \n\t\t\t13.86 | \n\t\t\t17.37 | \n\t\t
USF | \n\t\t\t0.041 | \n\t\t\t0.036 | \n\t\t\t0.040 | \n\t\t\t0.037 | \n\t\t\t0.056 | \n\t\t\t0.058 | \n\t\t\t0.055 | \n\t\t\t0.057 | \n\t\t
Average test results on glass/epoxy laminated composite at room temperature and -60
Figure 21 and Figure 22 show the failure process predicted by the model at room temperature and -60 ºC, respectively. At the FPF load, a mainly obvious damage around the hole of plate is matrix cracking (see Figure 21a and Figure 22a). By increasing the load, other failure modes are also occurred (see Figure 21b and Figure 22b). At the final failure load, the plate breaks along the transverse direction through the central hole edge, the same as noticed in the experimental tests. In this load, the mainly failure mode is fiber breakage (see Figure 21c and Figure 22c). As shown in the following figures, the failure regions of specimens at -60 ºC at each step is much more than room temperature.
Failure process of plate with stress concentration at room temperature: (a)
Failure process of plate with stress concentration at -60
In all cases, major failure mode was fiber breakage, matrix cracking and fiber-matrix shearing which are shown in the figures by red, pink and blue paints respectively. Other failure modes are also occurred in the final failure but can not be shown in the figures.
Figure 23 illustrates mean values of tensile strength for quasi-isotropic laminate at room temperature and -60 °C with and without stress concentration. This figure also compares experimental results with those obtained from the present finite element model. Results show that strength of laminate increased by decreasing temperature. This is because of change of micromechanical properties of composites at low temperature.
Tensile strength of laminates at different temperatures (a) without (b) with stress concentration
Figure 24 shows typical stress-strain curve for the laminate with stress concentration based on experimental results at room temperature and -60 °C.
Typical stress-strain curve for quasi-isotropic laminate with central hole at room temperature and -60°C
Failure mechanism of tested specimens with central hole at room temperature and -60 °C are different. Figure 25 shows failed specimens at two different temperatures. From a visual inspection, there is a small amount of tab de-bonding near the gage area for both two cases with more fiber pull-out for low temperature specimen. At low temperature, because of the interface between fiber and matrix are much weaker and the fiber debond from the matrix, synchronous with fiber breakage, matrix cracking and a few fiber-matrix shearing were occurred. However, the mainly failure mode for all cases is fiber breakage and matrix cracking.
Failure regions of glass–fiber reinforced epoxy composites at room temperature and -60
Tensile failure behavior of glass/epoxy laminated composite subjected to thermo-mechanical loadings at low temperatures with/without stress concentration was investigated experimentally and numerically. A finite element code was utilized to model the progressive failure analysis of quasi-isotropic composite plates at low temperatures under static loading. For each given load step, the stresses at each integration point are evaluated and the appropriate failure criterion is applied to inspect for possible failure by using Hashin failure criteria. At the point with failure, the material properties are modified according to the failure mode using a non-zero stiffness degradation factor. In case of failure detection, because of nonlinear behavior, the modified Newton–Raphson method was carried out until convergence is reached. This analysis is repeated for each load increment until the final failure occurs and the ultimate strength is determined. Based on the results of the present study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
The stress-strain behavior of UD laminate under tensile loads in longitudinal direction was linear elastic until breakage and the slope of the stress-strain curve and the strength increased about 12% as the temperature decreased to -60 °C. On the other hand, by decreasing temperature, strain to failure decreased slightly about 10%. However, the laminate under transverse tensile loading exhibited insignificant nonlinearity (especially at room temperature) before reaching the maximum stress, which is due to the nature of the plasticity of epoxy.
The UD laminate showed a nonlinear elastic relation between stress and strain under compressive loads in both directions until final failure occurred catastrophically. The compressive strength increased by decreasing temperature (for longitudinal direction 28% and transverse direction 50%) while the strain to failure decreased. But in transverse direction, strain to failure increased by decreasing temperature and against other nonlinear curves, positive curvature was observed.
The UD laminate under in-plane shear loading behaves highly nonlinear for all temperature tests until final failure. Again, in this case, both shear strength and stiffness increased by decreasing temperature in about 32% and 70% respectively. Also nonlinear region decreased by decreasing temperature due to increasing brittleness of epoxy matrix.
Failure type of UD laminates under various loadings was affected by low temperature. It was found that, by decreasing temperature a small amount of tab deboning occurred near the gauge area of specimens in longitudinal tensile loading. Also, because of the interface between fiber and matrix was much weaker at low temperature, fibers deboned the matrix in all test cases. Therefore, it may be concluded that the low temperature affects the micro mechanisms of damage in composite specimen.
From general master curves and illustrated regression function, mechanical properties of unidirectional glass fiber polymeric composites at temperature range of -60 °C to 23 °C can be evaluated.
The stress-strain behavior of laminate under tensile loads was linear elastic until first ply failure (FPF). After this, the behavior of laminate was nonlinear until final failure occurred. This trend was observed for laminated composite with/without stress concentration at both temperatures.
The slope of the stress-strain curve and the strength of laminate increased as the temperature decreased to -60 °C. On the other hand, by decreasing temperature, strain to failure decreased slightly. So, in spite of improvement in strength and stiffness of composites under static loading at low temperatures in comparison with room temperature, their strain to failure under these environmental conditions becomes weaker.
The failure mode of laminated composite at low temperature changes from matrix cracking at FPF to mixed mode failure (fiber breakage, fiber matrix shearing and matrix cracking) at final failure load.
Failure type of laminates under various loadings was affected by low temperature. It was found that, by decreasing temperature a small amount of tab deboning occurred near the gage area with more fiber pull-out. Also, due to weakness of the interface between fiber and matrix at low temperature, fiber debones the matrix. Therefore, it may be concluded that the lower temperature affects the micro mechanisms of damage.
Good agreement was achieved between results from experimental and analytical calculation at room temperature and -60 °C. This agreement also showed the validity of model.
Global Financial Crisis (GFC) has amplified corporate governance (CG) issues across the globe. GFC led to the emergence of new corporate governance. Further, the innovations towards new governance system were strengthened by the dot.com bubble in 2000, which was due to the failure of global giants such as Enron, Tycone, Worldcom followed by the downfall of Satyam Computers Ltd., leading to conflict between micro and macro market structure, stakeholders, regulators, and markets. Since then, many countries started working on governance, managing and controlling ethics in business, and benchmarking the best practices of good corporate governance to protect stakeholders’ interests [1]. The four important dimensions of good corporate governance are ownership structure, board level governance and accountability and transparency.
Many global institutions such as OECD, WB, Harvard University, ., also actively contributed to strengthening the new corporate governance framework for the third-millennium corporates by releasing guidelines/principles from time to time, enabling corporates to become stable, follow due diligence mechanisms. Sarbanes Oxley Act, 2002 [2] was an initiative towards new corporate governance regulation by the United States of America. The act emphasized how boards are built, legal framework to raise standards, ethical code, etc.
It is evident that corporate governance strives to strike a balance between the social and economic goals of the corporate entity. The governance framework encourages the effective use of internal and external resources, creates a transparent mechanism, makes stakeholders accountable. The aim of corporate governance is to align the interest of individuals with that of the corporate and the society.
Corporate governance is classified as a discipline that is legal in nature. The word is derived from the word “gubernare” which in Latin means to steer, which means corporate governance supports steering the Company. The governance function is to oversee the performance of the board in delivering the corporate objectives. The OECD provides a functional definition of CG as a system by which corporations are directed and controlled. CG is defined as “a system of law by which corporations are directed and controlled focusing on the structures to monitor the actions of management and directors thereby mitigating risks [3, 4].
CG tries to strike a balance between economic and social goals among individuals as well as the community. The effective use of resources ensures accountability for all resources responsible for corporates, stakeholders, and society [5]. CG tries to manage the conflicting and diverse interests of all stakeholders. It deals with conducting the affairs of the company with fairness to benefit all its stakeholders. CG is a key element to improve the economic efficiency of a firm. According to Lim, corporate governance reforms are an ongoing process as long as corporations depend on markets and markets are following the rules and compliances governance reforms are continuous.
Corporate governance has become a dynamic aspect of a business. Corporate governance involves the functions of direction and controls. The recent massive corporate failures resulted due to weak corporate governance systems. Corporate failures such as Enron, Xerox, Worldcom, etc., have highlighted the various issues about reporting standards, enhancing stakeholders’ confidence, etc. Since 2001 emphasis was laid down on the governance mechanism to be reinforced to retrieve accuracy and reliability. Over the last two decades, there has been a transformational shift in the various initiatives of governance systems worldwide. CG has become one of the strongest regulatory mechanisms by the governments to enhance transparency and accountability to its stakeholders. The roles and responsibilities of the directors have been well defined to ensure that they are bonded with the legal requirements.
CG is an umbrella term covering the concept and theory. The governance establishes the relationship between boards, regulators, stockholders, auditors including creditors, suppliers, and other interested groups [6]. CG tries to safeguard the interest of investors by making the Board of directors accountable. Good governance is the broader view focusing on the relationship between a company and a range of stakeholders.
Reforming a governance system is a continuous process. These reforms are important and are worth pursuing by the policymakers, corporates, and stakeholders. The new initiations of separating the role of chairman and CEO, introducing non-executive directors, improved corporate disclosures mechanisms, bringing transparency in remuneration, and selection of directors have been highly appreciated by the investors. (Table 1) [7].
S.No | Theory | Summary |
---|---|---|
1 | Agency Theory | Principal delegates work to the agent |
2 | Transaction Cost Economies | Aligning the interest of directors and shareholders |
3 | Stakeholder Theory | Priority is given to stakeholders rather than shareholders |
4 | Stewardship Theory | The directors are treated as stewards and are expected to deliver their best to the corporate and its stakeholders |
5 | Class Hegemony Theory | The directors are empowered to make all the decisions |
6 | Managerial Hegemony Theory | Knowledge of day-to-day operations |
Summary of theories affecting corporate governance development.
(Source: Mallin, A Christine, Corporate Governance, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 12).
The new-age business has wiped off the trade barriers across the global markets. Corporates need to adopt result-oriented approaches to keep their organizations in line with the global competition meeting to access capital pool, attract and retain the best talent. Corporations should accept and understand that their growth requires the cooperation of all the stakeholders. Hence, stakeholders enhance the best corporate governance practices. Corporates need to demonstrate ethical codes in business with strong value systems and principles, accounting and transparency, disclosure and compliance, etc. The only tool that would discuss all these aspects is corporate governance. It not only regulates the market but also tries to improve the economic efficiency of the firm. As this process of improving corporate governance is continuous, policymakers and regulators are always updating the framework to develop new governance trends. Evidence indicates that the institutional investments [8] by the company welcome regular governance reforms. The studies reveal that the investor views this continuous reform process as a help rather than a hindrance [9].
There are many parties involved in reforming the corporate governance codes [10]. These include regulatory bodies, policymakers, research institutions, activists groups, consultants, etc. Shareholders, employees, and customers play an important role. The increase in market capitalization, equity holding of investors has made a significant dent in the concept of separation of ownerships. Boards play a pivotal role in implementing the organizational strategies, developing directional policy framework, supervising and governing the functioning, and ensuring accountability and responsibility. The corporate performance depends directly and indirectly upon the involvement of the board and the governance codes. Every stakeholder is responsible for the business’s success while the employees and directors receive remuneration, shareholders receive the capital return.
The new corporate governance has been understood with various important parameters such as ownership and business landscape, governance framework, rights of shareholders, and boards independence. It is evident from various research studies that corporate governance impacts the stakeholders such as employees, creditors, shareholders, etc. [11], reducing the business and operational risk [12]. Corporate entities with good corporate governance result in trading, strengthen financial markets, and create value. Proper implementation of governance rules/codes makes institutions less corrupt [13]. The standards and methods have to be implemented while working on the accounting policies and legal systems [14, 15].
According to the PWC1’, the shift in the global landscape in which companies operate is expected to change in the next few decades considerably. The research shows a projection of 46% by 2025’ and this shift brings a change in the investment pattern to improve regulatory framework add an effective governance system among the cooperates. Effective governance system both at the board and senior level strategizes on the objectivity of corporate success. As investors and companies are equally responsible for corporate governance, companies are required to demonstrate that they are acting in the best interests of the shareholders, while the investors should demonstrate that they are acting in the interests of stakeholders.
The economic and the global environment play a critical role in forcing the corporates to change the existing business models. The competitive nature of global capital markets made CEOs believe they are prepared to handle high volatile and complex business requirements. The success of an organization depends on the attitudes and mentality of its leaders. Organizational changes occur when leaders remain calm and focused with a clear understanding of the organizational goals. The expansion of economic boundaries has diversified the global marketplaces to exploit the opportunities and remain competitive, resulting in technological up-gradation and cultural diversity. The number of global alliances through mergers and acquisitions increased, improving the skilling and communication methods. The corporates follow a flexible operating strategy with the right mix to succeed to meet global competition. According to a study of the CG practices of BRICS economies, cross-border mergers and acquisitions led to a cultural shift and improved corporate entities’ performance [16]. Research by PWC2 projects that by 2050, the E7 economies could reach 50 percent of the share in the world GDP. It is reported that China would have 20 percent of the world GDP and would become the largest economy, followed by India in second place.
The occurrence of corporate scandals was known to the world with less frequency and magnitude. However, due to the open economic conditions and competition in the markets, the magnitude of fraud increased tremendously, leading to trauma situations among stakeholders. These scandals were not confined to the enterprise alone but were impacting the economic conditions beyond borders. During the 1980s and 1990s, due to unethical practices, many corporate giants failed to leave many questions on the governance framework. These corporate failures have given a new role for corporate governance. The entities’ legal and regulatory framework made the entities do due diligence and compliance, ensuring transparency and accountability. A few of the classic frauds that led to revolutionary changes in corporate governance are detailed in Box 1.
Classic corporate scandals.
Enron, USA, 2001, Accounting fraud | Window dressing of financial statements, lack of internal controls, conflict of interest, unethical behavior, failure of auditors |
---|---|
Xerox Corporation, USA, 2002, Financial fraud | Non-disclosure of true and fair view operating results |
Lehman Brothers, USA, 2008, Financial fraud | Devaluation of assets |
Satyam Computer Services Ltd., India 2009, Accounting Fraud | Unethical behavior, unconvinced role of independent directors, misrepresentation of audit and accounting figures, insider trading |
Kingfisher Airlines Ltd., 2012, India, Governance failure | Huge accumulated losses, nonpayment of taxes, defaulted bank loans, salaries, etc. |
(Source: Authors compilation).
In the context of developing countries, there is a linkage between governance and corruption. If the level of corruption in the country is high, the country’s corporate governance would be weak. Transparency International3, a nonprofit organization, aims to stop corruption in various societies by promoting transparency. The corruption perception index (CPI) provides the ranking of countries having low corruption. In 2020, New Zealand ranked first, followed by Denmark, Finland, Switzerland, and Singapore. All five countries have very strong corporate governance codes [10]. In New Zeland, the corporate governance standards are high by international standards, while Singapore promotes high standards of disclosures relating to level, the structure of ownership and compensation [17], Nordic model of governance give priority to shareholders to control and take long-term responsibility for creating value for shareholders [18].
We discuss below some prominent CG codes and their relevance.
In the United States, the corporate governance concept gained prominence after the landmark scandal of Watergate. As a result, the regulatory and legislative bodies constituted various committees to undertake a forensic audit to find the reasons for the failures leading to creating a Foreign and Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) in 1977. Later the act supported the formation of the Securities and Exchange Commission. The Act contains specific provisions regarding establishing, maintaining, and reviewing internal control systems.
After a subsequent investigation, US regulatory and legislative bodies found out failures that had allowed corporations to make political contributions, legal and bribing officials. Later, the Securities and Exchange Commission’s (SEC), 1970 came into force mandatory internal financial controls for all the listed corporates in the USA. The Tradeway Report highlighted the need for proper environmental controls, functions, and an effective audit committee. The two major scandals Worldcom and Enron, have raised questions on transparency, the role of boards, and their performance. The result was an enactment of the Sarbanes Oxley Act (SOXA), 2002. Since then, greater autonomy was given to SEC.
The modern Companies Act 2006 brought clear statutory statements of directors, their duties, and responsibilities. The Act highlighted the exiting legal framework for companies, role, and responsibilities of directors, auditors, actuaries, shareholders, etc.4 The Companies Act 2006 primarily details the legislation that applies to companies directly. The act has many regulations, orders, and provisions that the companies have to follow. The various codes of corporate governance in the UK Stewardship code 2020, UK CG Code [19], UK CG Code, 2014, Companies Act 2004, Civil Partnership Act 2004.
The Malaysian Corporate Governance framework has a strong foundation for the boards and board-level committees. It clearly states the roles, timely actions, disclosures, integrity reporting methods, risk management initiatives, internal controls, participation of shareholders in annual general meetings, etc. The following are the important codes of corporate governance in Malaysia.
Bursa Malaysia’s Corporate Governance Code, 2013
Amendments to CMSA to empower SC to prosecute CG, 2010
Corporate governance blueprint 2011
Listing Requirements amendment on Related Party Transactions, CG and internal control disclosure, 2012
Bursa Malaysia’s Corporate Governance, 2010
New Malaysian Code on CG, 2017
Malaysian Code of CG, 2000
Lumpur Stock Exchange Listing Requirements, 2001
In 1999, the Government proposed the corporate law reform program Act to provide statutory guidelines to corporates, revised provisions for directors, accounting standards, etc. Australian Listed companies have a unitary board structure. The act has defined eight core principles to companies about their corporate governance structures. The Australian Securities Exchanges (ASX) listing rules mandate the companies to have an audit committee. The board should have 1/3rd members as IDs. The various codes of CG in Australia are Corporate Governance Principles and Recommendations, 2014, 2010, 2007, Principles of Good Corporate Governance and Best Practice Recommendations, 2003, Corporate Governance Report, 2002, 1999.
The culmination of various expert reports submitted to the Government, interventions of the Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Government of India, and the capital market regulator known as the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) have been bundled together as the Code of Corporate Governance. The Companies Act, 2013 has raised the bar for the boards in India. It talked about various compliances that companies must follow, taking into the global environment. The Companies Act, 12 2013 has raised the bar for the boards in India [20]. The act tried to benchmark with global best governance practices. The act highlighted women directors strike gender diversity on boards, enhanced disclosure norms, performance evaluation methods, mandating corporate social responsibility, introducing class actions suits, internal financial controls, and risk management mechanisms, addressing shareholders grievances, etc. The act also elucidated Independent Directors’ role and responsibilities, protecting minority shareholders’ interest, shareholder activism, and insolvency regulation. The latest committee is SEBI’s Kotak Committee Report, 2017. The earlier committees are Companies Act, 2013, JJ Irani Committee Report, 2003, SEBI’s Kumar Mangalam Birla Committee, 2000, CII code, 1998, etc.
The boards are accountable to the company, shareholders, and society at large. Boards are expected to deal fairly with stakeholders. The shift in the governance enhances the board’s responsibilities, independence, quality, and evaluation. OECD Report [21] highlighted the rights of shareholders, their equitable treatment, disclosure, transparency, and role of the board. The governance framework should protect the interest of minority shareholders’ rights in the company. It also facilitates its stakeholders by creating wealth, employment, and a sustainable business environment. The framework should underpin the board’s accountability to corporates and members. In general, there is an increased realization among corporates that corporate governance is a tool to create transparency, accountability, and trust to enhance investment, stability, and growth by value creation. The following Table 2 depicts phase-wise governance issues and various committees.
Phase 1 (1990-2000) | Phase 2 (2000-2010) | Phase 3 (2010-2020) |
---|---|---|
Composition | Board composition, strength, and size | Board Committees, size of the board, etc. |
Disclosure and transparency | Disclosure and transparency | Disclosure and transparency with ethical code of conducts |
Remuneration policy | Remuneration policy and disclosure of Directors remuneration | Remuneration and Nomination committee |
Board Meetings | Board meeting and matters to be reserved for board decision | Mandatory attendance for the specified number of the board meeting, relevant qualifications, legal compliance |
— | Board’s performance evaluation | Board’s evaluation and ESOPs |
— | Orientation and training of directors | Mandatory Training for Directors |
— | Reporting mechanism – Directors Report | Business Responsibility Report |
— | — | CG 2.0 |
— | RBC 1 | RBC 2 |
Phase-wise governance issues and various committees.
(Source: Authors’ compilation).
Modern corporate governance emphasizes shareholder value creation. It is treated as an integrated approach considering the rights and interests of stakeholders, social-economic concerns, risk mitigation methods, etc. The following are some of the latest trends in governance empowering the boards and the stakeholders.
Jurisdictions | Key regulators | Ruling body | Members | Representatives from specific entity | Appointments | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Government | Central Bank | Others Public | Others private | |||||
India | SEBI/MCA | Board | 9 | Y | Yes | — | — | Ministry of Finance |
United States | SEC | Commission | 5 | — | — | — | President | |
United kingdom | FCA | Board | 12 | Y | — | Y | — | Treasury |
Australia | ASIC | Commission | 3-8 (5) | — | — | — | — | Government –General |
Singapore | MAS | Board of Directors | 9 | — | — | — | — | President |
Malaysia | SC | Commission | d | Y | Ministry of Finance |
Regulators for corporate governance.
Y – Yes.
(Source: Authors’ compilation).
Jurisdictions | Governance Control | Internal Control | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
AC | NC | RC | RM | Other Committees | |
United States of America | SEC 17 | Yes | Yes (SEC, Rule 10C-1) | Yes | — |
United Kingdom | Yes (UKCG Code, 2018) | Yes | Yes (UKCG Code, 2018) | Enterprise-wide Risk Committee | — |
Australia | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — |
Singapore | Yes (Audit Committee Code Principle 12 Code Guideline 12.1,12.9) | Yes | Yes (Code principle 8 and 9) | Yes | Executive Committee |
Malaysia | Yes (MCCG Paragraph 15.17 of Bursa’s Listing Requirements) | Yes(MCCG Paragraph 6.2 of Bursa’s Listing Requirements) | Yes | Yes (MCCG [22], Paragraph 15.25of Bursa Malaysia Listing Requirements) | Committee Shareholders |
India | Yes (Section 177) | Yes [Section 178(1) to (4)] | Yes (Section 178(1) to (4)) | Yes | Shareholders Committee (Section 178(5) to (8)), CSR Committee Section 135), |
Governance and internal committees.
(Authors’ compilation).
Table 4 details the governance control and internal control committees in various countries. India mandates the Audit, nomination, and remuneration committee, CSR Committee, Stakeholders Grievance Redressal committee for all the listed companies. In Singapore, some companies have a common Audit and Risk Management Committee.
Independent Directors act as coaches and mentors to companies. The role of an independent director is very enhanced in the present context. They help in improving credibility and governance standards by working and helping in managing risk. The most significant contribution of the IDs must enhance the competence of the board to take the objectives and decisions. Independent directors are responsible for ensuring better governance by actively involving in various committees constituted by the company. IDs are truly independent and have the right to question the board in all its decisions.
A lead director is a board member who is an independent member of the board elects. The Lead Director has certain important duties relating to the board [23]. This Director often is the chair of the governance committee of the board. SEC and NASDAQ required listed companies with non-independent chairpersons to elevate one of their independent directors to the position of lead directors. The lead Director maintains good relationships and functions with the board and the stakeholders [24].
Board evaluation ensures a good understanding of the directors’ duties, adopts effective governance practice, and protects the community and shareholders. Board evaluation would help the directors to have an enhanced role and act in good faith in promoting the interest of the stakeholders. Higgs Report, 2003 was one among the first board performance evaluation reports which highlighted the role and effective functioning of independent directors in the UK. Board evaluation examines the role of the board and the entailing responsibilities and assesses how effectively the board fulfills these. By doing so, the boards can identify the key challenges faced by the organization and add real value to corporates. OECD’s5 has identified four dimensions of board evaluations. Board evaluation includes (i) Monitoring and risk management, which highlights parameters such as compliance, law, regulation, whistleblower approach, related party transactions, conflict, etc., (ii) Strategy and business involving innovation, growth, value creation, network connections, etc., (iii) composition and diversity includes gender, skill, integrity, independence, knowledge, etc. (iv) board dynamics and process details on commitment, engagement, preparation, schedule, etc.
The heterogeneous composition of age, gender, education, race, lifestyle, culture, experience, nationality, religion, and many facets that make us unique is called diversity. Although the board deals with the external environment of the corporate [25], directors’ as members appointed on Board, their experience and their equity ownership in the firm resulted in the board heterogeneity [26]. For example, 59 percent of the directors in S&P 500 companies were women or were men belonging to a racial or ethnic minority group. [27]. Research findings depict that diversity and inclusion benefit individuals, teams, and society. In contrast, women at the top of the leadership ladder express interest in an organization and perceive the organizational objectives [28].
Activism is a broad spectrum. Shareholder activism includes shareholders’ voting rights, discussions forums, behavioral influences, communications, resolutions, shareholder meetings, etc. It is a powerful tool that shareholders have to influence a corporate by exercising their rights as company owners. Recently, this movement has moved across companies in all sectors. As a result, shareholders can assert their rights and power as owners of the Company. It involves the shareholders’ efforts to bring desired changes in the operation of companies and influence the management on the governance mechanism and protect the interest of the shareholder. Through this, they create value by acting as a positive catalyst for corporate growth a [29].
Technological advancement created opportunity and risk. The sheer growth in the size of companies has become more complex, and their dependence on the online cloud platforms has become necessary. There has been a transformational shift in the technology application in the board room. An E-voting facility has been introduced. Most of the companies are engaged in data management using AI and cloud-based technology to safeguard the data. Companies have adapted e-tendering for calling the procurement tenders. The evaluation of tenders is also done online. An increase in strong security systems has reduced cybercrimes.
These are emerging and hotly debated issues in the realm of corporate governance. The compensation to the CEOs has gone through the roof and is termed as “abusive”. Under “No Disclosure Agreement”, companies are not obliged to disclose the amount of compensation and the bonuses given after the tenure or as part of severance packages. Such abusive compensation is not even linked to scientific parameters. However, some companies have started linking CEO compensation to ESG parameters. The overall performance of the board and board members are also gaining currency. ESG parameters and contribution to strategic decision-making is employed to evaluate the Board’s performance. Risk management has gained a huge spotlight as a corporate governance parameter. The risk could include the nature of political, product, market, and financial factors. Responsible business conduct is a new dimension that is replacing corporate social responsibility.
An efficient, effective, and futuristic corporate governance is considered the hallmark of sound business management. Corporate governance encompasses the internal and external dynamics of controlling and directing business. A quality board supported by professionally managed board committees, well-oiled internal control machinery, transparent reporting and compliance, non-abusive compensations to key managerial personnel and CEOs, safeguard against related party transactions, and weaving the company operations with the thread of ESG could ensure a company to be corporate governance compliant. Good corporate governance is sine – qua – non for the financial stability of corporates and economies, on the one hand, and builds confidence among the investors, on the other.
As corporate governance is associated mostly with listed companies, the unlisted companies have not complied with corporate governance norms. Many countries do not mandate corporate governance codes for unlisted companies. To bring the unlisted companies under the governance framework is a bigger challenge for governments as the companies are characterized in various sectors. But some government is trying to create an effective internal and external mechanism for unlisted companies to improve the socio-economic growth of the Company. Larger companies that are unlisted are brought under the scan of the Government in terms of their ownership structures, professional management, transparency, awareness, etc. One of the major challenges countries would face making unlisted companies comply with corporate governance codes.
ASIC | Australian Securities and Investment Commission |
CEO | Chief executive officer |
CG | Corporate Governance |
CSR | Corporate Social Responsibility |
ERM | Enterprise Risk Management |
ESG | Environment, social and governance |
FCA | Financial Conduct Authority |
GFC | Global Financial Crisis |
ID | Independent Directors |
MCA | Ministry of Corporate Affairs |
PWC | Price Waterhouse Cooper |
RBC | Responsible Business Conduct |
SC | Securities Commission |
SEBI | Securities Exchange Board of India |
SEC | Securities Exchange Commission |
SOX | Sarbanes Oxley |
UK | United Kingdom |
USA | United States of America |
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links.
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In both responses, there are several activated cells of the immune system, which play a key role in establishing the environment of cytokines, thus directing their differentiation either suppressing or promoting the immune response. This immune response is crucial against pathogen infections. In this chapter, we will describe the crucial role played by different families of cytokines during activation of the immune system to eliminate infectious pathogens.",book:{id:"6963",slug:"immune-response-activation-and-immunomodulation",title:"Immune Response Activation and Immunomodulation",fullTitle:"Immune Response Activation and Immunomodulation"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz-Carrillo, Juan Francisco Contreras-Cordero,\nOscar Gutiérrez-Coronado, Paola Trinidad Villalobos-Gutiérrez,\nLuis Guillermo Ramos-Gracia and Viridiana Elizabeth Hernández-Reyes",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"},{id:"233193",title:"Dr.",name:"Paola Trinidad",middleName:null,surname:"Villalobos-Gutiérrez",slug:"paola-trinidad-villalobos-gutierrez",fullName:"Paola Trinidad Villalobos-Gutiérrez"},{id:"254015",title:"Dr.",name:"Viridiana Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Reyes",slug:"viridiana-elizabeth-hernandez-reyes",fullName:"Viridiana Elizabeth Hernández-Reyes"},{id:"257472",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Gracia",slug:"luis-guillermo-ramos-gracia",fullName:"Luis Guillermo Ramos-Gracia"}]},{id:"33741",doi:"10.5772/36947",title:"Fundamentals and Applications of Immunosensors",slug:"fundamentals-and-applications-of-immunosensors",totalDownloads:5037,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"1499",slug:"advances-in-immunoassay-technology",title:"Advances in Immunoassay Technology",fullTitle:"Advances in Immunoassay Technology"},signatures:"Carlos Moina and Gabriel Ybarra",authors:[{id:"110541",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Moina",slug:"carlos-moina",fullName:"Carlos Moina"},{id:"110556",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Ybarra",slug:"gabriel-ybarra",fullName:"Gabriel Ybarra"}]},{id:"53240",doi:"10.5772/66380",title:"Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms and their Impact on the Medical Field",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-biofilms-and-their-impact-on-the-medical-field",totalDownloads:3807,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Despite the discovery of antibiotics, the battle against bacteria is so far in their favor, specifically because bugs are able to develop a superstructure named biofilm, to resist and to survive in the environment. Nosocomial infections, a major health problem, are due at 80% to biofilm‐associated infection, and Staphylococcus aureus is the leading bacteria species in this domain. Moreover, the antimicrobial resistance of this bacterial community is accentuated when it is formed by superbugs such as methicillin‐resistant S. aureus (MRSA). In this chapter, the mechanism and the physiology of S. aureus biofilm as well as their consequences in the clinical domains are described. To complete the vision on S. aureus biofilms, some “anti‐biofilm” strategies will be highlighted.",book:{id:"6045",slug:"the-rise-of-virulence-and-antibiotic-resistance-in-staphylococcus-aureus",title:"The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Fany Reffuveille, Jérôme Josse, Quentin Vallé, Céline Mongaret and\nSophie C. Gangloff",authors:[{id:"54351",title:"Prof.",name:"Sophie C.",middleName:null,surname:"Gangloff",slug:"sophie-c.-gangloff",fullName:"Sophie C. Gangloff"},{id:"190356",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fany",middleName:null,surname:"Reffuveille",slug:"fany-reffuveille",fullName:"Fany Reffuveille"},{id:"191408",title:"Dr.",name:"Jérome",middleName:null,surname:"Josse",slug:"jerome-josse",fullName:"Jérome Josse"},{id:"203850",title:"Dr.",name:"Quentin",middleName:null,surname:"Vallé",slug:"quentin-valle",fullName:"Quentin Vallé"},{id:"203852",title:"Dr.",name:"Céline",middleName:null,surname:"Mongaret",slug:"celine-mongaret",fullName:"Céline Mongaret"}]},{id:"68185",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88013",title:"Macrophages: The Potent Immunoregulatory Innate Immune Cells",slug:"macrophages-the-potent-immunoregulatory-innate-immune-cells",totalDownloads:2203,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Macrophages are ubiquitously present innate immune cells in humans and animals belonging to both invertebrates and vertebrates. These cells were first recognized by Elia Metchnikoff in 1882 in the larvae of starfish upon insertion of thorns of tangerine tree and later in Daphnia magna or common water flea infected with fungal spores as cells responsible for the process of phagocytosis of foreign particles. Elia Metchnikoff received the Noble prize (Physiology and Medicine) for his discovery and describing the process of phagocytosis in 1908. More than 130 years have passed and different subtypes and roles of macrophages as innate immune cells have been established by the researchers. In addition to their immunoregulatory role in immune homeostasis and pathogenic infection, they also play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of sterile inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, obesity, and cancer. The present chapter describes the immunoregulatory role of macrophages in the homeostasis and inflammatory diseases varying from autoimmunity to metabolic diseases including obesity.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Vijay Kumar",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56849",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Innate Immune Response Against Pathogens",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-innate-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:6143,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. The innate response is characterized by being the first line of defense that occurs rapidly in which leukocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, etc., are involved. These cells recognize the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which have been evolutionarily conserved by the diversity of microorganisms that infect humans. Recognition of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns occurs through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors and some other intracellular receptors such as nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), with the aim of amplifying the inflammation and activating the adaptive cellular immune response, through the antigenic presentation. In the present chapter, we will review the importance of the main components involved in the innate immune response, such as different cell types, inflammatory response, soluble immune mediators and effector mechanisms exerted by the immune response against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; all with the purpose of eliminating them and eradicating the infection of the host.",book:{id:"5975",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",fullTitle:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz Carrillo, Flor Pamela Castro García, Oscar\nGutiérrez Coronado, María Alejandra Moreno García and Juan\nFrancisco Contreras Cordero",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"216082",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-García",slug:"pamela-castro-garcia",fullName:"Pamela Castro-García"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"}]},{id:"53922",title:"Phenotypic Markers and Functional Regulators of Myelomonocytic Cells",slug:"phenotypic-markers-and-functional-regulators-of-myelomonocytic-cells",totalDownloads:2277,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In this chapter, there is a description of hematopoietic stem cells, maturation curve and their differentiation into myeloid cells, including phenotypes and transcription factors involved in this process. Further, we discuss myeloid maturation curve from myeloid precursor, monoblast, premonocyte to monocytes, and also monocytes subsets regarding their CD14 and CD16 expressions and related functions in health and disease. In addition, we reason about the differentiation from monocytes either in dendritic cells or in macrophages in vitro using differential growth factors; these cells are differentiated from those found in vivo being named as monocyte-derived cells. Furthermore, we explore distinguished phenotype of monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells monocyte-derived in vitro, using confocal microscopy and flow cytometry, in order to display morphological and phenotypic differences among them.",book:{id:"5484",slug:"biology-of-myelomonocytic-cells",title:"Biology of Myelomonocytic Cells",fullTitle:"Biology of Myelomonocytic Cells"},signatures:"Luciana Cavalheiro Marti, Nydia Strachman Bacal, Laiz Camerão\nBento and Fernanda Agostini Rocha",authors:[{id:"190705",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Marti",slug:"luciana-marti",fullName:"Luciana Marti"},{id:"196049",title:"Dr.",name:"Nydia",middleName:null,surname:"Bacal",slug:"nydia-bacal",fullName:"Nydia Bacal"},{id:"196050",title:"MSc.",name:"Laiz",middleName:null,surname:"Cameirão",slug:"laiz-cameirao",fullName:"Laiz Cameirão"},{id:"196051",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:"Agostini",surname:"Rocha",slug:"fernanda-rocha",fullName:"Fernanda Rocha"}]},{id:"54824",title:"Dendritic Cells: Location, Function, and Clinical Implications",slug:"dendritic-cells-location-function-and-clinical-implications",totalDownloads:4436,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen-presenting cells derived from bone marrow precursors and form a widely distributed cellular system throughout the body. DCs exert immune-surveillance for exogenous and endogenous antigens and the later activation of naive T lymphocytes giving rise to various immunological responses. Different growth factors and cytokines can modulate the differentiation and function of DCs, GM-CSF, M-CSF, Flt3, and TGF-β, resulting in a large variety of DCs with different functional abilities. Thus, DCs are classified as plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs), conventional DCs (cDCs), and DCs derived from monocytes (mDCs). Functionally, the cDCs may be divided into two states: immature and mature. Immature DCs are specialist in uptaking and processing antigens; in contrast, mature DCs are professional in antigen presentation. It has been observed that immature cDCs can induce immune tolerance while mature cDCs may induce Th2 or Th1 immune responses. It is worth noting that different subpopulations of DCs have the ability to secrete different cytokine patterns, resulting in the induction of different immunological responses. Furthermore DCs are involved in the pathophysiology of several diseases such as contact hypersensitivity, autoimmune diseases, or cancer, but they can also be used as therapeutic tools in these conditions.",book:{id:"5484",slug:"biology-of-myelomonocytic-cells",title:"Biology of Myelomonocytic Cells",fullTitle:"Biology of Myelomonocytic Cells"},signatures:"Andrés Castell-Rodríguez, Gabriela Piñón-Zárate, Miguel Herrera-\nEnríquez, Katia Jarquín-Yáñez and Iliana Medina-Solares",authors:[{id:"190753",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrés",middleName:"Eliú",surname:"Castell-Rodríguez",slug:"andres-castell-rodriguez",fullName:"Andrés Castell-Rodríguez"},{id:"191880",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Piñón-Zárate",slug:"gabriela-pinon-zarate",fullName:"Gabriela Piñón-Zárate"},{id:"191881",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Herrera-Enríquez",slug:"miguel-herrera-enriquez",fullName:"Miguel Herrera-Enríquez"},{id:"191882",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:null,surname:"Jarquín-Yáñez",slug:"katia-jarquin-yanez",fullName:"Katia Jarquín-Yáñez"},{id:"204502",title:"BSc.",name:"Iliana",middleName:null,surname:"Medina-Solares",slug:"iliana-medina-solares",fullName:"Iliana Medina-Solares"}]},{id:"63913",title:"Cytokine Profiling Plays a Crucial Role in Activating Immune System to Clear Infectious Pathogens",slug:"cytokine-profiling-plays-a-crucial-role-in-activating-immune-system-to-clear-infectious-pathogens",totalDownloads:3517,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response that recognizes pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. In both responses, there are several activated cells of the immune system, which play a key role in establishing the environment of cytokines, thus directing their differentiation either suppressing or promoting the immune response. This immune response is crucial against pathogen infections. 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Nosocomial infections, a major health problem, are due at 80% to biofilm‐associated infection, and Staphylococcus aureus is the leading bacteria species in this domain. Moreover, the antimicrobial resistance of this bacterial community is accentuated when it is formed by superbugs such as methicillin‐resistant S. aureus (MRSA). In this chapter, the mechanism and the physiology of S. aureus biofilm as well as their consequences in the clinical domains are described. To complete the vision on S. aureus biofilms, some “anti‐biofilm” strategies will be highlighted.",book:{id:"6045",slug:"the-rise-of-virulence-and-antibiotic-resistance-in-staphylococcus-aureus",title:"The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Fany Reffuveille, Jérôme Josse, Quentin Vallé, Céline Mongaret and\nSophie C. 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