\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Prof. Kutcherov and his international collaborators have published a set of papers in PNAS, Nature Geoscience, Review of Geophysics, where the possibility of abiogenic synthesis of complex hydrocarbon systems was convincingly demonstrated.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Royal Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"156440",title:"Dr.",name:"Anton",middleName:null,surname:"Kolesnikov",slug:"anton-kolesnikov",fullName:"Anton Kolesnikov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156440/images/system/156440.jpg",biography:'Dr. Anton Kolesnikov was born on September 16th,1983, in Moscow, Russia, where he still lives. 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Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",slug:"ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vulnerable-populations",body:'Randomised control trials have existed in medicine since the 1940s [1]. Many iterations of guidelines to govern their use in research to protect vulnerable populations that have historically been abused for the betterment of science. Unfortunately, with a concept as abstract as ethics in clinical research, there is no universal consensus, and one may argue for or against their use with equal vigour depending on the specific circumstances of the trial [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
Ethics of conducting clinical trials, particularly placebo-controlled trials (PCTs) in low-to-middle-income-countries (LMICs), is controversial. The emergence of placebo-controlled vaccine clinical trials against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has renewed interest in the debate. According to the World Bank Group (2021) [6], LMICs are defined as countries in the developing world with a gross national income per capita of $1046–$4095. The need for clinical trials to be conducted in LMICs is paramount to bridging the health gap, a concept so starkly highlighted in the recent pandemic. Medical research in these countries requires proper adjudication and protection to maximise benefits and deter potential harm [7].
Pharmaceutical companies tend to pursue these communities, capitalising on lower costs, fewer restrictions, and weaker local standards [8]. In 2008, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) published its decision to abandon the Declaration of Helsinki (DoH) as an ethical guideline when conducting and reviewing data from clinical trials conducted outside the United States of America (USA). As a result, there is limited protection for LMICs where USA-based companies conduct clinical trials [9]. The responsibility to uphold moral ethics thus shifts to the local investigators and review boards [9]. The limited protection referenced above pertains to the Good Clinical Practices of the Conference of International Harmonisation (ICH-GCP) being more flexible when choosing comparator drugs in clinical trials [10]. Article 33 in the DoH outlines stricter criteria for using placebo as an alternative to best proven intervention [7]. ICH-GCP, however, has no enforceable article guiding the choice of comparator leaving the decision to the study designer and review board’s discretion [10]. Consequentially, this avenue is open for exploitation in LMICs where scientific knowledge and ethics are comparatively weaker [8]. Together, the DoH and ICH-GCP should govern the impact clinical trials have in vulnerable communities, however, there is more nuance to the situation [1, 2, 3].
To ensure exploitation does not occur, participants must not be exposed to excessive risk and must understand the difference between clinical trials and clinical medicine [1, 5, 6, 7]. To participate in a trial, you willingly join an experimental process rather than have a therapy tailored to your medical needs [2, 3, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. We will discuss the aspects of trials as a whole and why LMICs are vulnerable to this exploitation, explore the concept of clinical equipoise, and discuss PCTs in the setting of COVID-19 vaccine trials during the pandemic.
All manner of ethical research necessitates non-use of undue influence to garner research participant compliance [7, 8, 10]. However, what may seem negligible to cause undue influence in developed countries, could very well double or even be whole income for a household in LMICs that suffer from poverty, poor living conditions and no access to running water. For these reasons, it’s imperative to consider the medical benefits of clinical trials [9].
In LMICs, there is a prevailing lack of access to healthcare [11]. Clinical trials offer the opportunity for recruited participants to receive healthcare not otherwise available to them [1, 2, 3, 4, 8]. The DoH states: “medical research within a vulnerable group is only justified if the research is responsive to the health needs...” [7]. This highlights an obvious gap in the protection of these populations which is easily exploited if not appropriately safeguarded. The argument for choice of comparator weighs heavily on this point. Internationally, there is a call for using “best available standard” when designing clinical trials. However, in LMICs, there is no legal basis enforcing an international gold standard over a locally available comparator choice [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Problems arise when conducting clinical trials in LMICs where there is no “locally available standard”. In vaccine trials, specifically where cold chain continuation is paramount, there’s advocation against use of the international gold standard should the target country have insufficient infrastructure to ensure preservation of drug.
Multiple publications reference the lack of ethics conducting clinical trials in LMICs [7, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Major challenges noted include: incomplete ethical regulations and guidance, limited knowledge of science, language barriers between researchers, sponsors and communities, and insufficient financial and material resources of local authorities to govern the conduct of clinical trials. Exploitation of LMICs is well documented throughout history. In 1994, the ACTG 076 trial involved in reviewing low-cost regimes of antiretroviral drugs to prevent mother to child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), was rife with controversy. Placebo was administered despite having proven knowledge that zidovudine is effective in prevention of vertical transmission of HIV [8, 22]. Another example was a rotavirus vaccine trial conducted in India from 2011 to 2012. The use of placebo as comparator, despite availability of two internationally registered vaccines recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO), and one locally registered vaccine. As a result, more than 3000 out of 7500 randomised children were exposed to rotavirus and associated risks [23]. Such use of placebo would be unacceptable in developed countries and the expectation that LMICs should carry this burden is unjust.
The cardinal pillars of medical ethics are autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. All manner of clinical research takes heed of these pillars and can be described and applied in a myriad of ways [24].
Risk exposure must be justified; any resulting scientific knowledge gains should be significant enough to warrant inconveniencing and risking the population of unknown health outcomes for the greater good [1, 8]. There are certain areas of research that are better conducted in LMICs based on the endemic nature of diseases such as HIV and tuberculosis (TB) [19]. Populations are thus able to benefit directly from the trial as participants. The common shortfall is post-trial access to the tested intervention. There is massive debate on the responsibility of stakeholders to provide post-trial access to drugs. Some cite reciprocal justice to participants, while others cite practicality of large-scale rollouts being the jurisdiction of government entities [19]. Clinical trials in LMICs need to account for these factors during study design to ensure value.
Studies should be designed to answer specific questions, using research methods that are valid, and feasible [8]. Poor scientific reasoning and application of research trials damages the perception of clinical research. In the realm of LMICs it can be deleterious to future relationships in garnering support for clinical trials. Standards in LMICs may permit approval of fallacious studies by local authorities without better knowledge or insight. It is the responsibility of sponsors to ensure this avenue of exploitation is protected to the level of the country of origin [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 18].
Uncertainty about the degree of risks and benefits associated with a treatment is implicit in clinical research [8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. Clinical research is not conducted to provide health care though it is often a beneficial by-product [1, 2, 3, 4, 8]. When looking to conduct trials in LMICs and other vulnerable populations, there needs to be increased emphasis on these benefits [7]. Maintaining a favourable ratio requires the use of interim reviews during a study to timeously detect whether an intervention arm (active or control) is associated with increased risk. Should this occur, research should be stopped to allow the protection of participants [24].
An independent review panel, with no vested interest in the outcome of the trial, should review proposal validity and ensure its integrity [8]. This is generally done by Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) and Research Ethics Committees (RECs). In high income countries, these committees comprise of highly qualified and experienced individuals who are well-suited to manage complex ethical issues. Their role serves to make sound, consistent and ethical decisions on matters related to patient safety. There is trepidation that IRBs and RECs in LMICs may not be adequately equipped to protect the human rights of clinical trial participants, due to lack of financial and material resources, inadequate training of members, lack of diversity of membership, lack of independence and inability to monitor approved protocols [21]. As a result, there may be inconsistencies in the review process outcomes thus compromising patient safety. Some countries intentionally weaken their regulatory framework to encourage foreign investment through externally sponsored research [24]. These shortcomings are historically exploited to conduct research in LMICs that would never pass the review process in the country of origin [24].
Participants must decide, independently and without duress, to take part in research [8, 24]. Subjects must be appropriately informed of the purpose, method, risks, benefit, and alternatives to research [24]. Furthermore, subjects must be made to understand these factors and how they apply to their situation. In LMICs, a common roadblock is language and minimum level of education [18, 21]. At times it is difficult to know the degree of participants understanding especially when translators are used [21]. Even in developed countries, the understanding of what a PCT is can be lacking.
Confidentiality and ensuring informed voluntary participation are the hallmarks of respecting autonomy of subjects [8]. Abiding by a subject’s wishes to withdraw consent and discontinue from a trial without consequence is important [24]. Sharing information that arises from interim review of previously unknown adverse events is the responsibility of research staff, even though it may change the subject’s opinion on the risks and benefits of participation [24]. In LMICs there is a role for Community Advisory Boards (CABs) to advocate for trial participants and promote the ethical conduct of clinical trials [20]. In South Africa, CABs are used to protect the interests of participants on HIV and TB drug trials. Their main roles have been preventing exploitation and building capacity for research in communities. By consisting of community members and encouraging interest in research by the individual in a community, CABs bring the value of research to the home country. Assisting in advancing research goals, their use has had positive benefit in information distribution and recruitment for trials [25].
The Covid-19 pandemic augmented the effects of resource deficiency in LMICs. In such countries, where healthcare access is limited under normal circumstances, the added burden of a pandemic will and has caused vast morbidity and mortality. In India alone, there was an estimated 30,000–50,000 ventilators available to service a projected 1 million people with severe disease requiring ventilation during the peak of their first COVID-19 wave [26]. Access to oxygen in LMICs has been a challenge, with many hospitals running out of oxygen amidst a massive surge in patients due to COVID-19. During these periods, many hospitals in LMICs had an additional shortage of beds and staff [26]. The development of life-saving vaccines against Covid-19 can mitigate this devastation, by preventing severe disease completely and limiting hospitalisation. With development and initial distribution of vaccines occurring predominantly in the western world’s high-income countries, a potentially faster way for LMICs to receive any form of Covid-19 vaccination is through clinical trials. While controversial, it cannot be overstated (especially given the critical nature of the pandemic), that there is a need for clinical trials to collaborate with communities in LMICs and involve them in research of novel and affordable versions of these vaccines. This will provide them all the benefits of early access and equip their governments with tools to advance a vaccine rollout plan, while the scientific world benefits from the data they provide.
Figure 1 [27] is from the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, showing countries with inter-agency humanitarian response plan (HRP). This graph depicts the vaccine coverage of population, provided by developed countries to HRP countries. This clearly depicts the health gap, the inequity of vaccine rollouts on a global scale.
Estimated percent of population covered by delivered vaccines to HRP countries (based on two doses), as of 31 December 2021 [
The genetic sequence of SARS-CoV-2 was published early in January of 2020. A global research and development effort followed to develop a safe and efficacious vaccine. Human clinical testing of the first vaccine candidate started in March 2020 [28]. At that time there was no doubt that PCTs were ethical and the preferred trial design to test potential Covid-19 vaccines.
A global pandemic is a highly dynamic situation and regular change in the clinical landscape can be expected. Ethical and moral considerations will also change as new developments unfold and new information becomes available. These considerations will be influenced by existing global inequality and a lack of resources in LMICs. The moment a safe and efficacious Covid-19 vaccine became available, it opened the ethical debate as to how long it will stay ethical to continue using PCTs.
Most of the arguments in favour of continuing the use of PCTs in Covid-19 vaccines stems from a document published in The New England Journal of Medicine by the WHO Ad Hoc Expert Group on the Next Steps for Covid-19 Vaccine Evaluation in January 2021 [29]. More than a year later, one could argue that this information is now outdated, but even though the global vaccine situation has changed dramatically, the WHO has not released any new guidelines.
The WHO Ad Hoc Expert Group stated that initial vaccine roll-out will be slow and in limited quantities. This would provide an opportunity to ethically obtain socially valuable data. Data could then be used to improve regulatory and public health decision making. Better data would lead to increasing public and professional confidence in vaccines [29].
Rapid vaccination of large numbers of people will inevitably cause the vaccine to seem temporarily associated with some uncommon side effects. A large, simple PCT could identify any rare short-term side-effects or show the absence of such side-effects. These probably unrelated events occurring by chance after vaccination, may incorrectly be attributed to the vaccine [29]. Groups opposed to vaccination may deliberately spread these anecdotes and cause vaccine hesitancy [29, 30].
Randomised, noninferiority trials can provide clinically relevant data but according to the WHO, “at considerable cost to efficiency”. PCTs would assist with earning broad public confidence required for widespread vaccine acceptance. A PCT is still the scientific gold standard for testing any new intervention and alternative designs could yield inferior data [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. Even following the availability of the first vaccines, it is still crucial to further evaluate candidate vaccines to meet the global needs. Observational data obtained from non-randomised studies after vaccine deployment could yield inaccurate answers and suffer from substantial biases [29].
The obligations researchers have to participants are not the same as those clinicians have towards patients [32, 33]. Proper informed consent would allow participants to voluntarily enrol in a trial and accept some risks to collect socially valuable data. In this unparalleled global crisis, billions of individuals might benefit from finding a new safe and efficacious vaccine, and thus some participants might enrol in PCTs because of altruistic reasons [29].
Those in favour of continuing to use PCTs in Covid-19 vaccines, argue that research-ethics guidelines such as the DoH and the Council for International Organizations of Medical Science (CIOMS) Guidelines were not written with Emergency Use Designation (EUD) of vaccines in mind [29]. A vaccine approved under EUD does not render it “best proven intervention” or an “established effective intervention” [29].
In January 2020 the WHO stated verbatim that trial sponsors are not ethically obligated to unblind participants who desire to obtain a different investigational vaccine [29]. As with any clinical trial, participants would still have the option to withdraw from the trial and the WHO did not comment on this probability when engaging with participants who request unblinding.
Several Covid-19 vaccines have been approved for emergency use, with some vaccines already receiving full approval from various regulatory authorities across the world. These vaccines have been proven to have high levels of efficacy and safety [36].
Once there is an available vaccine, with high level of safety and efficacy, new candidate vaccines should be tested against approved vaccines. Ongoing PCTs of Covid-19 vaccine candidates should be unblinded [37]. Continuation of PCTs of new vaccines in conditions where efficacious vaccines already exist, contravenes the bioethics principle of beneficence. It will be in direct conflict with the participants’ best interests. It puts them at a disadvantage compared to people who are not on the trial.
Researchers have a duty not to harm participants in clinical trials. In using placebo, researchers fail to provide protection against a deadly pandemic, as various Covid-19 vaccines have been proven to be safe, efficacious, and available [36]. The harm participants in the control group are exposed to is not minor [38]. There are limitations in current treatment options, thus it is in everyone’s own interest to take the first vaccine found to be safe, instead of participating in a PCT.
Ravinetto [39] stated that an ethical strategy cannot be built on an unethical premise. In this case it is the inequitable allocation of vaccines between countries which is in essence unethical. This is a prime example of so-called “ethics dumping”: undertaking research in LMIC settings, which would not be permitted in high income settings. This reverses the principle of benefit sharing in global research. The burden of the research is much higher for the most vulnerable communities, while the benefits are available only to the higher income countries.
In social justice terms, global health research should generate knowledge that improves the health and well-being of disadvantaged and marginalised communities [39, 40]. In the context of Covid-19 these communities are mostly in LMICs, those who lack access to vaccines due to unequal global distribution. Research involving this group should be based on health and social justice, rather than building on the existing structural injustice and exploitation of these groups.
Clinical equipoise can be defined as a state of uncertainty or true ambivalence toward the efficacy of a novel therapy in the medical or scientific community [41, 42, 43]. Based on the principle of beneficence if any novel therapy is believed, by consensus, to be efficacious, research subjects should not be denied access to that therapy. Similarly, if the novel therapy is found to cause harm, then it would go against the principle of nonmaleficence to continue that specific candidate as investigational product.
The ethical loophole that supporters of continuing PCTs in Covid-19 vaccine trials in LMICs are using, is based on the fact the so-called local “standard of care” in many LMICs would be no vaccine or very restricted access to a vaccine [40]. Arguing equipoise between placebo and local standard, in settings where vaccines are not yet available, due only to vaccines nationalism and lack of equity, would be unethical. One could argue that the ethical standards applied in the LMICs should be the same as if the research were carried out in the sponsoring country. People should be treated fairly, regardless of where they live.
The WHO states that if vaccines are not properly tested (with continuing PCTs), it might lead to public distrust [29]. However, in the authors’ opinion, using a different set of ethical standards for certain countries just because they are poor, disadvantaged and cannot afford vaccines, could lead to even more distrust and scepticism around how the WHO is dealing with global inequality during a deadly pandemic.
Although those who argue in favour of continuing to use PCTs in Covid-19 vaccines state that randomised control trial is the golden standard for modern clinical decision making [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35], there are various other study designs that could yield good data without endangering or leaving any participants unprotected [37, 38, 39, 40, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. Non-inferiority blinded active control trials can be done to compare trial vaccines to an established vaccine, without leaving any participants unvaccinated [39]. If research can be conducted in several ways, the method that minimises morbidity and loss of human life should be prioritised above a method that supposedly gives scientific results more efficiently, but at a greater risk to the participants.
Various authors have commented on the WHO’s call to altruism aimed at communities in LMICs [39, 40, 44]. To quote the WHO document: “people who enrol in clinical trials would probably understand the value of gathering data that will further elucidate the safety and efficacy of these vaccines and their appropriate use” [29]. This seems to underestimate the complex nature of decision-making regarding participating in a clinical trial by people living in LMICs [49]. The WHO is expecting the people from poor, marginalised and disadvantaged communities to accept that their sacrifice will be for the greater good. Firstly, this sacrifice is per definition not expected from their counterparts in higher income countries. Secondly, the “value of gathering of data” will directly benefit the sponsor country long before it benefits the general population of the LMIC where the trial was conducted.
Ironically, Dr Ghebreyesus, the WHO Director-General, in relation to global vaccine inequity, stated “The world is on the brink of a catastrophic moral failure—and the price of this failure will be paid with lives and livelihoods in the world’s poorest countries” [50]. Now it is the WHO Ad Hoc Expert Group that is essentially giving researchers free reign to continue using PCTs in countries that are too poor to afford vaccines by misusing the clinical equipoise argument and thus further marginalising these vulnerable communities that they are meant to protect.
When conducting trials in LMICs there are certain specific considerations regarding informed consent [33, 34]. The level of literacy in LMICs is lower than in high income countries and thus it is more likely that a participant will have a diminished understanding of what a PCT entails [34]. The authors can reflect on several cases where despite extensive counselling and a thorough informed consent process, participants in various Covid-19 vaccine PCTs, when coming back for subsequent visits, could not recall that they were told of the possibility of having a salt-water injection. This caused great confusion for many participants and highlights the ethical challenges of conducting clinical trials in LMICs.
In many LMICs, some participants are more likely to trust a clinician blindly as it is seen as a sacred profession [40]. The clinician is supposed to act in the patient\'s best interest and the participants cannot be expected to always know the subtle difference between a clinician and an investigator. In some cultures, the clinician is seen as an authority figure and participants find it difficult to say no [40]. Medical care is often limited in LMICs and joining a clinical trial is a way for a participant to gain access to a scarce resource. In many LMICs there is still great uncertainty about the access to vaccines and the people are vulnerable and desperate for any type of help.
The Covid-19 pandemic has led to a massive socio-economic crisis with countless jobs lost. The exact economic effect of Covid-19 on LMICs, will not be discussed in this chapter, but in summary all can agree that the economic situation of many people living in LMICs is worse than ever. The monetary gain involved in being part of a clinical trial, when converted into the currency of the sponsor nation, is often seen as negligible and not considered a formal payment. For a participant in a LMIC, there is a higher probability that this payment might be a very strong motivator to join a clinical trial even if there are substantial risks. If the participant joins the trial as the only way to feed himself and his family, one could argue that it is not truly informed consent.
The WHO stated that sponsors are not ethically obliged to unblind subjects as soon as a different investigational vaccine becomes available [29, 31]. In South Africa, the vaccine roll-out for health care workers was via the Sisonke open label clinical trial. Outside of a clinical trial setting, there was no other way for a health care worker to get vaccinated. A small group of these health care workers were already participating in Covid-19 vaccine PCTs. This is another example of how participants in LMICs are motivated to participate in PCTs, because a 50% chance of getting the vaccine is still better than no chance at all. Even though, according to the WHO, sponsors were not obliged to unblind these participants, it would have caused a great ethical scandal if they were not given the option. In the author\'s experience, many participants made it clear that if they were denied unblinding, when they have a 100% chance of getting a vaccine elsewhere that is already authorised in several other countries, they would certainly withdraw from the PCT.
Ahmad and Dhrolia posed the following comparison. The question “Should we continue or permit placebo controlled vaccine trials for Covid-19 disease, when available vaccines have been found safe, efficacious and in use in many countries?” sounds very similar to “Should West African HIV-positive pregnant women receive placebo in HIV placebo-controlled trials when Zidovudine was found safe and efficacious for the prevention of vertical transmission of HIV infection elsewhere in the world?” or “Should African American men of Tuskegee, Alabama remain untreated even when penicillin was found safe and efficacious for the treatment of syphilis?” [40].
Any researcher who has attended training in Good Clinical Practice, should be familiar with these historical events, which serve as extreme examples of what should not happen during a clinical trial. They involve vulnerable, disadvantaged, poor populations with potentially life-threatening diseases. These populations do not have access to the standard of care that is available in higher income countries. They are trying to access interventions which the sponsors are able to provide, but deliberately chose not to do so.
Multiple Covid-19 vaccines have been found to be safe, efficacious and one of the only lifesaving interventions that would be able to end a pandemic. Over ten billion doses of vaccines have been administered globally [35]. The vaccine is freely available in high income countries, but only 9.5% of people in low-income countries have received at least one dose [51]. It could easily be argued that continuing to use PCTs in Covid-19 vaccines, and thus further exploiting the vulnerable pollution in LMICs, is no different to the West Africa or Tuskagee trials, and thus grossly unethical and a violation of human rights.
PCTs for a COVID-19 vaccine in vulnerable populations need to be reviewed with the above in mind. The onus of patient safety when looking to conduct clinical trials in vulnerable populations, which LMICs certainly are, should remain with the sponsor and country of origin that will benefit most from the data. Emphasis must be placed on autonomy; subjects need to understand what they are doing by participating. Cultural differences make this difficult and the need for community engagement is paramount. We have highlighted weakness in the ethical review process of LMICs, the lack of resources being a major factor. The COVID-19 pandemic has strained these resources further in all aspects, creating a need for investment in the health of LMICs by sponsors conducting clinical research. Necessary in these countries to bridge the health gap and provide healthcare access to the most impoverished of the world. We cannot however use this fact to exploit LMICs, the fact they are so desperate is more reason for sponsors to protect the communities, not less. The debate continues and each case will have its own nuance. The major points to take away are who benefits from the research, how will the local government use that research to generate national programs, are the communities adequately engaged throughout the process of clinical trials and what ethical frameworks, enforceable or otherwise, exist in the designated country where the trial will take place. Answering these questions will assist sponsors in maintaining ethical practice and protection of research participants in LMICs.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Since then, numerous applications were developed with the implementation of Kalman filter, such as applications in the fields of navigation and computer vision's object tracking. Kalman filter consists of two separate processes, namely the prediction process and the measurement process, which work in a recursive manner. Both processes are modeled by groups of equations in the state space model to achieve optimal estimation outputs. Prior knowledge on the state space model is needed, and it differs between different systems. In this chapter, the authors outlined and explained the fundamental Kalman filtering model in real‐time discrete form and devised two real‐time applications that implemented Kalman filter. The first application involved using vision camera to perform real‐time image processing for vehicle tracking, whereas the second application discussed the real‐time Global Positioning System (GPS)‐aided Strapdown Inertial Navigation Unit (SINU) system implementation using Kalman filter. 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Third, an approach to develop a force-sensorless feedback control (FSFC) is proposed to simplify the sensor requirement in designing the BTNCS, while the correct sense of interaction between the slave and the environment can be ensured. Fourth, a robust-adaptive networked control (RANC)-based master controller is introduced to deal with control of the slave over the network containing both time delays and information loss. 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Third, an approach to develop a force-sensorless feedback control (FSFC) is proposed to simplify the sensor requirement in designing the BTNCS, while the correct sense of interaction between the slave and the environment can be ensured. Fourth, a robust-adaptive networked control (RANC)-based master controller is introduced to deal with control of the slave over the network containing both time delays and information loss. 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Technology advances in low-power and wireless devices have made the deployment of those networks more and more affordable. In addition, wireless sensor networks have become more flexible and adaptable to a wide range of situations. Hence, a framework for their correct implementation will be provided. Then, one specific application about real-time environmental monitoring in support of a model-based predictive control system installed in a metro station will be described. In these applications, filtering, resampling, and post-processing functions must be developed, in order to convert raw data into a dataset arranged in the right format, so that it can inform the algorithms of the control system about the current state of the domain under control. 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He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/170087",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"170087"},fullPath:"/profiles/170087",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()