\r\n\t1. 90% of girls fully vaccinated with HPV vaccine by age 15 years. \r\n\t2. 70% of women are screened with a high-performance test by 35 years and again by 45 years \r\n\t3. 90% of women identified with cervical disease receive treatment (90% of women with precancer treated, and 90% of women with invasive cancer managed
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book “glows in teal”, committing itself, to the noble task of elimination of HPV infections and related cancers. This book has, well experienced and dedicated scientists from all over the world, contributing chapters in the fields of Epidemiology of HPV; HPV Vaccination – Efficacy – acceptance, affordability and policies; Pathophysiology and carcinogenesis of HPV; Hi-Tech screening protocols, methodologies for HPV testing; Diagnosis and treatment of Pre cancers and invasive cancers due to HPV; Prevention and control of Papillomaviridae infections and related Cancers of Cervix, Vagina, Vulva, Penis, Anus and Oropharynx.
\r\n
\r\n\tWe, firmly hope that the knowledge shared in this book would immensely contribute to the global goal of elimination of Papillomavidae and related cancers, and serve as a beacon of “teal light” symbolizing cancer eradication, from the lighthouse of Scientific wisdom and Social welfare, The InTech publishers."
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"b7612146e5bd35247afd8bb1b6913be8",bookSignature:"Dr. Rajamanickam Rajkumar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11370.jpg",keywords:"Incidence, Prevalence, Determinants, Awareness, Transmission, Pathophysiology, Oncogenesis, Host Cell Changes, DNA Alterations, HPV Screening, HPV Vaccination, Types of Vaccines",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 11th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 10th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 31st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 30th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Dr. Rajamanickam Rajkumar, is a Champion for the cause of Cervical Cancer Elimination HPV Research, in rural India, from 2000, in collaboration with the IARC/WHO, The Ohio State University Medical Center -USA, and The Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology Singapore.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"120109",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajamanickam",middleName:null,surname:"Rajkumar",slug:"rajamanickam-rajkumar",fullName:"Rajamanickam Rajkumar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/120109/images/system/120109.png",biography:"Rajamanickam Rajkumar is a scientist at the forefront of cervical cancer and HPV prevention and control. He has an MD in Community Medicine and a Ph.D. in Cancer Epidemiology. He is a professor at Meenakshi Medical College, Kanchipuram, India, and a Ph.D. mentor at Indian medical universities. He was Principal Investigator for one of the largest cervical cancer screening programs in India with the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization. Dr. Rajkumar is trained in cancer registry, cancer epidemiology, and colposcopy. 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I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors, and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing or reviewing.\nI assist authors in preparing their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines to ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Thin wall casting (TWC) is developed to produce lighter casting products. The weight reduction in TWC is gained by thinning out the wall thickness of products in whole like plates or partially. Thinning of the cast product will disturb the pouring time and speed up the solidification rate. The pouring time will shorten since the volume of the cast product is decreased due to depletion process. To overcome this, foundrymen tends to increase the pouring temperature. The increase in pouring temperature will expand the temperature differences, which will result in higher solidification rate.
\n
Increasing pouring temperature could not be applied while producing ductile iron (FCD) since the process includes liquid treatment processes, known as inoculation and nodulation. Both processes are limited by temperature and time. The effect of liquid treatment will reduce if the limit of temperature and time is exceeded. This condition will disturb the formation of spheroidal graphite and cause failure in production.
\n
Thin wall ductile iron (TWDI) is ductile iron casted in TWC. The thicknesses of some products of FCD were reduced in certain parts. Caldera defined TWDI as ductile iron casting with wall thickness below 5 mm [1], while Stefanescu limited its thickness below 3 mm [2]. But the properties of TWDI should fulfil the properties of FCD. TWDI has made it possible for ductile iron to compete with aluminium in terms of weight [3]. The size of the thinnest TWDI plate is 1 mm [4, 5, 6, 7].
\n
\n
\n
2. Problems in producing thin wall ductile iron
\n
Problems in producing thin wall ductile iron occur due to its thickness. In general casting, to avoid premature solidification, pouring temperature is raised when the casting product is thin. Premature solidification will lead to defects as presented in Figure 1. However, this method cannot be applied in producing TWDI since there is temperature limitation for liquid treatment process. Liquid treatments, i.e. inoculation and nodulation (Mg treatment), are applied to liquid metal to produce nodule graphite. Liquid treatment will fail if the temperature limit is exceeded.
\n
Figure 1.
Shrinkage defect formation due to premature solidification [8].
\n
Another issue that should also be considered is the formation of carbides as shown in Figure 2. Carbides form as a result of high solidification rate, and solidification rate increases when the thickness of the casting product decreases. Carbides formation in TWDI is to be strongly avoided. To deal with it, solidification rate should be maintained.
\n
Figure 2.
Carbides formation in TWDI [8].
\n
\n
\n
3. Designing TWDI products
\n
As mentioned previously, the classification of TWDI is made based on the thickness of casting products which can be applied either in the whole part of product such as plate as shown in Figure 1 or in just some parts such as in the connecting rod invented by Martinez [9] as shown in Figure 2. The thickness of the casting products should not exceed 5 mm.
\n
Soedarsono, Soemardi and Sulamet-Ariobimo have designed two series of plates. In the first series, they designed five plates with the same length and width but different thicknesses. The length is 150 mm while the width is 75 mm. The thicknesses are varied from 5 mm to 1 mm with 1 mm interval. As in the second series, they designed also five plates with the same length, width and thickness. The length and width are still the same as the first series, and the thickness is 1 mm. Since it is just plates, designing the product is not challenging but designing the gating system will be challenging since the design of gating system determines the plates formation. The gating system design made by Soedarsono, Soemardi and Sulamet-Ariobimo is discussed in the following section (Figure 3).
\n
Figure 3.
TWDI plates [8].
\n
Contrary to the plates’ design, applying thin wall casting in components are challenging since the part or parts of component being modified should be carefully selected to ensure that the thinning process will not disturb the function and properties of the component. Martinez invented TWDI connecting rod by modifying the I-beam part. I-beam is not a critical part in connecting rod. Martinez modified the solid I-beam to hollow I-beam as presented in Figure 4. The wall thickness of the hollow I-beam is 4 mm. The hollow I-beam reduces 100 g of weight of the connecting rod.
\n
Figure 4.
TWDI connecting rod invented by Martinez [9].
\n
\n
\n
4. Casting design for TWDI
\n
There are several ways to maintain cooling rate, but among all of them, casting design is the easiest one. Casting design covers the cast products, gating system and risers. Casting design is important since it determines the quality of the products and their production cost. Regarding TWDI, the casting design should consider fluidity, pouring temperature, pouring time and solidification rate of the molten metal. The casting design should ensure that premature solidification does not occur [10]. The main cause of premature solidification is pouring disruption. To deal with this, pouring stability should always be maintained.
\n
Many researchers used steps design to produce TWDI plates. Javaid [11] designs are presented in Figure 5. Javaid used this design to study the effects of chemical composition and process parameters on tensile and impact properties, while Showman [12, 13, 14] used groove steps design as shown in Figure 6 for studying the effects of cooling rate on skin effect formation. Pedersen used both horizontal and vertical steps design, as shown in Figure 7, to gain cooling rate from various plate thicknesses. Javaid also modified steps design as presented in Figure 8 to analyse the effects of position on plates.
Besides the steps design, Stefanescu used horizontal and vertical design as shown in Figure 9a and b. The vertical design was made after unsatisfactory data gained from its horizontal design [18, 19]. Stefanescu defined his vertical design as gating system, casting products and risers. The casting products were plates of 250 mm in height and 1000 mm in length. The thicknesses of the plates were 6.0, 2.5 and 3.5 mm, which were arranged vertically with cylindrical risers in between. The diameter of the riser is 25 mm, and the number of risers is four [19]. Stefanescu used counter gravity system to maintain the filling rate.
Schrems developed a horizontal design as shown in Figure 10, and INTEMA team developed several designs as shown in Figure 11. From his design, Schrems found that the condition of the plates together with their thickness affects mechanical properties and reducing cooling rate will make TWDI characteristic equal to general casting. INTEMA used the design shown in Figure 11a and b to evaluate the graphite characterizations. The results obtained from the first two designs were used to develop the other designs as shown in Figure 11c and d. The new designs were used for further research.
\n
Figure 10.
Schrems design [21, 22].
\n
Figure 11.
INTEMA designs [23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\n
Labreque used the design shown in Figure 12 to study the effects of cooling rate on microstructure and mechanical properties of TWDI. The design developed by Labreque resembles industrial condition. Filling process was maintained by using pouring basin, while the adjustment of undercooling temperature and cooling rate was controlled by using material known as low-density alumina silicate. This combination leads to the similarity of TWDI with the specification of ductile iron.
\n
Figure 12.
Labreque design [28, 29, 30].
\n
This section shows that all researchers are producing their TWDI plates using varied casting designs in horizontal and vertical casting position. This demonstrates how important is an appropriate gating system design to produce TWDI products, whether plates or components.
\n
\n
\n
5. Purposed casting design for TWDI plates
\n
As mention previously, Soedarsono, Soemardi and Sulamet-Ariobimo in their works developed vertical casting designs to produce their plate series. They developed two models of vertical casting design. The first model was based on Stefanescu vertical casting design which used gating system and risers as presented in Figure 13.
Soedarsono, Soemardi and Sulamet-Ariobimo modified the Stefanescu design in the number, dimension and thickness of the plates produced. Stefanescu design produced three plates with the dimension of 100 mm × 25 mm and thicknesses of 2.5, 3.5 and 6.0 mm. The design purposed by Soedarsono, Soemardi and Sulamet-Ariobimo produced five plates with the dimension of 150 mm × 75 mm and thicknesses of 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 and 5.0 mm. The casting design consists of down sprue, runner, ingate, risers and plates. Every plate is clamped by risers.
\n
Soedarsono, Soemardi and Sulamet-Ariobimo also modified the arrangement of the plates. Since it is a vertical casting design, they placed the thinnest plate near the ingate. This is contrary to the general rule of casting. In the general rule of casting, ingate should not be placed in the thinnest part since it could block the filling process due to first place to solidify. But Soedarsono, Soemardi and Sulamet-Ariobimo assumed that the heat in the running liquid metal will prevent the thinnest part of the casting to solidify or known as premature solidification. Therefore, as long as the liquid metal runs along the system, the thinnest part will not solidify and premature solidification will not happen so the liquid metal can fulfil the mould. This assumption was verified during the casting process. A minor disturbance during the pouring process resulted in defective products.
\n
Soedarsono, Soemardi and Sulamet-Ariobimo proposed three types and all of them produced TWDI plates with ferrite matrix. After evaluating the microstructures and tensile properties of every plates resulting from every types [3, 4, 31, 32, 33], they chose the first type which is presented in Figure 13a for further developments.
\n
Soedarsono, Soemardi and Sulamet-Ariobimo also developed vertical casting design to produce TWDI without using gating system as the second model shown in Figure 14. The dimension and thickness of the plates produced are same as the previous designs. In this model, they proposed two types of design. These designs produced TWDI plates with perlite matrix.
\n
Figure 14.
Soedarsono designs [6]. Vertical casting without gating system.
\n
Both models were able to produce TWDI plates. This showed that the casting design proposed were able to produce TWDI plates. Comparing the design of both models revealed that the advantage of the second model is high casting yield, while the first design tends to reduce the casting failure. Both models have their own solidification rate as shown by the microstructures. The first model has ferrite as a matrix, and the second one has perlite. Microstructures represent solidification rate. The conclusion made based on the microstructure formation is that the second model has higher solidification rate than the first one.
\n
Later Soedarsono, Soemardi and Sulamet-Ariobimo modified the chosen design presented in Figure 13a for further development. They changed the thickness of the plate from 1 to 5 mm to only 1 mm in all position to discover the ability of the casting design. Experimental studies showed that all plates were formed during the casting process and presented with ferrite matrix.
\n
Based on the latest design, Sulamet-Ariobimo and Gumilang modified the design of vertical casting. They reduced the number of the plates and minimised the dimension of the gating system to gain higher casting yield. The improved design is presented in Figure 15. This design produced TWDI in perlite matrix.
Characterisation, especially tensile test, become an important issue in TWDI production since TWDI properties should be same as FCD and thinning process should not change the material properties. ASTM has determined the tensile specimen for TWDI or TWADI, but JIS has not determined which kind of specimen should be used for TWDI or TWADI.
\n
Referring to ASTM Standard, researchers tended to use ASTM E8 [35] as shown in Figure 16, for the tensile specimen. While in JIS, several types of tensile specimens can be applied in plate. However, each type of this specimen gave different results. Sulamet-Ariobimo et al. investigated this [36] and decided to use JIS Z2201 No. 5 [37], shown in Figure 17. This decision was made based on the findings that fracture propagation in TWDI and nonferrous metals needs wider width.
\n
Figure 16.
Tensile specimen of ASTM E8 [35].
\n
Figure 17.
Tensile specimen of JIS Z2201 No. 5 [37].
\n
\n
\n
7. Skin effects
\n
Skin effect [13] or flake graphite rim anomaly [18] is a layer of flake or vermicular graphite formed in outer layer of ductile iron microstructure. This layer tends to appear in sand casting products. The formation of skin effect occurred due to magnesium malfunction. The malfunction of magnesium is caused by several things such as the presence of sulphur or oxygen. Magnesium tends to bind with sulphur which produce MgS or with oxygen which produce MgO. Ruxanda [18] assumed that skin effect was formed due to different level of magnesium content. Aufderheiden [13] found that besides magnesium content, the type of sand also contributed to the formation of skin effect. Sulamet-Ariobimo [38] found that besides magnesium content, cooling rate also influences the formation of skin effect.
\n
Goodrich in Dix [19] stated that skin effect tends to disturb the tensile properties. Ruxanda [18] found difference of magnesium content between bulk and rim area. He concluded that skin effect was formed due to the lack of magnesium. Boonmee [39] supported the Ruxanda’s conclusion and concluded that skin effect is formed due to depletion of magnesium. The magnesium depletion is caused by the reaction of magnesium with sulphur and oxygen. Labreque [31] found that although skin effect is detrimental to mechanical properties but up to certain limit, it supports the homogenization of microstructure. Skin effect is an acceptable defect in general casting since it will vanish during the finishing process, but it is vice versa for TWDI. The thickness of TWDI makes it impossible to apply machining process to dispose skin effect. This is the reason why the formation of skin effect in TWDI should be avoided.
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusion
\n
Light weight components are produced to answer the needs of lower energy consumption. TWDI is produced by applying TWC to ductile iron casting. This will enrich the material preference for lighter weight. TWDI has higher design flexibility than aluminium, which is one of the reasons to choose TWDI rather than aluminium.
\n
During TWDI production, problems occur due to its thickness and liquid treatment process. A vertical design has been made and is able to produce TWDI plates with 1 mm thickness. This design puts the ingate in the thinnest part, which is controverted to the general rule of casting. The casting will be succeeded if the pouring process runs smoothly, while slight interruption will cause failure.
\n
Apart from the regular casting defects, the presence of skin effect is also detrimental to TWDI. In general casting, skin effect can be removed by machining process. This removal process cannot be applied in TWDI.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"thin wall casting, ductile iron, austempered ductile iron, vertical casting, ingate position, premature solidification, single matrix for microstructure",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57999.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/57999.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57999",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57999",totalDownloads:984,totalViews:331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:38,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 3rd 2017",dateReviewed:"October 31st 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"May 2nd 2018",dateFinished:"December 5th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The use of austempered ductile iron (ADI) as an alternative material has increased, and it is predicted that it will reach 300,000 tons by the year of 2020 due to its characteristics especially design flexibility. When the reduction in weight is considered as a parameter for energy saving, ADI is presented as thin wall austempered ductile iron (TWADI). To produce a good quality TWADI, a good quality thin wall ductile iron (TWDI) must be used as a raw material. Good quality TWDI is produced by casting design. This chapter discusses the production of thin wall ductile iron, including its characterisation and defect. The discussion includes the background of thin wall casting (TWC) and TWDI, applying TWC in general casting, the problems in producing TWDI, characterisation of the TWDI and specific defects.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57999",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57999",book:{id:"6132",slug:"advanced-casting-technologies"},signatures:"Rianti Dewi Sulamet-Ariobimo, Johny Wahyuadi Soedarsono and\nTresna Priyana Soemardi",authors:[{id:"208291",title:"Dr.",name:"Rianti",middleName:null,surname:"Sulamet-Ariobimo",fullName:"Rianti Sulamet-Ariobimo",slug:"rianti-sulamet-ariobimo",email:"rianti.ariobimo@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Trisakti University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Problems in producing thin wall ductile iron",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Designing TWDI products",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Casting design for TWDI",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Purposed casting design for TWDI plates",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Characterisation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Skin effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Caldera M, Chapetti M, Massone JM, Sikora JA. Influence of nodule count on fatique properties of ferritic thin wall ductile iron. Materials Science and Engineering. 2007;23(8):1000-1004\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Stefanescu DM, Dix LP, Ruxanda RE, Corbitt-Corburn C, Piwonka TS. Tensile properties of thin wall ductile iron. AFS Transactions. 2002;02-178:1149-1162\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Soedarsono JW, Suharno B, Sulamet-Ariobimo RD. Effect of casting design to microstructure and mechanical properties of 3 mm TWDI plate. Advance Materials Researchs. 2012;415-417:831-837\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Soedarsono JW, Sulamet-Ariobimo RD. Effect of casting design to microstructure and mechanical properties of 1 mm TWDI plate. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 2012;110-116:3301-3307\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Suharno B, Soedarsono JW, Sulamet-Ariobimo RD. The effect of plates position in vertical casting producing thin wall ductile iron. Advance Materials Researchs. 2011;277:66-75\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Sulamet-Ariobimo RD, Soedarsono JW, Nanda IP. The effect of vertical step block casting to microstructure and mechanical properties in producing thin wall ductile iron. Advance Materials Researchs. 2013;789:387-393\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Sulamet-Ariobimo RD, Soedarsono JW, Suharno B. Cooling rate analysis of thin wall ductile iron using microstructure examination and simulation. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 2015;752-753:845-850\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Sulamet-Ariobimo RD. Thin wall ductile iron casting for thin wall austempered ductile iron. [Dissertation]. Indonesia: Universitas Indonesia; 2010\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Martinez RA, Boeri RE, Sikora JA. Application of ADI in high strength thin wall automotive part. In: Proceedings of 2002 World Conference on ADI. AFS; 2002\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Tomovic M. Designing thin section. Modern Casting. 2003;93(5):55-56\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Javaid A, Thomson J, Sahoo M, Davis KG. Factors affecting the formation of carbides in thin wall DI castings. AFS Transactions. 1999;74:441-451\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Showman RE, Aufderheide RC. Getting to the core of thin-walled casting. Modern Casting. 2004;94(4):32-34\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Aufderheiden RC, Showman RE, Hysell MA. Controlling the skin effect on thin wall ductile iron casting. AFS Transactions. 2005;5-043:567-579\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Showman RE, Aufderheide RC, Yeomans N. Ironing out thin-wall casting defects, Modern Casting. 2006;96-7:29-32\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Pedersen KM, Tiedje NS. Temperature measurement during solidification of thin wall ductile cast iron. Part 1: Theory and experiment. Measurement. 2007;05-200:1-10\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Pedersen KM, Tiedje NS. Graphite nodule count and size distribution in thin-walled ductile cast iron. Materials Characterization. 2007;09-001:1-11 (09)\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Pedersen KM, Tiedje NS. Temperature measurement during solidification of thin wall ductile cast iron. Part 2: Numerical stimulation. Measurement. 2007;05-003:1-8\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Ruxanda RE, Stefanescu DM, Piwonka TS. Microstructure characterization of ductile thin wall iron casting. AFS Transaction. 2002;02-177:1131-1147\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Dix LP, Ruxanda RE, Torrance J, Fukumoto M, Stefanescu DM. Static mechanical properties of ferritic and perlitic light weight ductile iron casting. AFS Transactions. 2003;03-109:895-910 (03)\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Stefanescu DM, Ruxanda R, Dix LP. The metallurgy and tensile mechanical properties of thin wall spheroidal graphite iron. International Journal of Cast Metal Research. 2003;16:319-324\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Schrems KK, Dogan ON, Hawk JA. Verification of thin wall ductile iron test methodology. Journal of Testing and Evaluation. 2002;30(1)\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Schrems KK, Hawk JA, Dogan ON, Druschitz AP. Statistical analysis of the mechanical properties of thin-walled ductile iron casting. 2003. SAE Technical Paper Doc. No. 2003-01-0828\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Borrajo JM, Martinez RA, Boeri RE, Sikora JA. Shape and count of free graphite particles in thin wall ductile iron castings. ISIJ International. 2002;42-3:257-263\n'},{id:"B24",body:'David P, Massone J, Boeri R, Sikora J. Mechanical properties of thin wall ductile iron – Influence of carbon equivalent and graphite distribution. ISIJ International. 2004;44-7:1180-1187\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Caldera M, Massone JM, Boeri RE, Sikora JA. Impact properties of thin wall ductile iron. ISIJ International. 2004;44(4):731-736\n'},{id:"B26",body:'David P, Massone JM, Boeri R, Sikora JA. Gating system design to cast thin wall ductile iron plates. International Journal of Cast Metal Research. 2005;18-5:1-12\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Caldera M, Chapetti M, Massone JM, Sikora JA. Influence of nodule count on fatigue properties of ferritic thin wall ductile iron. Materials Science and Engineering. 2007;23-8:1000-1004\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Labreque C, Gagne M. Development of carbide free thin wall ductile iron casting. AFS Transactions. 2000;108:31-38\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Labreque C, Gagne M, Javaid A, Sahoo M. Production and properties of thin wall ductile iron castings. International Journal of Cast Metals Research. 2003;16:313-317\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Labreque C, Gagne M. Optimizing the mechanical properties of thin-wall ductile iron casting. AFS Transactions. 2005;05-116:1-10\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Soedarsono JW, Suharno B, Sulamet-Ariobimo RD. Effect of casting design to microstructure and mechanical properties of 5 mm TWDI plate. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 2012;152-154:1607-1611\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Sulamet-Ariobimo RD, Soedarsono JW, Suharno B. Effect of casting design to microstructure and mechanical properties of 2 mm TWDI plate. Advance Materials Researchs. 2013;652-654:2404-2408\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Sulamet-Ariobimo RD, Soedarsono JW, Suharno B. Effect of casting design to microstructure and mechanical properties of 4 mm TWDI plate. Advance Materials Researchs. 2013;702:269-274\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Sulamet-Ariobimo RD, Gemilang Y, Dhaneswara D, Soedarsono JW, Suharno B. Casting design modification to improved casting yield in producing thin wall ductile iron plate. 2017 (in press)\n'},{id:"B35",body:'ASTM. E8 Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. Pennsylvania, USA: American Society for Testing and Material; 2000\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Sulamet-Ariobimo RD, Soedarsono JW, Sukarnoto T, Rustandi A, Mujalis Y, Prayitno D. Tensile properties analysis of AA1100 aluminium and SS400 steel using different JIS tensile standard specimen. Journal of Applied Research and Technology. 2016;14:148-153\n'},{id:"B37",body:'JIS. JIS Z2201-2000, Tension Test Pieces for Metallic Materials. Tokyo, Japan: Japanese Standard Association; 2000\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Sulamet-Ariobimo RD, Soedarsono JW. Effect of plate thickness and casting position on skin effect formation in thin wall ductile iron. International Journal of Technology. 2016;3:375-382\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Boonmee S. Ductile and compacted graphite iron casting skin – Evaluation effect on fatique strenght and elimination. [Dissertation]. United State of America: Ohio State University; 2013\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rianti Dewi Sulamet-Ariobimo",address:"rianti.ariobimo@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Chemical pesticides are still considered as an essential tool used in the mass production of agricultural products in developing countries to control a wide range of pests, that is, insects, weeds, plant pathogens among others, and hence maintain high product quantity [1]. The consumption rate of chemical pesticides worldwide reached 2.4 megatons during 2006–2007 [2]. Pesticides have biological activity and toxic action on the targeted pests at the recommended concentration throughout various modes of action mechanisms exerted by the parent compounds and/or their metabolites [3]. If such concentration is exceeded through misuse or incorrect application, these pesticides become toxic to the non-target organisms, including humans [4].
Based on the enormous number of published studies related to the toxic effects of pesticides on non-targeted organisms and humans, some of these pesticides have been banned in developed countries. The most famous banned compounds included organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in the 1970s [5], some organophosphorus during 2001–2006 [6], certain carbamates insecticides [7], and specific synthetic pyrethroids and neonicotinoids insecticides, among others [8]. Globally, the total number of banned pesticides reached 460 compounds distributed between insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides among other groups of pesticides in 36 and 128 developed and developing countries, respectively [8]. The ban decision is based on various factors, such as a) the high toxicity of such pesticides to the non-targeted organisms (extremely hazardous, i.e., acute oral LD50 for the rat <5 mg/kg and highly hazardous, i.e., acute oral LD50 for the rat 5–50 mg/kg) [9], b) their carcinogenic effects on humans causing various types of cancer [10], and c) hazardous effects on environmental elements among other reasons such as effects on the endocrine system, that is, hormone disruptors [11].
Practically, the toxic effects of pesticides on mammals, including humans, are the sum of the results obtained by the studies carried out and extrapolation processes through decades from two major categories of studies, that is, in vivo and in vitro. The in vivo studies were carried out using laboratory animals that lead to an understanding of the toxicity mechanisms of the tested pesticides.
Also, it was studied both the toxicokinetics, toxicodynamics of chemical pesticides [12], teratogenicity [13], and carcinogenicity [14] using different mammalian models and affected humans in the epidemiological studies. With carcinogenic pesticides, they were classified into various categories, that is, carcinogenic, probably, possibly be carcinogenic to humans, or not classifiable as carcinogenic to humans [15]. Other studies of pesticides toxicity have been carried out depending on the response of different biomarkers [16], that is, hematological toxicity [17], nephrotoxicity [18], hepatotoxicity [19], neurotoxicity [20], oxidative stress, and DNA damage [21], pulmonary toxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity and carcinogenesis biomarkers [22].
The in vitro toxicity studies have emerged through an approach that has been known as alternative methods, which is based on the application of a principle called (3Rs) designed by Russell and Burch [23] using animal organs, tissues, fertilized eggs, embryos, transplanted organs, such as liver, kidneys, brain, pancreas, and/or tissue pieces [24]. Also, the cell culture techniques, that is, primary cell cultures or cell lines were used as another approach of the alternative methods to understand the cytotoxic effects of xenobiotics including pesticides either at a biological level and/or biochemical level and explaining the genotoxic effects of the tested pesticides [25]. Through such alternative methods in association with the in vivo investigation, it was studied the mutagenicity, genotoxicity, and the effects of pesticides at the molecular level [26].
Regarding human health, exposure to different banned chemical pesticides may lead to consequent intoxication symptoms as a result of cellular, biochemical, and genetic effects, that is, congenital malformation, neurochemical and behavioral dysfunctions among others [27]. In developing countries, such as India, it was documented various negative effects resulted from human exposure to pesticides, that is, neurological, respiratory, dermal, and reproductive effects in addition to the impact on general health [28]. In other epidemiological studies related to the usage of banned chemical pesticides in developing countries, it was mentioned the percentages of chemical pesticides that caused a significant number of dead people annually as a result of pesticides intoxication [29]. The mentioned developing countries in such a chapter include India, Egypt, and African countries, Romania, Thailand, Taiwan, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua among others. In Venezuela, it was recorded various serious problems due to exposure to pesticides either through environmental and/or occupational routes. Such exposure is due to limitations in the regulation acts related to the use of pesticides and lack of health and safety measures [30].
As specific pesticides, it was found that in utero exposure to organochlorine insecticides, that is, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), dieldrin, endosulfan, heptachlor, dicofol, and methoxychlor was associated with neurodevelopmental effects in children [31]. Organophosphorus insecticides, such as parathion, dimethoate, monocrotophos, and chlorpyrifos among others, cause cardiovascular diseases [32]. Moreover, some banned pyrethroids insecticides such as fenvalerate, permethrin, and other compounds including certain metabolites causing DNA damage in human sperm [33] and developmental neurotoxicity [34]. As for banned neonicotinoid pesticides, that is, imidacloprid thiacloprid, they may cause breast cancer by increasing the expression of the aromatase enzyme. Other banned chemical pesticides, such as some triazine herbicides, were associated with breast cancer [35].
As for human exposure to pesticides via oral feeding, it was documented that consumption of contaminated foods by pesticide residues when exceeded the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) and/or the Maximum Residue Limits (MRL) values listed by the Codex Alimentarius may lead to various undesirable effects. Based on such type of exposure, high levels of pesticide residues and their metabolites in foodstuff could reach the human blood, including maternal blood, cord blood, placenta, breast milk, and children.
In the case of occupational exposure to pesticides, it was documented that such exposure occurs directly during various processes, such as manufacturing, transporting, storing, retailers, preparation, application by the user, re-entry into treated fields, harvest, and equipment cleaning. The exposure may be due to the misuse during the application of pesticides without protective equipment, which is considered economically expensive in developing countries. In addition, other routes of exposure may occur, such as exposure of children and/or pregnant women, which affects their fetuses.
In recent studies, it was found that all the mentioned negative effects of pesticides exposure are results of bad practices, that is, inadequate, unsafe, and handling applications without wearing the protective instrument. Also, it was reported that the lack of awareness of suitable pesticide use is considered as the main reason behind the occurrence of various diseases in the farmers’ works in the Tu Ky district, Vietnam [36]. To overcome such types of problems, the Agricultural Pesticides Committee [APC] in Egypt, has been introduced around 10.000 licensed applicators in the agriculture fields and targets to reach 50.000 during the next years after their training in the suitable pesticides application procedures [37].
Based on the mentioned facts, this chapter has been focused on the most deleterious effects linked to chronic human exposure to various banned chemical pesticides that affect the exposed individuals with various diseases, that is, obesity, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, asthma, chronic bronchitis, type 2 diabetes, autism, erectile dysfunction, and psychological disorder. Such diseases were selected in this chapter based on the fact that they are affecting the quality of life of the affected individuals either at the health, social, and/or labor level. Based on the lack of scientific and investigation background in most developing countries, the identification of each disease and the different mechanisms followed by the banned pesticides and/or their metabolites to exhibit these diseases either in pregnant women, their fetuses, children, and/or adults who were exposed to the banned pesticides were discussed.
2. Evidence of using banned pesticides in the developing countries
Practically, huge amounts of banned pesticides are still in use illegally in various developing and developed countries. Such banned pesticides include organochlorine insecticides, that is, DDT for controlling the public health pests [38] due to their cheap price, ease of production, lack of registration, and control measures systems for pesticides in some of these countries, besides the prevalence of the risk versus benefit theory [39]. Unfortunately, it was documented that the World Health Organization supported the reintroduction of DDT for malaria eradication in 2006 [40].
In agriculture, various published documents have been reported that a list of banned pesticides is still in use in developing countries [41]. For example, it was reported that the banned pesticides, such as chlorpyrifos, endosulfan, and cypermethrin, as insecticides, atrazine and glyphosate, as herbicides, are still in use in various provinces in Argentina in addition to Paraguay [42]. In addition, it was reported that many developing countries are still using the banned chemical pesticides that have been exported from the European Union after their banning in European countries [1].
Based on the export statistics from China Customs, the export volume of pesticides during the period of January to November 2015, African markets containing developing countries represented 13.9% of the total export of pesticides from China to 44 countries. The most exported banned pesticides include paraquat, glyphosate, 2,4-D-dimethylammonium, atrazine, glyphosate-monoammonium, tebuthiuron, as herbicides, lambda-cyhalothrin, imidacloprid, chlorpyrifos, dichlorvos, emamectin, as insecticides, mancozeb, metalaxyl+mancozeb, as fungicides. The top 10 countries by export value were Nigeria, South Africa, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Egypt, Kenya, Cameroon, Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Guinea. The amount of export value for these top 10 countries constitutes 85.9% of the total export value to Africa from China [43]. Moreover, some banned pesticides may be used in form of counterfeit and/or contraband pesticides either in developing or developed countries [44]. The decision toward the herbicide glyphosate has been taken by the Mexican Government to be a period of transition when sustainable alternatives will be promoted [8].
The decision to ban pesticides in developing countries is based on the published information by the USEPA and the European Union, while the executive decision will be in practical form by regulation and legislative acts present in some developing countries. For example, Egypt (Agricultural Pesticides Committee, APC), India, Malaysia, Philippines, Costa Rica, Mexico, Kenya, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, each of them has their regulation and legislative acts [28]. Other low-income countries have not any institutions related to pesticides in general, especially the agricultural ones, and hence their usage of the agricultural chemicals depends on the importing of these products from neighboring countries.
Also, the decision of banning pesticides in other developing countries may be retard to be in practice due to a lack of transparency and also depending on the availability of alternative pesticides in the market. In addition, the decision-makers in the developing countries may offer a period called a period of transition or grace period that may be reached for 6 months or more than 1 year as an expected period to consume the remaining stock of these banned pesticides. Such cases were already offered for the organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos, dimethoate, fipronil, alpha-cypermethrin, amitrole, carbendazim, iprodione, diazinon, carbosulfan, diuron, diniconazole among other pesticides, such as the case in Egypt and some other developing countries. During such grace period, the targeted pesticide[s] to be banned is still in use, and hence the exposure processes, that is, farmers, unlicensed applicators, children, and/or pregnant women are continued.
At the governmental level of these countries, the most important question in the mentality of the decision-makers is related to the quantity of such pesticide[s], that is, where and how to treat the remaining amounts of such pesticide[s], that is, there is no possibility to withdrawing the remaining amounts that are still in the pesticide market. However, in a recent action taken by APC, based on the requirements of the European Commission, the MRLs of chlorpyrifos must not exceed 0.01 mg/kg of the exporting crops and such limits must be followed by the Agriculture Export Council [37]. In addition, it was decided to restrict the usage of such insecticides to control insect pests on nonedible crops, such as cotton, to control the desert locust and termites [37]. Unfortunately, from the practical viewpoint, despite such decisions, chlorpyrifos is still illegally available like other banned pesticides in the pesticide market in Egypt at least during the grace period. So, the use of banned pesticides at that moment is considered an inevitable fact either in Egypt or other developing countries.
3. Mechanisms of toxic action of some banned chemical pesticides
Depending on the chemical structure of the targeted banned chemical pesticides, it could classify the mechanisms of their action into two main categories, that is, neurotoxic action and hormone disruptors.
3.1 Neurotoxicity
Based on the published studies related to human diseases associated with exposure to banned chemical pesticides, it was found that most of these pesticides were neurotoxic compounds. The most famous classes of these pesticides are organochlorine, organophosphorus, carbamates, synthetic pyrethroids, and neonicotinoids insecticides. For organochlorine insecticides, that is, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), cyclodiens, hexachlorocyclohexane, many studies have shown that its mode of action is based on a reduction in the transport of potassium ions, after blocking the sodium channels, and inhibiting the enzymes (Na+ -K+/Ca2+ -Mg2+-ATPases), inhibiting the binding between calcium and calmodulin and then affecting the flow of neurotransmitters [45].
Regarding organophosphorus as parent compounds and/or their activated metabolites, such as [−oxon], the mechanisms of their actions depend on the irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase by phosphorylating the amino acid serine in the esteratic site of the AchE enzyme [46], resulting in hyperstimulation of the cholinergic nerves, that is, muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor [47]. Carbamate insecticides act as reversible inhibitors to acetylcholinesterase leading to various symptoms of toxicity [48].
As for the synthetic pyrethroids, their mechanisms of toxic action depend on inhibition of (Ca2+, Mg2+-ATPase) enzymes, binding to gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors in the chloride channels, and inhibition of the calmodulin protein that binds to calcium and thus increase the calcium ions that affect the flow of the neurotransmitters that lead to cause various symptoms of poisoning in humans [49]. In addition, it was documented that neonicotinoids insecticides, that is, imidacloprid act on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, and hence stimulate these receptors at low doses while blocking such receptors at high doses leading to paralysis and death [50]. Also, some fungicides exhibit neurotoxic action, which affects the peripheral nerves, the motor nerves, and the central nervous system that leads to different symptoms of poisoning [51]. Based on such toxic action observed in humans through different accidents, such fungicide has been banned in the 1970s [52].
3.2 Effects on the endocrine system
Based on the published studies, it was documented that various diseases, such as obesity, diabetes, and erectile dysfunction, have occurred as a result of exposure to various banned pesticides. It was reported that such diseases belong to the mechanisms of action of the mentioned pesticides within the endocrine system. Historically, in the 1970s, it had emerged the adverse effects of some chemical pesticides on the endocrine system through various modes of action and it was called for such pesticides the term (Hormone Disruptors) [53]. Such effects may be through the hormone-secreting gland, effects on the composition of the hormone itself, effects on its production and secretion rates, or that it is similar to it in composition or interfere with the hormone in its function by competing with it for binding to the hormonal receptors [54]. Many studies have shown that hormone disruptors cause many adverse health effects on humans, leading to various diseases [55]. Exposure to hormone disruptors maybe not be observable for many years. If the fetus is exposed to any of these disruptors during the pregnancy of the mother, then these substances cause adverse effects on many functions of this fetus that are not observed until after its birth and reaching puberty [56].
4. Diseases other than cancer caused by banned chemical pesticides
In the first two decades of this century, several studies that have been published and searched in MEDLINE [through PubMed] revealed the relationship between the exposure of humans, that is, farmworkers, unlicensed pesticide applicators, children, and/or pregnant women to different chemical pesticides and the emergence of various diseases other than cancer [57]. Such studies reported that these diseases do not appear until after reaching adulthood, which affects the quality of life of the affected individual[s] at the health, social, and labor level either in the present and/or the future.
4.1 Obesity
Obesity, that is, body mass index [BMI] ≥ 30.0 has been defined as a chronic disease that affects around 13% of the global population and 62% of people living in developing countries. These huge percentages lead to the death of 2.8 million individuals each year as a result of obesity [58]. Exposure to various classes of banned chemical pesticides and obesity are well documented in many published studies carried out in developed countries. For example, it was found that there was a positive linkage between maternal, prenatal, or postnatal exposure to pesticides and obesity, especially DDT as an organochlorine insecticide [59] and chlorpyrifos as organophosphorus pesticides [60]. Also, other classes of pesticides were found to be associated with the development of obesity, that is, bifenthrin as pyrethroid [61] and imidacloprid as neonicotinoid [62]. In addition, it was reported that exposure of pregnant women to pesticides through agricultural or industrial activities leads to overweight children [63].
Various mechanisms have been followed by pesticides to be associated with obesity. For example, increasing the adipocyte differentiation by quizalofop-p-ethyl, diazinon, imidacloprid, fipronil, and permethrin among others [64]. Also, it was documented that proliferation and alteration in the adipose function tissue lead to increasing the lipid uptake and alteration of the neuroendocrine control of feeding that affects the metabolism of nutrients [65]. Also, it was found that some pesticides, that is, organophosphate, carbamate, and organochlorines disrupt hormonal status through oxidative stress, which affects mitochondrial function, especially in the cellular metabolism of lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins [49]. Another theory proved that some pesticides are mimic the natural lipophilic hormone and altering the nuclear receptor transcription factor, which affects the key adipogenic factors, fat depot size, and function [66]. More recently it was reported that some pesticides are linked to obesity by affecting the gust microbiota, metabolic homeostasis by affecting the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and the thyroid hormone pathway, altering the fate of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and dysregulation of sex steroid hormone [64].
4.2 Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease with two main types, that is, Type 1 diabetes, which occurs in case of the pancreas does not produce enough insulin, and type 2 (T2D) or insulin resistance, which means that the body cannot effectively use the insulin it produces [67]. Diabetes, especially T2D, is a major cause of various diseases, such as cardiovascular disease [68], endometrial [69], prostate [70], and colon cancer [71] in addition to other diseases, that is, blindness, kidney failure, heart attacks, stroke and lower limb amputation [72].
The relationship between human exposure to the banned chemical pesticides and the occurrence of diabetes has been documented. Two studies in Korea found that low-dose background exposure to 10 OCPs, that is, HCH, HCB, heptachlor epoxide, p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDD, p,p′-DDT, o,p′-DDT, oxychlordane, trans-nonachlor, and mirex were strongly associated with prevalent type 2 diabetes in Koreans people [73].
In Thailand, it was reported that endosulfan as an organochlorine insecticide, mevinphos an organophosphorus, carbaryl/Sevin as carbamate, and benlate as fungicides were positively associated with diabetes, as described in the case–control study carried out by Juntarawijit and Juntarawijit, [74]. In India, various pesticides including herbicides, that is, atrazine, butylate, 2,4,5-T, diazinon, fonofos, phorate, and parathion as organophosphorus insecticides, p,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE, β-HCH, and oxychlordane as organochlorine insecticides were positively associated with hyperglycemia and diabetes [75]. In Egypt, it was found that lindane followed by o,p′-DDD, and p,p′-DDE as DDT metabolites as organochlorine compounds and malathion as organophosphate insecticide was strongly associated with type 1 diabetes in children, as reported in the preliminary study carried out by El-Morsi et al. [76].
As a mechanism of action by which the banned chemical pesticides induces diabetes, various specific studies have been proved that OCPs, as it is well known that these pesticides are lipophilic, hydrophobic, and highly resistant to metabolic degradation, so that, they are bioaccumulated in fatty tissues for many years, and their serum concentration is considered to be a good reflection of lifetime exposures [77].
However, it was documented that OCPs have variable molecular and cellular targets and thus they cannot be considered to have a single mode of action. Inflammation in adipose tissue, ectopic lipid accumulation [lipotoxicity] in liver, muscle, and pancreas, and mitochondrial dysfunction caused by oxidative damage caused by OCPs lead to the development of insulin resistance and T2D [77]. Also, these pesticides may affect pancreatic β cells and trigger insulin resistance, thus impairing both lipid and glucose metabolism [78].
Besides, it is well known that p,p′-DDE is antiandrogenic and can bind to the androgen receptor and that DDT has estrogenic properties; both estrogen and androgen receptors are involved in the mediation of insulin sensitivity [79]. Another study showed that certain OCPs exposure can disrupt glucose homeostasis, which could contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes in the future [80]. As for banned organophosphorus pesticides, it was documented that exposure to sufficiently high levels of these compounds would be expected to result in increased accumulation of acetylcholine, potentially leading to overstimulation and eventual downregulation of its receptors and reducing insulin production [81].
4.3 Alzheimer’s disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the major form of dementia and is considered the fourth leading cause of death in the elderly. AD is the most common progressive neurological disease and results in an irreversible loss of neurons [82]. One of the most symptoms of AD is loss of short-term memory, speech problems, confusion, mood swings, self-care inability, and behavioral issues [83]. Few studies have been carried out in developing countries on the link between exposure to pesticides and AD. In India, it was found that OCPs, that is, β-HCH, dieldrin, and pp′-DDE are associated with the risk of AD in the north Indian population [84]. The same finding was reported with organophosphates insecticides [85].
In China, a positive association between pesticide exposure and AD, confirms the hypothesis that pesticide exposure is a risk factor for AD, as shown in the systematic review and meta-analysis carried out by Yan et al. [86]. One internal exposure investigation evaluated the relationship between serum dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) levels and AD, observing a 3.8-fold increase in serum levels of organochlorine metabolites of DDE in patients with AD when compared with control participants [87].
As mechanisms behind the occurrence of AD, it was found that such disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with the loss of cholinergic neurons and the presence of excessive neuritic plaques containing amyloid β protein and abnormal tau protein filaments as neurofibrillary tangles [88]. Decreased level of acetylcholine in AD patients appears to be a critical element in producing dementia and memory disorders [89]. It was documented that various chemical pesticides cause uncoupled oxidative phosphorylation, which increases the levels of free radicals [90], which affect the mitochondrial function and hence increased the production of ROS and higher levels of oxidative stress that lead to cellular damage in form of synaptic linked with the development and progression of AD [91]. Baltazar et al. [92] found that various pesticides share many features, such as the ability to induce oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, α-synuclein fibrillization, and neuronal loss.
At in vivo level, various studies revealed that some pesticides may disrupt the metabolic pathways, such as the homeostasis of amyloid-β, causing a significant elevation in amyloid-β levels in the cortex and hippocampus, as well as increasing memory loss and reduced motor activity in experimental animals [93]. Thus, some researchers have documented that pesticide exposure is a potential risk factor for AD, and hence proved such results through several epidemiological studies [94].
Chin-Chan et al. [95] reported that some pesticides have been associated with AD due to their ability to elevate beta-amyloid [Aβ] peptide and the phosphorylation of Tau protein [P-Tau], causing senile/amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) characteristic of AD. Tang et al. [96] showed the proposed neuropathological mechanisms that included oxidative stress through the reactive oxygen species [ROS] generated by pesticides, neuroinflammation enhancement that leads to amyloid-beta Aβ and tau protein expression, promotion of amyloidogenesis, such as amyloid plaque formation, DNA damage, and dysfunction of the brain-Gut axis. Like dementia, it was published in a nationwide population-based cohort study that revealed the relationship between exposure to pesticides and dementia [97].
4.4 Parkinson’s disease
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer’s disease (AD), having an overall prevalence ranging from 1 to 2 per 1000 people. PD is characterized by various motor dysfunctions, such as rigidity, bradykinesia, resting tremor, gait freezing, and postural reflex impairment, and neuropsychological dysfunctions, such as cognitive decline, depression, and sleep disturbance, all of which negatively affect patients’ quality of life (QOL), as presented through the systematic review and meta-analysis carried out by Zhao et al. [98].
From an epidemiological viewpoint, the association between the use of pesticides and PD was first reported by Barbeau et al. [99]. Pesticides have been implicated as one of the most likely major environmental risk factors for PD [100]. In the case of the relation between pesticides and PD, it was documented that people exposed to pesticides at workplaces have a higher risk of PD than people exposed at home, and exposure at both workplaces and residences has the highest PD risk [101].
Occurrence of PD in developing and developed countries concerning the exposure to pesticides, the results of a study of the meta-analysis carried out by Ahmed et al. [102] showed that both types of countries suffered from such disease in a significant association with pesticide exposure. The pesticides linked with PD included trifluralin and paraquat as herbicides, maned and mancozeb as fungicides, diazinon, chlorpyrifos, parathion, β-HCH, permethrin, and dieldrin as insecticides. In another case–control study, paraquat was closely associated with a higher risk of developing PD [103].
Many mechanisms have been involved in the role of pesticides in PD development. Karen et al. [104] reported a significant reduction in the mitochondrial function in the in vivo synaptosome preparations, there was an increased dopamine turnover and decreased motor activity. In addition, dopaminergic neurotransmission was affected by exposure to permethrin. Also, dieldrin as organochlorine insecticide-induced apoptotic cell death alters dopamine levels and induces mitochondrial dysfunction and protein aggregation [105], while endosulfan inhibits proteasomal activity [106].
4.5 Respiratory disorder diseases
4.5.1 Asthma
Asthma is a common and global chronic inflammatory disease of the airways that affects children and adults characterized by variable and recurring respiratory symptoms (wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and dry cough), airflow obstruction, and mucus hypersecretion hyperreactivity (AHR), all of which interfere with breathing [107]. Several factors lead to asthma diseases, that is, genetic, allergic conditions, and multiple lifestyle factors in addition to low birth weight, prematurity, exposure to tobacco and indoor and outdoor air pollutants, and occupational exposure to chemicals, such as pesticides.
Two major types of epidemiological studies have been published concerning exposure to pesticides and linkage to asthma, that is, exposure of children and adults. For example, it was reported that occupational exposure to pesticides was associated with the prevalence of asthma [108]. In addition, children of farmers are at risk of pesticide exposure through various routes, that is, living close to agricultural fields, participating in farm work, and eating fruits and vegetables soon after harvest [109].
As for lower or middle-income developing countries, exposure of children to banned chemical pesticides was studied in Mexico [110], Brasil, [111], Costa Rica [112], Sri Lanka [113], and Lebanon [114]. As for exposure of adults through the occupational route, various studies have been carried out in different developing countries, such as Kenya [115], Ghana through a cross-sectional study [116], and Ethiopia on a large-scale cross-sectional study [117]. In Egypt, a published case–control study of adolescent pesticide applicators showed an association between exposure to OPs pesticides, chlorpyrifos, and reduction of lung function [118].
To investigate the relation between exposure to some specifically banned pesticides and the occurrence of asthma, Hoppin et al. [119] reported that paraquat as herbicide, dieldrin, heptachlor, lindane coumaphos, diazinon, parathion, DDT, and ethylene dibromide as insecticides, and captan as fungicide were associated with allergic and nonallergic asthma. In a recent ecological study carried out in Argentina, it was found a strong association between asthma in agricultural workers and occupational exposure to the herbicide glyphosate [120]. In another recent study carried out in Uganda, it was reported a strong association between organophosphate and carbamate insecticide exposure and disorder in lung function, including asthma among smallholder farmers [121]. As for OPs pesticides, it was demonstrated in the review published by Shaffo et al. [122] that exposure to various OPs pesticides, that is, bromofos, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, fenthion, malathion, and parathion were associated with asthma.
As a causal link between organophosphorus pesticides and asthma, mechanistic studies exhibited a blockage of autoinhibitory in the muscarinic receptors present in the parasympathetic nerves that innervate airway smooth muscle by which OPs induce airway hyperreactivity [122]. OPs disrupt the control of the respiratory function in the brain stem, which leads to central apnea.
4.5.2 Chronic bronchitis
Chronic bronchitis is long-term inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes. The most common symptoms include cough, mucus, wheezing, chest discomfort that leads to disability, severe infection in the airways, narrowing of the breathing tubes, and hence trouble to breathe. Globally, such disease is the third leading cause of death, that is, over 3 million in 2019. It was reported that more than 80% of the documented deaths by such disease are in low and middle-income developing countries [123].
Such disease is one of the most common diseases caused by several factors, such as exposure to pesticides [124]. For example, in a case–control study carried out in Lebanon, it was found that pesticide exposure was associated with chronic bronchitis [125]. In India, it was found a higher occurrence of chronic bronchitis, which was associated with OP and carbamate pesticide exposures in agricultural workers [126]. In Vietnam, it was reported that 1499 Vietnam veterans who applied Agent Orange (the mixture of two equal parts of the herbicides 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T) showed a higher frequency of chronic respiratory diseases, such as chronic bronchitis [127]. Also, in Singapore, it was observed that pesticides were strongly associated with chronic bronchitis [128]. In the agricultural health study project, it was found that 16 pesticides were strongly associated with chronic bronchitis [129]. As mechanisms of action that are followed by the chemical pesticides to cause chronic bronchitis, it was documented that OPs as inhibitors to AChE, increase the acetylcholine quantity on nicotine and muscarinic receptors that lead to cholinergic over-expression on the smooth muscle of the airway hence causing broncho-constriction [130].
4.6 Autism
Autism has been recognized as the damage that occurred to many important areas of brain development. Autism has been defined as specific conditions of neurodevelopment that are characterized by specific, repetitive behavior, and difficulty in social communication. Also, autism is a condition in which a patient suffers from specific behavioral symptoms that result from many known and unknown biological factors based on brain dysfunctions that affect the developing brain’s ability to handle information [131]. It has been observed that most children with autism suffer from difficulty in their ability to learn as a result of their mental retardation, although few of these children with autism have an average level of intelligence, although they sometimes suffer from epilepsy and audiovisual damage [132].
The statistics showed that there are 62 children with autism out of every 10.000 births [133]. It was found that there is an increase in the incidence of autism among children in many parts of the world and that many of these children were due to the exposure of their mothers during pregnancy to pesticides and other environmental pollutants, whether through direct exposure to pesticides during the application or non-direct exposure, such as the consumption of food contaminated with pesticide residues [134].
A study conducted by Shelton, et al. [135] showed that there is an increase in the risk rates of autism among children whose mothers lived near the fields where pesticides were applied. In some detail, Blatt et al. [136] reported the occurrence of disruption of the nerve conduction system of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) by the action of some chemical pesticides, and it was found that there is a relationship between that and the incidence of autism in studies on the density of receptors in brain tissue. Also, the results of the study conducted by Lyall et al. [137] indicated that exposure to high levels of organochlorine pesticides during pregnancy was associated with autism in newborns. Also, it was documented in a cohort study that some exposure of pregnant women to pyrethroids leads to autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in their children [138]. Other pesticides cause autism, that is, metabolites of diazinon and chlorpyrifos as organophosphorus [139], besides organochlorines, pyrethroids, and carbamates insecticides [140].
Genetic analysis studies indicated that there are 206 genes appeared responsible for showing autism. This set of genes is present at many barriers in the human body, such as the blood–brain barrier, skin, intestine, placenta, and cellular barrier trophoblast. To reach this conclusion on the responsibility of these genes, the response of such genes to various chemical compounds was analyzed by the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD) [141].
4.7 Erectile dysfunction
Erectile dysfunction has been defined as a persistent inability to achieve or maintain an adequate erection for satisfactory complete sexual performance. Physiologically, penile erection is a neurovascular phenomenon that involves the coordination of three hemodynamic events, that is, elevated arterial inflow, relaxation of the sinusoidal smooth muscle, and decreased venous outflow. It also implies the interaction of the brain, nerves, neurotransmitters, and smooth and striated muscles. Any alteration in one or more of these components may affect the erectile tissue and cause erectile dysfunction [142]. Many factors play an important and major role in the pathogenesis of erectile dysfunction, such as exposure to pesticides [142].
It was established that sexual behavior in humans is controlled by hormonal and neural regulatory processes, therefore, some pesticides that act as hormone disruptors negatively affect the nature of the sexual relationship. Various studies showed that erectile dysfunction is responsible for infertility for up to 10% of the male population around the world, as mentioned in the review published by Kaur et al. [142].
In Egypt, Soliman et al. [143] conducted a study in the Damietta governorate. The results showed that there is a close relationship between chronic exposure to pesticides (DDT, and some organophosphorus and carbamates) and erectile dysfunction. Besides, it was possible to prove that acetamiprid as a neonicotinoid insecticide has the most damaging effect on erectile dysfunction due to the effect on several inhibitory pathways [144]. Also, it was demonstrated that some pesticides exert their effect on tunica albuginea, TA tissues (the fibrous envelope of connective tissue that surrounds the corpora cavernosa of the penis, TA composed of elastin and collagen, so, the effect on elastin leads to erectile dysfunction) [145].
It was established that some organophosphorus pesticides cause a decrease in the concentration of the male hormone, testosterone, through various mechanisms. Also, it was reported that the decrease of such hormone was related to inhibition in the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) [146]. Such inhibition occurs because organophosphorus pesticides inhibit the enzyme acetylcholine esterase and as a result, the level of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine increases and thus affects the inhibition of these hormones [147]. The pesticides were found to be responsible for the induction of apoptosis in Leydig cells, which were responsible for the secretion of 95% of the testosterone in the blood. Therefore, the death of these cells results in a significant reduction in the concentration of that hormone [148].
4.8 Psychological disorder
Various studies showed that there is a relationship between poisoning farmers with pesticides and the psychological problems that they suffer especially depressive disorders [149]. London et al. [150, 151] explained that many pesticides, especially organophosphorus, were associated with an increase in the occurrence of psychological problems, that is, depression, which has sometimes reached the suicide of some workers who were previously exposed to such pesticides. With depression, various studies showed the relationship between pesticides and decreasing serotonin levels in workers exposed to pesticides [152]. It is well established for the human being the relationship between the lowering in serotonin levels and depression [153]. At the experimental animal level, it was reported that some pesticides, that is, deltamethrin (pyrethroid insecticide) and acetamiprid (neonicotinoid insecticide) [154], chlorpyrifos (organophosphorus insecticide), and cypermethrin (pyrethroid insecticide) [155] caused a decrease in serotonin and dopamine levels in rats.
Some studies showed links between exposure to pesticides and suicide rates, which has been reported by Faria et al. [156]. For example, it was reported that exposure to high levels of organophosphorus pesticides was associated with higher rates of suicide among workers exposed to these pesticides [157]. The same phenomenon has been recorded in many countries, such as Brazil [156] and Costa Rica [158].
In the case of the developing countries, as mentioned in the systematic review published by Gunnell et al. [159], it was estimated that the suicidal attempts due to pesticide toxicity ranged between 5200 and 21,910 in African countries. In Central America, especially, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador among other countries, it was documented that pesticides account for 31% of suicide cases in this region. In Eastern Mediterranean countries about 16.5% and 5629, in South East Asia, that is, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, the proportion and annual total of pesticide suicides in this region reached 20.7% and 51,050, with a range of 47,720 to 82,680 cases.
5. Conclusions
Various developing countries are still using the banned chemical pesticides as a reason to the cheap price, ease of production or importation, and lack of both registration and control measures systems. Based on the aforementioned diseases caused by banned pesticides, exposure to such substances must be prevented as much as possible in developing countries. To continue the pest control process, an alternative method must be followed, that is, integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, using biopesticides to ensure that there are no residues of harmful chemical pesticides, whether they have been canceled or are still allowed to be used. The possibilities of getting rid of the large quantities of banned pesticides are technologically not available in all developing countries. Therefore, the developed countries must cooperate and the international institutions, organizations, and/or agencies, such as Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) among others, must contribute to disbursing the material compensation and making alternative pesticides available to the developing countries. Such agencies must cooperate to overcome the problems related to using pesticides in developing countries that suffer from the import, export of banned pesticides, lack of training on the correct handling of pesticides, low pesticide education, lack of legislation, lack of enforcement of the available legislation, and absence of monitoring for pesticides residues on locally consumed products. The expected assistance from these bodies may be as providing safe equipment, education, training the farmers, and licensed pesticides applicators in the developing countries through various sustainable, not temporary programs.
In addition, the governments of developing countries must bear their responsibility to establish specialized bodies responsible for managing everything related to the use of pesticides, which have the authority to prevent the import of internationally banned pesticides, under the supervision of the relevant international bodies and to combat the counterfeit and contraband pesticides. So that, through following these suggested realistic practical solutions, it could possible to stop and prevent the continuation of using the banned pesticides at the international level. Following these policies, it may contribute positively to reducing the incidence of the aforementioned diseases and others associated with exposure to pesticides.
\n',keywords:"banned pesticides, human, exposure, developing countries",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81416.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81416.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81416",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81416",totalDownloads:17,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 17th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 21st 2022",datePrePublished:"April 20th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 20th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Nowadays, large quantities of banned chemical pesticides are still in use illegally in various developing countries. The effect of these pesticides on humans, that is, children, adults, including pregnant women, either through chronic residential or occupational exposure, leads to various negative effects. This chapter focuses on the evidence of using the banned pesticides in developing countries and the occurrence of different diseases that affect the quality of life of the affected individuals either at the health, social, and/or labor level. The recorded diseases included obesity, diabetes, Alzheimer’s, dementia, Parkinson’s, asthma, chronic bronchitis, autism, erectile dysfunction, and psychological disorders as a result of chronic exposure to the banned pesticides. It was highlighted the identification of each disease, some epidemiological studies carried out in developing countries, and the mechanisms of action by which the pesticides are linked to each mentioned disease. In conclusion, it was discussed the major causes behind the incidence of such diseases and suggested suitable solutions that must be presented by the US Environmental Protection Agency, Food and Agriculture Organization among other bodies to the developing countries to avoid and overcome the occurrence of such diseases in the future.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81416",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81416",signatures:"Alaa Eldin Bayoumi",book:{id:"11318",type:"book",title:"Pesticides",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Pesticides",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marcelo L. Larramendy and Dr. Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11318.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-039-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-038-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-040-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Evidence of using banned pesticides in the developing countries",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Mechanisms of toxic action of some banned chemical pesticides",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Neurotoxicity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Effects on the endocrine system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Diseases other than cancer caused by banned chemical pesticides",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Obesity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 Diabetes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3 Alzheimer’s disease",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.4 Parkinson’s disease",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.5 Respiratory disorder diseases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.5.1 Asthma",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.5.2 Chronic bronchitis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.6 Autism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.7 Erectile dysfunction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.8 Psychological disorder",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'European Parliament. The Use of Pesticides in Developing Countries and their Impact on Health and the Right to Food. Belgium: Policy Department for External Relations, Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union; 2021. pp. 1-44. 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The study does so with a particular emphasis on the income inequality and poverty effects of trade liberalisation in South Asia on households in Sri Lanka. A static multi-country computable general equilibrium model for South Asia (SAMGEM) is formulated by incorporating a multiple household framework into the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) model. A non-parametric extended representative household agent approach is used to estimate the income inequality and poverty effects of trade liberalisation in South Asia by using micro-household survey data. The findings revealed that amongst the different trade policy options considered, unilateral trade liberalisation ensures the highest welfare to all South Asian members followed by the customs union (with the exception of Sri Lanka) and the SAFTA. The poverty and income equality analysis for the Sri Lankan economy suggests that poverty is predominant in the rural and the estate sectors and Sri Lanka can achieve a significant progress towards poverty reduction as a result of implementing trade reforms.",book:{id:"5946",slug:"poverty-inequality-and-policy",title:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy",fullTitle:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy"},signatures:"Sumudu Perera, Mahinda Siriwardana and Stuart Mounter",authors:[{id:"99337",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahinda",middleName:null,surname:"Siriwardana",slug:"mahinda-siriwardana",fullName:"Mahinda Siriwardana"},{id:"202270",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumudu",middleName:null,surname:"Perera",slug:"sumudu-perera",fullName:"Sumudu Perera"},{id:"202271",title:"Dr.",name:"Stuart",middleName:null,surname:"Mounter",slug:"stuart-mounter",fullName:"Stuart Mounter"}]},{id:"56377",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69948",title:"Trade Facilitation, Economic Development and Poverty Alleviation: South Asia at a Glance",slug:"trade-facilitation-economic-development-and-poverty-alleviation-south-asia-at-a-glance",totalDownloads:1412,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"South Asia faces enormous economic challenges unmitigated by generally poor economic growth. Increasing economic imbalance between countries hinders regional development. Recently, it has been confirmed that trade liberalisation aimed at expanding trade, has been insufficient in optimising the potential contribution of trade to economic development and reduce poverty. Thus, economists pay attention on Trade Facilitation (TF) which has the potential to contribute to economic development. This has motivated us to examine how TF can achieve this development in South Asia, where trade has yet to make its full contribution to economic growth. The aim of this chapter is to examine the economic impacts of TF on trade and economic growth in South Asia. Our analysis revealed that poor TF restricts trade between countries as it increases Trade Transaction Costs (TTCs). Trade delays are relatively high and affect the region’s landlocked countries even more adversely. An efficiently facilitated trading system will enable these countries to participate more actively in global trade. There has been greater focus on TF policies in South Asia, however due to the complexity of TF measures and their investment needs, it is difficult to identify which TF measures have the most significance for the region.",book:{id:"5946",slug:"poverty-inequality-and-policy",title:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy",fullTitle:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy"},signatures:"Subashini Perera, Mahinda Siriwardana and Stuart Mounter",authors:[{id:"99337",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahinda",middleName:null,surname:"Siriwardana",slug:"mahinda-siriwardana",fullName:"Mahinda Siriwardana"},{id:"202271",title:"Dr.",name:"Stuart",middleName:null,surname:"Mounter",slug:"stuart-mounter",fullName:"Stuart Mounter"},{id:"202617",title:"Ms.",name:"Subashini",middleName:null,surname:"Perera",slug:"subashini-perera",fullName:"Subashini Perera"}]},{id:"55494",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69197",title:"Poverty Alleviation: The Case of Croatia",slug:"poverty-alleviation-the-case-of-croatia",totalDownloads:1213,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In economic literature, poverty is usually defined as the inability to satisfy basic material needs, particularly adequate nutrition, but also ensuring satisfactory housing, means of production and other assets. The goal of the chapter is to present the current situation of poverty in Croatia with the intention to identify measures for the enhancement of poverty alleviation. From the multidimensional perspective, what matters is a focus on the opportunities—such as a possibility for education and employment, adequate contact to markets and so on—that are available to people. If a person does not possess sufficient capabilities or endowments, he or she has a limited possibility to escape from the unfavourable situation. Poverty in Croatia is stagnant—those who become poor need a long period to escape from poverty. The inactive and persons unemployed are the dominant groups of the poor in Croatia. The current social protection system is a mix of old and new programmes and it has been adjusted in response to altering social needs and opportunities. Successful poverty reduction is associated with the improvement of the labour market, a consistent increase in decentralisation of financial sources and services, the reduction of corruption, carefully reallocating expenditures and improving coordination among existing social programmes.",book:{id:"5946",slug:"poverty-inequality-and-policy",title:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy",fullTitle:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy"},signatures:"Predrag Bejaković",authors:[{id:"200644",title:"Dr.",name:"Predrag",middleName:null,surname:"Bejakovic",slug:"predrag-bejakovic",fullName:"Predrag Bejakovic"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55340",title:"Poverty and Its Alleviation: The Case of Pakistan",slug:"poverty-and-its-alleviation-the-case-of-pakistan",totalDownloads:3703,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter aims to look at the current status of poverty and existing social policies in Pakistan. Poverty is one of the concerns for the governments of almost all countries including Pakistan. There is a continuous research on the policy measurements by national and international organizations in Pakistan, which demonstrated the decline in poverty. The government has launched many social policies in the past three decades to help the nation in reducing the poverty. Apart from government, many national and international organizations have also contributed a lot in the effort of reducing the poverty. However, there is very little research available on the effectiveness of these social policies, and on the need of social policy areas in particular. Disparity among the urban and rural population is another important factor, which has been discussed in almost every research on poverty. Still, very few social policies in Pakistan are focusing on rural population. Therefore, the issue of social policy needs fresh exploration in the country, which is necessary to make new social policies that can benefit all citizens.",book:{id:"5946",slug:"poverty-inequality-and-policy",title:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy",fullTitle:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy"},signatures:"Muhammad Azeem Ashraf",authors:[{id:"198873",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Azeem",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-azeem-ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Azeem Ashraf"}]},{id:"56377",title:"Trade Facilitation, Economic Development and Poverty Alleviation: South Asia at a Glance",slug:"trade-facilitation-economic-development-and-poverty-alleviation-south-asia-at-a-glance",totalDownloads:1415,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"South Asia faces enormous economic challenges unmitigated by generally poor economic growth. Increasing economic imbalance between countries hinders regional development. Recently, it has been confirmed that trade liberalisation aimed at expanding trade, has been insufficient in optimising the potential contribution of trade to economic development and reduce poverty. Thus, economists pay attention on Trade Facilitation (TF) which has the potential to contribute to economic development. This has motivated us to examine how TF can achieve this development in South Asia, where trade has yet to make its full contribution to economic growth. The aim of this chapter is to examine the economic impacts of TF on trade and economic growth in South Asia. Our analysis revealed that poor TF restricts trade between countries as it increases Trade Transaction Costs (TTCs). Trade delays are relatively high and affect the region’s landlocked countries even more adversely. An efficiently facilitated trading system will enable these countries to participate more actively in global trade. There has been greater focus on TF policies in South Asia, however due to the complexity of TF measures and their investment needs, it is difficult to identify which TF measures have the most significance for the region.",book:{id:"5946",slug:"poverty-inequality-and-policy",title:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy",fullTitle:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy"},signatures:"Subashini Perera, Mahinda Siriwardana and Stuart Mounter",authors:[{id:"99337",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahinda",middleName:null,surname:"Siriwardana",slug:"mahinda-siriwardana",fullName:"Mahinda Siriwardana"},{id:"202271",title:"Dr.",name:"Stuart",middleName:null,surname:"Mounter",slug:"stuart-mounter",fullName:"Stuart Mounter"},{id:"202617",title:"Ms.",name:"Subashini",middleName:null,surname:"Perera",slug:"subashini-perera",fullName:"Subashini Perera"}]},{id:"55593",title:"Inequality as Determinant of the Persistence of Poverty",slug:"inequality-as-determinant-of-the-persistence-of-poverty",totalDownloads:2112,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter aims to establish the relationship between inequality and poverty to explain why poverty persists. For this purpose, four parts are developed. The first one illustrates data on inequality and poverty in the world. In the second one, the background of both problems is traced in order to conceptualize them and determine their relationship. In the third one, a simulation exercise is carried out to show the mentioned relationship; besides, correlations between corruption, inequality, and poverty are made for 18 countries around the world that bear witness to the link between these variables. Finally, it is pointed out that persistent poverty reduction will only succeed if the different types of inequalities are reduced or limited, since it is unacceptable that more than 10% of the inhabitants of the earth live in extreme poverty or that just eight people have the same wealth as half of mankind.",book:{id:"5946",slug:"poverty-inequality-and-policy",title:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy",fullTitle:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy"},signatures:"Julián Augusto Casas Herrera",authors:[{id:"200579",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Julián",middleName:null,surname:"Casas",slug:"julian-casas",fullName:"Julián Casas"}]},{id:"56015",title:"The Impact of Trade Liberalisation on Poverty and Welfare in South Asia: A Special Reference to Sri Lanka",slug:"the-impact-of-trade-liberalisation-on-poverty-and-welfare-in-south-asia-a-special-reference-to-sri-l",totalDownloads:1607,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter evaluates the economic impacts of SAFTA relative to alternative trade policies to determine which policies best deliver increased welfare to citizens, thereby helping to alleviate income disparities and poverty in the region. The study does so with a particular emphasis on the income inequality and poverty effects of trade liberalisation in South Asia on households in Sri Lanka. A static multi-country computable general equilibrium model for South Asia (SAMGEM) is formulated by incorporating a multiple household framework into the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) model. A non-parametric extended representative household agent approach is used to estimate the income inequality and poverty effects of trade liberalisation in South Asia by using micro-household survey data. The findings revealed that amongst the different trade policy options considered, unilateral trade liberalisation ensures the highest welfare to all South Asian members followed by the customs union (with the exception of Sri Lanka) and the SAFTA. The poverty and income equality analysis for the Sri Lankan economy suggests that poverty is predominant in the rural and the estate sectors and Sri Lanka can achieve a significant progress towards poverty reduction as a result of implementing trade reforms.",book:{id:"5946",slug:"poverty-inequality-and-policy",title:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy",fullTitle:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy"},signatures:"Sumudu Perera, Mahinda Siriwardana and Stuart Mounter",authors:[{id:"99337",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahinda",middleName:null,surname:"Siriwardana",slug:"mahinda-siriwardana",fullName:"Mahinda Siriwardana"},{id:"202271",title:"Dr.",name:"Stuart",middleName:null,surname:"Mounter",slug:"stuart-mounter",fullName:"Stuart Mounter"},{id:"202270",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumudu",middleName:null,surname:"Perera",slug:"sumudu-perera",fullName:"Sumudu Perera"}]},{id:"55494",title:"Poverty Alleviation: The Case of Croatia",slug:"poverty-alleviation-the-case-of-croatia",totalDownloads:1216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In economic literature, poverty is usually defined as the inability to satisfy basic material needs, particularly adequate nutrition, but also ensuring satisfactory housing, means of production and other assets. The goal of the chapter is to present the current situation of poverty in Croatia with the intention to identify measures for the enhancement of poverty alleviation. From the multidimensional perspective, what matters is a focus on the opportunities—such as a possibility for education and employment, adequate contact to markets and so on—that are available to people. If a person does not possess sufficient capabilities or endowments, he or she has a limited possibility to escape from the unfavourable situation. Poverty in Croatia is stagnant—those who become poor need a long period to escape from poverty. The inactive and persons unemployed are the dominant groups of the poor in Croatia. The current social protection system is a mix of old and new programmes and it has been adjusted in response to altering social needs and opportunities. Successful poverty reduction is associated with the improvement of the labour market, a consistent increase in decentralisation of financial sources and services, the reduction of corruption, carefully reallocating expenditures and improving coordination among existing social programmes.",book:{id:"5946",slug:"poverty-inequality-and-policy",title:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy",fullTitle:"Poverty, Inequality and Policy"},signatures:"Predrag Bejaković",authors:[{id:"200644",title:"Dr.",name:"Predrag",middleName:null,surname:"Bejakovic",slug:"predrag-bejakovic",fullName:"Predrag Bejakovic"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"67",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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