\n\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\tGuarneri, 1999; b\n\t\t\t\t\t\tSant’Anna et al., 2001.
Mean values and standard deviation of the ingestion rate (mg/min) for different triatomine species feeding on pigeon or mouse.
\\n\\n
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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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During this process, the insect is in close contact with its host, the blood required for reproduction and completion of insect development is obtained and pathogens can be transmitted. Several studies have focused on this period using different tools to monitor the details of feeding, with particular attention given to electromyograms of the cibarial pump. The cibarial pump is a structure associated with a complex of muscles located in the head of the insect. It controls the ingestion of blood from the host and transfers it to the gut. Monitoring of the frequency and shape of the electrical signals produced by this muscle complex enables the phases and parameters of the feeding process to be precisely determined and allows any disturbance or feature that may affect hematophagy to be evaluated. In this chapter we review technical and methodological issues that allow cibarial pump electromyograms to be used in studying the insect blood-feeding process and describe the results that may be obtained from such a system.
\n\t\tHemiptera is an order of insects comprising around 50,000–80,000 species with a variety of feeding habits. Hematophagy is seen in the hemipteran families Lygaeidae, Anthocoridae, Cimicidae, Polyctenidae and Reduviidae. The hematophagous species of the Reduviidae are included in the subfamily Triatominae. Triatomines and cimicids are the most studied hemipteran groups due to their medical importance. Species of both families live inside dwellings and feed on human blood (Schofield, 1995). The relatively large size of the hematophagous cimicids and triatomines facilitates their use in feeding behavior experiments. Moreover, colonies of the main species can be easily reared under laboratory conditions using several vertebrates as hosts.
\n\t\t\tTriatomines and cimicids are vessel-feeders or “solenophages”, i.e., they obtain blood directly from the blood vessels (venules or arterioles) of vertebrate hosts (Lavoipierre et al., 1959). Their feeding process involves several steps, including puncturing of the host skin, a probing phase which consists of identification and canulation of a blood vessel, an engorgement phase, during which blood is removed from the host and transferred to the gut of the insect and finally cessation of feeding, when ingestion of blood stops and the mouthparts are removed from the host\'s skin. These processes differ slightly between triatomines and cimicids, due mainly to variations in gut physiology, mouthpart morphology and the amount and variety of biological molecules produced by the salivary glands and intestine. The main processes involved in the feeding of each group of insect are explained below.
\n\t\t\tTriatomines
The mouthparts of triatomines are composed of a three-segmented labium (or proboscis), a pair of mandibles and a pair of maxillae. Each maxilla articulates with the other and forms two canals: the alimentary canal through which blood passes and the salivary canal that conducts saliva to the feeding site (Figure 1). To initiate feeding, triatomines choose a suitable spot on the host skin where they anchor the feeding apparatus to the surface. They then use their mandibles (serrated structures contained in the mouthparts) to puncture the skin (Figure 2a). The long, flexible maxillae are introduced into the skin and initiate the probing phase, which is characterized by whip-like movements of these structures in the skin as the insect seeks a vessel to cannulate (Figure 2b) (Lavoipierre et al., 1959). At the same time, the cibarial pump produces periodic, isolated contractions that remove fluid samples for analysis by epipharingeal chemoreceptors (Smith & Friend, 1970). The probing phase lasts until the maxillae are able to cannulate the vessel (Figure 2c).
\n\t\t\tTransverse section near the base of the proboscis of a fifth instar nymph of
The engorgement phase starts after the maxillae enter a blood vessel. This phase corresponds to the period when the insect extracts blood from the vessel through the mouthparts and transfers it to the gut. During this process, blood passes along the alimentary canal, through the foregut or esophagus to reach the anterior midgut, where it is stored. Pumping of blood involves a chambered structure associated with a complex of muscles located in the head of the insect, known as the cibarial pump. When the cibarial pump-associated muscles are contracted, a negative pressure is created in the chamber which draws blood up from inside the vessel. When the muscles relax, the chamber closes and pushes blood into the gut (Bennett-Clark, 1963). The contractions of the cibarial pump are sequential, repetitive and usually occur at regular intervals. This is the longest phase of the feeding process and can last from a few minutes to more than an hour, depending on the insect species, development stage and other characteristics of the insect and the host that may favor or delay the ingestion of blood.
\n\t\t\tSteps in the triatomine feeding process. a) puncture of the skin by the mandibles and introduction of the maxillae; b) whip-like movements of the maxillae in search of a blood vessel; c) cannulation of the blood vessel by the maxillae (redrawn from
Cimicids
The feeding process of cimicids is very similar to that of triatomines. Bedbugs (as these insects are popularly known) also have a feeding apparatus adapted to feed on fluids, with mouthparts consisting of several structures. A pair each of mandibles and maxillae (together forming a fascicle) align to form the alimentary and salivary canals (Figure 3). Although cimicids such as
Transverse section of the feeding apparatus of
Feeding behavior of the fascicle of
The feeding process of
The engorgement phase in cimicids begins after probing movements have been completed. This phase is characterized by the rhythmic functioning of the cibarial pump, which promotes a negative pressure inside the blood vessel, propelling blood into the gut. The pump (Figure 5) is formed by a chamber with dorsal and lateral associated-muscles and is linked to the short esophagus (Snodgrass, 1944).
\n\t\t\tInternal anatomy of the anterior part of
The ingestion of blood by triatomines is promoted by the cibarial pump, which along with its associated musculature nearly fills the insect head capsule. The pump of a fifth instar nymph of
Transverse cross-section of the head of a fifth instar nymph of
Longitudinal cross-section of the head of a fifth instar nymph of
The cibarial pump supplies the force to move blood from the vessel to the insect midgut. A fifth instar nymph of
The standard technique for studying feeding behavior in triatomines was developed in the 1970’s by Smith & Friend, based on the models already used for studies of aphids (McLean & Kinsey, 1964; Tjallingii, 1985). Smith & Friend (1970) observed the action of the cibarial pump using an electrical resistance technique, carrying out modifications in order to capture clear signals. One of these was to avoid the use of a voltage source in series with the animal; a signal of sufficient strength could be obtained by simply connecting two platinum electrodes (one each on the thorax and bloodmeal), to the input of a Grass Pi5 high input-impedance preamplifier (Smith, 1979). A further modification was to record from the brass mesh on which the animal rested during feeding, rather than from an electrode in the thorax. This modification enabled signals to be acquired from the cibarial pump of early instar nymphs, which are too small to allow an electrode to be affixed to the thorax. Although this produced a much noisier signal due to the additional resistive pathway through the animal and movements of the tarsi, filtering the output of the preamplifier with a step band-pass filter (General Radio Type 1952 Universal Filter), usually allowed the pump strokes (though not the shape of the resistance changes) to be distinguished from the noise. A bandwidth of about 30-200 Hz was usually employed. Most records were obtained in this manner, since it involved no manipulation of the animals and these would therefore feed more readily. A storage oscilloscope and/or a Brush Mark 280 pen recorder were used to observe the shape and duration of changes in signal associated with pumping. The signal triggered the sweep of a second oscilloscope to record the number of strokes of the cibarial pump, as well as the pumping frequency. A signal derived from the sweep circuit was then used as the input to a rate meter and a pulse counter. The output of the rate meter was recorded on a chart recorder. The origin of the voltage changes recorded is unknown. They may represent impedance changes, in association with a voltage source such as a junction potential between electrodes and the hemocoele or diet, or else they reflect the current produced by activity of the pump muscle, in a manner analogous to that of an electrocardiogram.
\n\t\t\tIn the following discussion, we describe a new system derived from that created by Smith & Friend that can be used to record and analyze the electrical signals produced by the cibarial pump during the insect feeding process. We also show how the use of this technology, together with live microscopy (intravital microscopy) of the cibarial pump, led to the conclusion that the electrical signals produced are related to the activity of muscles associated with the pump.
\n\t\tThe acquisition system is based on the connection of one electrode to the insect, another to the host, and both to a detection system (Figure 8). The electrodes consist of fine wires, usually gold with a diameter of 90 µm and are connected to the back of the insect (Figure 9) and to the host skin with a small piece of tape. Contact between the electrode and insect/host is increased by using a conductive electrolytic gel (Regisgraf-Gel®).
\n\t\t\tBasic system and connections to detect the electrical signals produced by the cibarial pump of insects. AMP – amplifier; F- filter.
Provided insects remain immobile during the feeding process, the only relevant muscles that contract are those associated with the cibarial pump, allowing their electrical signals to be detected. However, insects have an exoskeleton made of chitin which has a very high electrical resistance. Thus an amplifier of high input impedance and high gain is required to pick up electrical signals, which have a peak-to-peak order of magnitude of 1 mVpp, from the suction process (Prutchi & Norris, 2005). These two properties favor the uptake of 60 Hz noise from the power grid, as well as of radiofrequency signals in general. Shield cables and amplifier configurations with a high common-mode rejection rate should therefore be used. Another problem that must be overcome in the amplifier is the DC voltage signals generated by the electrolytic potential of fine wire in contact with the conductive gel. This voltage can vary with the type of metal used to make the electrode, the type of the gel used, and also the local temperature. DC voltage changes of electrodes are slow (in the order of seconds) and must be automatically compensated by the amplifier.
\n\t\t\tGold wire electrodes fixed on the back of an insect used to pick up electrical signals during the feeding process.
For assays with artificial feeders, the electrode is immersed directly in the diet. When insects are placed on a metal mesh rather than fixing electrodes to the thorax, the metal mesh should also be moistened with the electrolytic gel.
\n\t\t\tOperational amplifiers with J-FET (TL071) are used in the input of the acquisition system. These have high impedance (~1012Ω) and form a traditional instrumentation amplifier configuration (Figure 10). A 47MΩ resistor defines the impedance in the entrance of the amplifier, and avoids overcharging the signal from the surface of the insect. Although we would have preferred to use differential entrances directly on the body of the insect to increase the common mode rejection rate, this type of configuration was not viable due to difficulties in fixing the electrode to the ventral surface of the insect and the interference that this would cause to the feeding process.
\n\t\t\tA RC low-pass first-order filter with cut-off frequency of approximately 16 kHz was set into the amplifier input to prevent entry of radiofrequencies eventually picked up by the wires. Any DC voltage in the non-inverting input tends to appear amplified in the output of the block, being due to feedback to the inverting input by a passive RC filter with a high time constant. After some seconds, the DC signal is minimized in the output, since it will appear simultaneously in both inverting and non-inverting input.
\n\t\t\tAfter the amplifier block, there are three filtering circuits: a notch section centered on 60 Hz and two sections of a second order Butterworth filter (Figure 10). The final blocks are the digitalization of the signals and their visualization using a control software. The digitalizing interface has a 12-bit digital-analog converter, with adjustable sampling rate. The control software establishes the input sensibility and the sampling frequency. The output signal is shown in Figure 11.
\n\t\t\tThe components were assembled in a fiberglass printed circuit board and packed in a metallic box with good electromagnetic shielding. The circuit was fed by 9V batteries to avoid the entrance of 60 Hz noise from any rectified power supply. The input and output of the apparatus used shielded wires with grounded outer sheaths. Ω
\n\t\t\tSketch of the amplifier and low-pass filter.
General sketch of the electronically monitoring of the cibarial pump. (a) the signals produced are collected by gold wires fixed onto the dorsal surface of the insect and on the host skin; (b) the signals are amplified 210 times, (c) signals are filtered by a low-pass filters and digitalized by a AC-100 plate connected to a computer, (d) signal’s mV variation are shown on the computer screen. TL071 - Operational amplifiers with J-FET; R – resistor; C- capacitor.
The control software operates in two modes – i.e., data acquisition mode and analysis & visualization. In the data acquisition mode some parameters are adjusted before the acquisition of the signal such as the sensibility, sampling rate and the scale of the on-screen abscissa. The conversion and time recording start on zero and the converted data are recorded on a matrix with 360,000 positions and shown on the screen. Acquisition time varies from 30 minutes (at the highest sampling rate – 200 samples/second) to 5 hours (at the lowest acquisition rate – 20 samples/second).
\n\t\t\tWhen data acquisition ends, the user should change to the analysis and visualization mode, where the recorded data can be visualized as desired. The data can be saved in the hardware or a disc, generating a
Analysis of the signals collected can be manually or automatically analyzed, each of them important in verifying different parameters of the feeding process. For manual analysis the user should load the.
The function “specgram” calculates the discrete Fourier transformation from a signal stored in the vector “a” using the sliding window technique (Figure 12). The spectrogram represents the magnitude of this function. In cases where the insects alter the contracting profile during feeding, computing a more localized FFT by considering only the subset of points from a small window that slides along vector ”a” allows visualization of the feeding behavior versus time in relation to the harmonic content of the signals collected. The line below shows a command to the function “specgram” containing a higher number of configuration parameters:
\n\t\t\tB = specgram (a, nfft, Fs, window, noverlap, ’dflag’);
\n\t\t\tThe number of points (nfft) that comprise the window can be adjusted by the user as well as the superposition between windows.
\n\t\t\tSliding window technique used in the “specgram” function.
Since each value of the vector “a” only supplies information on the signal amplitude throughout successive sampling, the temporal dimension of the experiment is lost. The parameter Fs informs the function of the sampling frequency used to obtain the data. The value T=1/Fs provides the time interval between samples. These adjustments set the vertical axis of the spectrogram to the correct Hz scale and the horizontal axis to time in seconds.
\n\t\t\tThe output graphic shows the intensity of the components of the frequencies based on color tones (Figure 13). The weakest and strongest intensity signals are represented by blue and red tones, respectively.
\n\t\t\tColors in the graph generated by function “specgram" indicate the intensity of the signals.
Rapid Fourier transformation can only be done in periodic signals and the points from the block of data may not satisfy this requirement. A conformant function then forces the signal into periodic by multiplying the samples by a window whose main characteristic is that it begins and ends with values close to zero. This technique inserts distortions in the real signal spectrum, hence the importance of the type of window function to be multiplied.
\n\t\t\tThe parameter ‘window’ specifies the type and size (number of points) of the multiplier function. There are several window functions, including boxcar, bartlett, hamming, hanning, kaiser, etc. The length of the window function should be lower than or equal to nfft. Figure 14 shows three examples of windows, each with 65 points.
\n\t\t\tExamples of windows used to convert signals to periodic.
\n\t\t\t\tFigures 15 to 20 show the steps followed by the functions “fft” and “specgram” to process the signals collected during blood-feeding. Figure 15 presents a small extension of the signals of the electromyogram with 1,024 points from the middle of an experiment. Figure 16 shows the extension of the signals after the elimination of the average value (“detrend” function).
\n\t\t\tpoints from vector “a”.
Elimination of the average value from “a”.
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 17 shows the shape of the Hanning window that will be multiplied by the pre-processed signal shown in Figure 16. Figure 18 shows the profile of the windowed signal after multiplication by the Hanning window.
\n\t\t\tFormat of the Hanning window.
Hanning window applied to the block of data.
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 19 shows the spectrum generated by the FFT with peaks of energy localized in well-defined frequencies. The peak marked with a red dot (7.5659 Hz) is the fundamental frequency of the signal collected. The second and third peaks represent the harmonic frequencies of the fundamental frequency.
\n\t\t\tFinally, Figure 20 shows the spectrogram of the entire experiment, which has a duration of approximately 15 minutes. There is no signal at the first seconds because the triatomine has yet to make contact with the host. Probing begins, followed by the engorgement phase which is characterized by a strong and stable signal with well-defined frequencies. The energy of the signal collected is strongly concentrated within two or three harmonic frequencies. Small frequency variation can be perceived over time. At the end of the experiment, the signal resumes presenting disturbances and noises that remove part of the energy from the harmonic frequencies, visible as a blurred spectrum.
\n\t\t\tIdentification of the fundamental frequency of the signal analyzed.
Spectrogram of the entire experiment, which has a duration of approximately 15 minutes.
The more vertical and rapid the rise and fall of the analyzed signal, the more harmonic frequencies will be found along the vertical axis of the spectrogram. This means that the cibarial pump-associated muscles are receiving more electrical excitations and are working at higher intensity.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFigure 21 shows another experiment where the signal presents higher harmonic frequencies with greater amounts of energy.
\n\t\t\tSpectral content and spectrogram of a signal richer in harmonic frequencies.
It is of paramount importance to confirm that the electrical signals shown above are indeed related to contraction of the cibarial pump muscles. This was done by means of experiments that record the electromyogram of the cibarial pump simultaneously with intravital microscopy of the cibarial pump. Images of the head of the bug during the feeding process were recorded using a digital camera connected to a stereomicroscope (Wild Heerbrug M5-89797). White light was directed onto the insect head to increase its transparency, facilitating observations of the cibarial pump in action. The images produced were analyzed using ImageJ software (Abramoff et al., 2004; Rasband, 2007). They were converted to 8 bits and the software used to calculate the dark area for each frame of the recorded videos (~25 frames/s). The values were transferred to Microsoft Excel and SigmaPlot 2002 for Windows Version 8.0 for analysis and graphic construction (Alves et al., 2011). Contrasting areas in the images (2D images) were measured during the feeding process for the area surrounding the cibarial pump in the head of the bug as an indicator of filling of the pump with blood, related to muscular contractions (Figure 22). Using this technique the chamber of an empty cibarial pump can easily be differentiated from the other structures of the insect head, whereas a blood-filled pump shows the same intensity as other structures of the head.
\n\t\t\tAnalyses of the cibarial pump images recorded by intravital microscopy of fifth instar of
When the graphs constructed from intravital microscopy of the insect head and the electromyogram of the cibarial pump are analyzed together, a strict synchrony can be observed between the electrical signals recorded and the filling of the pump chamber with blood (Figure 23) confirming that the electrical signals recorded are truly produced by cibarial pump-associated muscles.
\n\t\t\tSimultaneous monitoring of electrical activity (mV) and the flow of blood through the cibarial pump (relative area based on analyses of intravital microscopy images of the cibarial pump) of fifth instar nymphs of
The electrical signals produced by the cibarial pump can be selected and precisely monitored in such a way that the profiles obtained allowed delineation of each phase of the feeding process and calculation of the level of effort / difficulty in pumping blood. The signals detected before the bite show a somewhat regular profile with a small variation in mV (Figure 24). The bite is characterized by a sudden decrease in the mV, followed by a strong variation in mV characteristic of the probing phase (Figure 24). During the probing phase, some isolated, clearly formed signals can be seen, typical of those emitted by contractions of the cibarial pump. These isolated signals are attributed to “tasting” of the diet by the bug (Smith & Friend, 1970; Smith, 1979). It is assumed that during tasting, the insect ingests a sample for analysis by the gustatory sensilla, which can identify whether any of the vessel’s content is spread on the tissues due to increased permeability and extravasations of liquid.
\n\t\t\tOnce a suitable vessel is found, probing ceases and the engorgement phase begins. This is characterized by a change in the signal profile from strong irregular variations of mV to variations with similar intensity and regular intervals presenting distinct, regularly distributed mV peaks (Figure 25). The engorgement phase is considered to have begun when a sequence of ten regular peaks is detected.
\n\t\t\tProfiles observed before the bite and during the probing phase (modified from
Profiles observed during probing and beginning of the engorgement phase of
The engorgement phase can last from a few minutes (< 10 min) to more than one hour. The end of this phase is characterized by a sudden stop in the variation of the mV, resulting in a profile similar to the one seen before the bite, indicating that the insect has removed its mouthparts from the host (Figure 26).
\n\t\t\tThe phases identified above can be added to other information to compose a set of important parameters used to study the feeding process. As well as noting the duration of blood-feeding, beginning of the engorgement phase and the end of the feeding process, the insects should be weighed before and after the observations in order to determine the weight gain (WG, defined as final minus initial weight). Based on the cibarial pump records, the total contact time (TCT) is defined as the time during which the insect mouthparts remain inserted into the host skin. Non-ingestive time (NIT) is the sum of the cumulative probing time (CPT) plus interruption time (IT). CPT is defined as the time from initial insertion of the mouthparts into the host up to the beginning of the engorgement phase. If the insect ceases probing and resumes blood-feeding elsewhere, the first probing time is added to the second and so on. IT is defined as the time during which the insects are not pumping blood after the engorgement phase has begun. The quantity of liquid ingested per cibarial pump contraction (QLC) is obtained by dividing the WG by the total number of cibarial pump contractions during engorgement. Pump frequency (F) represents the total number of cibarial pump contractions divided by the functioning time of the cibarial pump. Ingestion rate (IR, mg/min) is calculated by multiplying QLC by F. The total number of bites (B) and the number of interruptions to feeding (I) during the whole process are also noted.
\n\t\t\tProfiles observed at the end of the feeding of
The different profiles of the electrical signals can indicate other features that may be occurring during the engorgement phase. Parameters such as the negative pressure produced by the cibarial pump, dimensions of the food canal, blood viscosity, and the size of host red cells as well as their capacity to deform can influence both the ingestion rate (Kingsolver & Daniel, 1995) and the functioning of the cibarial pump. All these influences modify the profile of the electrical signals of the cibarial pump, reflect the performance of the bug during feeding and may indicate impediments to bloodmeal ingestion. An insect with high feeding performance shows electrical signals with regular peaks throughout the entire process (Figure 27a). Insects that impeded during feeding present a different electrical profile, in which the contractions are arrhythmic and the electrical signals have irregular shapes (duplicate peaks or intermediary forms between one or two peaks) (Figure 27b). The duplicate peaks seen in the cibarial pump contractions of bugs presenting difficulties in feeding may be explained by a lack of synchrony between the two bundles of the cibarial pump-associated muscles. These two electrical profiles can be seen at different moments in the same insect. Performance is usually higher at the onset of feeding, the electrical signal at the end, being disrupted, with a low pumping frequency.
\n\t\t\tA better overview of the whole feeding process is obtained using the matlab environment to analyze the profiles obtained by the electrical signals. The analyses facilitate the identification of all the above parameters and the variation of the cibarial pump frequency during the engorgement phase can be seen more easily (Figure 28). Insects with good performance are able to keep the cibarial pump working at high frequencies (~4 - 5.5 Hz) during engorgement (Figure 28a). Insects with low performance usually are unable to keep the cibarial pump operating at high frequencies for more than the first third of the process, after which some problems are seen such as a reduction in the signal frequency, interruptions and irregular signals (seen as a blurred spectrum) (Figure 28b).
\n\t\t\tElectrical profile of the engorgement phase from high (A) and low (B) performance feeding periods.
General view of the whole feeding process of
The analysis of feeding parameters based on cibarial pump electromyograms of different triatomine species feeding on pigeons, mice, humans or artificial feeders has provided sufficient information for us to know whether any differences were due the host type (Guarneri et al., 2000), triatomine species (Sant’Anna et al., 2001) or developmental stage (Guarneri et al., 2003) or to molecules produced in the salivary glands (Araujo et al., 2009a) or intestine (Araujo et al., 2009) of the insect. The QLC and maximum pumping frequency (obtained from experiments using artificial feeders) are related to the intrinsic morphlogical characteristics of the insect mouthparts. Based on the electrical signal methodology, several studies have demonstrated total ingestion rate (IR) to be the main parameter that determines contact time between a particular triatomine species and an immobilized host. IR values for fifth instar nymphs of the species studied to date vary from 3.1 mg/min for
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t25.2 6.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t15.0 4.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14.5 5.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10.8 4.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.0 2.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.3 0.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t19.5 5.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t11.9 3.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.7 1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.1 1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13.3 6.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7.4 4.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8.3 3.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8.5 3.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\tGuarneri, 1999; b\n\t\t\t\t\t\tSant’Anna et al., 2001.
Mean values and standard deviation of the ingestion rate (mg/min) for different triatomine species feeding on pigeon or mouse.
Unlike IR, parameters such as F and NIT are influenced by the host physiology. Most of the triatomine species feeding on mice have a lower F value than those feeding on pigeons, whereas NIT values are variable. However, except for
Correlation between cibarial pump functional volume and ingestion rate of different developing instars of
Frequency spectrum over time produced by the cibarial pump contractions from
Recent studies have shown that the coagulation process in the anterior midgut (crop) environment considerably influences feeding performance (Araujo et al., 2009; Paim et al., 2011). Insects that had their intestinal anticoagulant knocked down by RNA interference or by ingestion of exogenous thrombin had significantly lower total ingestion rate and weigh gain. The simplest explanation for the lower volumes ingested is that blood in the midgut must remain in a liquid state during feeding, or else backpressure induced by increased viscosity will prevent successful pumping of blood into the midgut (Araujo et al., 2009). As confirmation of the importance of the intestinal anticoagulants, Paim et al. (2011) demonstrated that
The most represented animal species in terms of milk productions are cow (81.05%), buffalo (15.14%), goat (2.25%), sheep (1.20%), and camel (0.35%) that contribute differently to milk world production [1].
\nMilk represents the first food for each newborn, able to satisfy the nutritional needs differently based on yield and composition. Although the proximate composition of goat milk is quite similar to cow milk, the former has received increasing attention due to its peculiar protein, fat and mineral composition and bioactive components.
\nGreater digestibility has been attributed to goat milk due to its casein curd, which is softer and smaller and makes it more easily attached by human digestive system than that derived from other milks. Moreover, size of the fat globules and high proportion of short and medium chain fatty acids also affect the digestibility since it provides a better dispersion and a more homogenous mixture of fat.
\nAlthough the content of lactose in goat milk is comparable to that of other milking species, goat milk is rich in lactose-derived oligosaccharides (OS), especially fucosylated and sialylated OS, which are not degraded by human digestive enzymes and exert prebiotic and antimicrobial functions in the gastrointestinal tract.
\nAn appropriate nutritional intake in childhood is required for not only growth and development but also to support health and immune functions, with short and long-term implications for human well-being. Goat milk has always enjoyed particular attention for its beneficial effects in human nutrition, in particular for fragile categories such as infants and the elderly, even if the potential benefits attributed to such milk were based more on anecdotes than on scientific data.
\nTo date, scientific evidence collected in more than 70 years of scientific research and corroborated by recent advances in milk biochemistry and
The present chapter reports recent advances on the role of goat milk in several aspects of infant health. In particular, the peculiar composition of goat milk protein and lipid fractions has been deepened with the aim to exploit the use of such milk in infant nutrition.
\nThe complex genetic polymorphism of casein fraction of goat milk may offer a strategy in the treatment of cow milk allergy, due to the low amount of casein fractions in milk proteome. The study of the inflammatory response to goat milk in terms of cytokines production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) stimulated with milk protein fractions represents a novel approach aiming at verifying the effective role of goat milk in the treatment of infants with cow milk allergy. PBMCs are easily isolated from blood and are used to investigate the effect of food bioactive molecules on various immune cells.
\nThe impact of milk protein mixture, casein and β-lactoglobulin fraction on cytokine production by PBMCs from infants with cow’s milk protein allergy is discussed in the present chapter. Ten patients with cow’s milk protein allergy and ten non-allergic control infants were included in the study [2].
\nThe composition of protein fraction has been investigated for its role in infant epilepsy by means of
Cytokines secreted by PBMCs are soluble polypeptides and glycoproteins that bind to specific receptors and are extremely potent at low concentrations. Their potency is partly due to the regulation of leukocyte function during inflammation.
\nThe effect of protein fractions from milk on the production of cytokines and reactive oxygen species (ROS) of PMBCs from infants with generalized epilepsy was studied.
\nLevels of TNF-α, Interleukin-10 (IL-10), IL-6 and IL-1β in culture supernatants were determined using Luminex Multiplex Assays, while the level of ROS was measured in the culture supernatants using an OxiSelect in vitro ROS/RNS assay kit.
\nThe effect of the four casein fractions and the mixture of the two main whey milk proteins from different ruminant species (cow, sheep and goat) on cytokines and oxidative phenomena in PBMCs from children with generalized epilepsy are discussed in the present chapter [4]. Separation of milk protein fractions was obtained using reversed-phase (RP)-HPLC.
\nPBMCs were obtained by density gradient from blood of 10 children with generalized epilepsy and 10 controls. Children with epilepsy were grouped according to cytokine levels as follows: one group having levels of cytokines comparable to those of the control group; a group with cytokine levels at least 5-fold higher than the control group; and a last group having cytokine levels at least 10-fold higher than those of the control subjects. The production of TNF-α, IL-10, IL-6 and IL-1β was studied in PBMC cultures, incubated with the four different casein fractions and a mixture of α-Lactalbumin and β-Lactoglobulin from dairy cows, sheeps and goats. In the cultured supernatant were also measured the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS).
\nFinally, the present chapter gathers information on the peculiar fatty acid profile of goat milk lipid fraction and on the factors influencing the increase of fatty acids with beneficial role in human health. With this regard, the acidic profile of milk and digested milk has been studied with the aim to sustain infant nutrition in the prevention of metabolic disorders as childhood obesity.
\nThe effect of
In order to mimic milk digestion, simulated salivary fluid at pH 7, gastric fluid at pH 3, and intestinal fluid at pH 7 were prepared. Adipocytes
In-depth studies have revealed that goat milk is characterized by the presence of numerous polymorphisms in the loci of casein. The different alleles, depending on whether they are strong, weak or null, are associated with different levels of casein synthesis in milk and with different phosphorylation and glycosylation rates of the peptide chain.
\nAccording to the technological properties of milk, goat’s milk from subjects with strong alleles was associated with a greater activity of milk coagulation enzymes, resulting in a greater inclusion of nutrients in the curd, higher yields in cheese and more compact curds with respect to the milk of animals carrying weak alleles. In fact, it has been shown that homozygous goats for strong alleles (in particular CSN1S1 AA goats) are able to more effectively use food proteins and high-energy diets, resulting in the production of milk that is richer in proteins and fats [6]. The milk of animals with strong genotype also has larger fat globules and a better creaming ability than the milk of goats with null genotype [7]. Furthermore, the CSN1S1 genotype influences the concentration of some fatty acids (FA): goat’s milk homozygous for strong alleles have a higher content in short and medium chain FA (SCFA and MCFA), mainly synthesized
Goat milk offers advantages in treating people afflicted with cow milk allergies (CMA) and gastro-intestinal disorders [8]. Cow’s milk allergy is the most commonly reported childhood food allergy; recently a pan-European birth cohort study using the gold standard diagnostic procedure for food allergies confirmed challenge-proven CMA in <1% of children up to age 2 [9]. It has been reported that children affected by gastrointestinal allergy and chronic enteropathy against cow milk could be beneficially treated through goat milk therapy; although some caprine milk proteins could exert immunological cross reactivity with cow milk proteins [10]. Children with CMA present a high risk of reaching out to side reactions to other mammalian milks, so goat’s or ewe’s milk-based formulas or products may be used only after individual testing. High casein polymorphism and check for the absence of cross-reactivity could lead in future to a therapeutic approach based on personalized nutrition.
\nIn pediatric patients with CMA, IgE-binding epitopes on as1-casein, as2-casein, β-casein, κ -casein, β-lactoglobulin, BSA, IgG heavy chain, lactoferrin were recognized [11].
\nA novel approach has been conducted to study the inflammatory response to goat milk in infant with CMA by evaluating cytokines production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) stimulated with whole milk, casein and β-lactoglobulin [2]. Goat milk proteins lowered the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enhanced the release of anti-inflammatory ones from PBMC compared to cow milk. In particular, secretion of the regulatory cytokine IL-10 after PBMC stimulation suggests that goat milk might prevent aberrant reactions towards antigens. Indeed Tiemessen [12] studied the role of IL-10 in T-cells reactivity of children affected by CMA highlighting the possibility that activated allergen-specific T-cells might concur to the formation of an active form of immune suppression
The level of synthesis of each protein fraction in milk due to genetic polymorphisms plays an important role in eliciting different degrees of allergic reaction. High frequency of the weak allele F, the presence of null allele for CSN1S1, and the high frequency of A0 genotype at CSN1S2 locus in goat breeds as Garganica goat makes this milk useful for testing on allergic subjects. Low levels of αs1-CN in goat milk means that its casein profile is closer to human milk than that of cow milk as human milk does not contain the αs1 -fraction and αs2 -fraction [13], while the major constituent is β-casein [14]. The phosphorylated serine residues of αS1 -casein, β-casein, and αS2 -casein appear to be an important allergenic epitope able to bind IgE even after a denaturing process. The αS1 -casein is characterized by linear epitopes released after protein digestion that can pass through the gastrointestinal system in immunologically active forms. The epitopes are mostly based in the primary sequence rather than in conformation. This is the reason why although extensively hydrolyzed formulas are considered the first choice for CMA treatment, these formulas have can also provoke an allergic reaction in some more allergic individuals, due to their residual allergenic epitopes [15].
\nGenetic polymorphism of goat milk proteins involved in human health and nutrition, associated with a different composition of milk proteins, may be responsible for the generation of a broad spectrum of casein-derived peptides [16]. Therefore, the study of the potential bioactivity of the peptide sequences released after hydrolysis plays a role of considerable relevance.
\nThe study of goat casein loci can lead to a differentiation of the goat population, based on the final use of milk. Animals characterized by weak or null casein alleles could be used in breeding programs aimed at producing milk with hypoallergenic properties, while animals with strong alleles could be destined to improve the quality and properties of milk and related products [3].
\nIn ruminant species, proteolytic activity in fresh raw milk can be attributed to indigenous enzymes, which originated from the animal, and to microbial (i.e. endogenous) enzymes. The major proteolytic system in milk is ascribed to the plasmin system, an alkaline serum proteinase system, and to cathepsins and elastase. Santillo et al. [17] investigated the effects of indigenous proteolytic enzymes on the release of bioactive peptides from goat milk. The authors have identified serine proteinases, and in particular plasmin, as protagonists in the release of numerous peptides deriving from β-CN and αs2-CN which could be considered bioactive molecules. The majority of the peptides showed similarity in the structure with bioactive peptides elsewhere described in goat and bovine milk and in dairy products. Some of the peptides have been shown to perform ACE inhibitory activity or have shown similarity in the structure with antihypertensive or antioxidant peptides.
\nEpilepsy includes a group of neurological disorders characterized by periodic episodes of spontaneous seizures; the World Health Organization estimates this disorder affects 0.8% of the world population [18].
\nSeveral reports hypothesize the existence of a correlation between seizures and certain foods. The role of food products of animal origin on the diet has been widely recognized, especially with regard to the effects of protein fractions. In fact, milk proteins play an important role in stimulating the innate immune response, through the activation of pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines [2]. From this perspective, the effect of goat’s milk protein fractions on the production of pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines was tested in newborn patients with epilepsy.
\nCytokines are generally synthesized and secreted in response to immunological stimuli; they are soluble glycoproteins involved in growth regulation mechanisms, in the activation of immune cells and in inflammatory and immune responses, able to reach distant cells in other organs, through the peripheral circulation [19].
\nStimulation with milk protein fractions from different milking species influenced pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines, produced ex vivo by PBMCs isolated from children with generalized epilepsy. Tumor necrosis factor-α produced by PBMCs cultured with caprine milk induced higher levels of this cytokine in 80% of infants. However, the levels of TNF-α detected in PBMC stimulated with goat’s milk reached lower levels with respect to bovine and ovine milk. Regarding the TNF-α production, casein fraction induced lower levels in a higher percentage of patients, while the whey protein fraction induced higher levels of TNF-α in 10% of children, regardless of species. Furthermore, TNF-α produced by PBMC cultured with bovine and ovine whey protein was found to be lower in 70% of patients, while TNF-α produced by PBMC cultured with goat whey protein fraction showed intermediate levels in 80% of cases.
\nBovine, caprine and ovine milk resulted in low IL-10 production by cultured PBMCs in at least 50% of cases, both for casein and whey protein fractions for all milk species studied. In general, the total amount of IL-10 detected was lower than that of other cytokines involved in this study. Interleukin-10 exerts extensive anti-inflammatory properties thanks to its inhibition of antigen-presenting cellular function and suppression of proinflammatory cytokines production [20]. Albenzio et al. [2] found higher levels of IL-10 in PBMCs cultured against cow and goat milk fractions in both healthy infants and infants affected by CMA.
\nGoat milk and casein fraction induced the highest levels of the same cytokine IL-1β in 80% of cases and whey protein induced an intermediate level in 80% of cases. Interleukin-1β is involved in promoting arousal toxicity and possibly in seizure generation [21]. There is a striking example of a dual role of cytokines on neuronal survival in diseased tissue; in particular, neuroprotective actions of IL-1β have been reported, probably mediated by its ability to induce the synthesis of astrocyte growth factors, promoting cellular repair mechanisms. The chronic expression of IL-1β during epileptogenesis suggests its involvement in the modulation of spontaneous seizures [22].
\nCaprine milk showed the highest level of IL-6 in 80% of patients, while bovine milk intermediate levels in 50% of patients, and ovine milk the lowest level in 60% of patients. The bovine and caprine casein fractions stimulated higher levels of IL-6 in 80% of cases, while sheep casein stimulated a lower level in 80% of cases. In addition to the animal species, the whey protein fraction stimulated a lower level of IL-6 in most of the patients studied. The complexity of the PBMC response against stimulation by milk protein fractions can find an answer in the bivalent nature of IL-6, which is necessary for normal nervous system development but has neurotoxic and proconvulsive effects when increased levels are detected in the brain [23].
\nSubsequently the effect of milk protein fractions (αS1-CN, αS2-CN, κ-CN, β-CN, and a mix of α-LA and β-LG) from different animal species (bovine, ovine, and caprine) was evaluated on pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines on infant patients [4]. Evaluating the production of cytokines by PBMC after exposure with milk protein fraction is of great interest to identify potential antigens in milk. In this study the patients were grouped as: 1) children with epilepsy having low levels of cytokines not different from those of control children (LL-EC); 2) children with epilepsy having cytokine levels at least 5-fold higher (medium levels; ML-EC) than those of control children; 3) children with epilepsy having cytokine levels at least 10-fold higher (high levels; HL-EC) than those of control children.
\n\nTable 1 reports the mean levels of TNF-α, IL-10, IL-6, and IL-1β in PBMC from blood of children from HL-EC group, incubated with 100 μg/mL of κ-CN, αS1-CN, αS2-CN, β-CN, and a mix of α-LA and β-LG obtained from bovine, caprine, and ovine milks. The results of this work demonstrate how complex interleukin modulation is in response to the different protein fractions, whether casein or whey protein.
\nInterleukin | \nBovine milk | \nCaprine milk | \nOvine milk | \n
---|---|---|---|
TNF-α, pg./mL | \n284.72 ± 9.33 | \n329.78 ± 8.14 | \n336.40 ± 8.42 | \n
IL-1β, pg./mL | \n58.01 ± 1.02 | \n50.44 ± 0.92 | \n53.44 ± 1.06 | \n
IL-6, pg./mL | \n1,347.86 ± 28.81 | \n1,245.12 ± 26.89 | \n1,266.38 ± 30.01 | \n
Mean level of TNF-α, IL-10, IL-6, and IL-1β in PBMC from blood of children with generalized epilepsy, incubated with 100 μg/mL of κ-CN, αS1-CN, αS2-CN, β-CN, and a mix of α-LA and β-LG obtained from bovine, caprine, and ovine milks.
Adapted from Albenzio et al. [4].
Lower concentration of TNF-α was associated to PBMC incubated with bovine milk than with ovine or caprine milk. The major contribution to the elevation of TNF-α level was attributed to the β-casein fraction.
\nIL-1β and IL-6 recorded lower level after incubation with caprine and ovine milk than bovine milk. The differences in cytokine responses may be associated with genetic polymorphisms of the milk proteins. Concentration was lower for caprine apart from the group of patients investigated; in particular, HL-EC groups demonstrated a lower secretion in the blood stream of the interleukin. Concentrations of IL-6 were higher in cultured PBMC incubated with αS2-CN from bovine and ovine milks than in that from caprine milk. In particular, the β-CN fraction induced the highest levels of TNF-α in ovine and caprine milk, whereas the αS2- CN fraction from bovine milk stimulated the highest level of IL-6 and played a major role in production of IL-1β from cultured PBMC. In epileptic children having high cytokine levels than those of control children, the protein fraction of milk able to modulate the secretion of inflammatory interleukins appears to be represented by alpha s2 casein. Results of these recent works highlight how much the understanding of the effects of complex food matrices such as milk is still far from being completely revealed.
\nCaption to Table 1. Children have been grouped according to the level of cytokines compared to the level found in blood from control patients, as follows: LL-EC group of children with epilepsy having levels of cytokines comparable to those of control group (low level); ML-EC group of children with epilepsy with cytokine levels at least 5-fold higher (medium levels) than those of the control group; HL-EC group of children with epilepsy having cytokine levels at least 10-fold higher (high levels) than those of control group.
\nIn studies regarding childhood epilepsy, it is noteworthy to investigate the onset of oxidative stress following milk feeding, as it contributes to acute injury-induced neuronal damage [24].
\nThe evaluation of stimulation of cultured PMBC with milk and protein fractions from different species on ROS/RNS levels, evidenced that caprine milk was able to mitigate the effect on oxidative stress than bovine and ovine milks. Furthermore, within caprine milk protein fractions the ROS/RNS levels were found comparable. Lower levels of ROS/RNS detected in PBMC cultured with caprine milk fraction could be related to the lower levels of TNF-α in the corresponding fraction.
\nIt has recently been reported that the neuronal damage generated by acute injuries, resulting in detrimental effects on areas of the brain associated with learning and memory function, may be partially due to oxidative damage, which occurs during epileptogenesis [24]. Those authors also suggested that a combination therapy, based on antioxidants and antiseizure drugs, might help to reduce the cognitive impairment as comorbidities occurring in epileptic patients.
\nMilk fat derived from small ruminants represents a valuable source of fatty acids, from a nutritional and health point of view [25].
\nSmall ruminants’ milk fat presents high content in medium-chain fatty acids (C6–C10; MCFA) and five fatty acids (C10:0, C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, and C18:1), accounting for >75% of total fatty acids in caprine and ovine milk. In fact, levels of the MCFA as caproic (C6:0) (2.4%, 1.6%), caprylic (C8:0) (2.7%, 1.3%), capric (C10:0) (10.0%, 3.0%), and lauric (C12:0) (5.0%, 3.1%) are significantly higher in goat than in cow milk, respectively [26].
\nDuring digestion, MCFA are more susceptible to the action of digestive enzymes, thanks to their low molecular weight and water solubility. Gastric lipase plays a particularly important role, as it promotes faster and more complete hydrolysis than in long-chain fatty acids. Hydrolysis of MCFA releases free fatty acids which can then be absorbed without being re-esterified in intestinal cells. MCFA have been used in the treatment of some metabolic diseases; Sanz Sampelayo et al. [25] reported that some patients suffering from malabsorption problems, pancreatic insufficiency, deficiency of bile salts or subject to intestinal resection have been treated with capric and caprylic acid. Derivatives of caprylic and capric acid were emphasized as medical and nutritional specialties: MCFA were suggested as tools in the control of obesity, in lowering serum cholesterol, in infant feeding and in the treatment of childhood epilepsy. Furthermore, some studies show antimicrobial and antiviral activity for C8: 0, C10: 0 and C12: 0 [27], in particular lauric acid has been studied for its antimicrobial activity against Helicobacter pylori [28].
\nThe fat component of milk also contains essential nutrients, such as vitamins (A, D, E, K) or their precursors (carotenoids), essential polyunsaturated fatty acids and isomers of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), which humans are not able to synthesize. CLA are a group of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid (cis9, cis12-C18:2, n-6). The isomer cis9, trans11-CLA, named rumenic acid, is the most prevalent—75–80% of the total CLA content in milk and meat [29]. CLA accounted for 2–4%, calculated as a percentage of total fatty acids esterified in phospholipids, in caprine and ovine milk, and less than 1% in bovine milk [30].
\nDairy products naturally contain CLA and vaccenic acid (VA) as they are produced in the rumen. The CLA content in milk is influenced by numerous factors, both endogenous (animal breed, genetic type, lactation stage and pregnancy) and exogenous (diet and environmental conditions).
\nDiet represents the factor that most influences milk CLA content, which can be naturally enriched by fresh pasture feeding [31], or through the use of specific dietary formulations including oilseeds or fish oil [32]. The content of CLA, VA and α-linolenic acid (ALA) in milk, cheese and meat are profoundly influenced by the diet of animals, which is the major source of variation. The use of pasture, fresh forage and specific vegetable fat supplements in the sheep diet greatly influences the content of these compounds in sheep products [33].
\nIn the Mediterranean area, grazing represents a fundamental dietary strategy in improving the health component of fatty acids present in sheep’s milk and meat. In fact, the meat and milk of grass-fed ruminants are characterized by a higher content of CLA, omega-3 fatty acids, beta-carotene and vitamins A and E than the meat and milk of animals fed indoors. Green herbs are particularly rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially ALA, which have a positive effect on the content of C18: 3n-3, VA and CLA in milk and meat. ALA in the rumen undergoes a partial biohydrogenation at VA, in animal tissues is then partially converted into cis-9, trans-11 CLA, thanks to the intervention of Δ9-desaturase. Fish oil was used in the diet of goats resulting in a significant increase in the rate of transfer of dietary EPA and DHA into milk [34]. Recently, CLA and VA have acquired substantial importance as a consequence of the encouraging results in human studies [35].
\nBiochemical studies showed beneficial effects of the cis-9, cis-11 CLA on neoplastic and atherosclerotic processes [36, 37] as well as a cholesterol-lowering effect [35]. Epidemiological studies showed that C18:3n3 is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases [38], whereas EPA and DHA have beneficial effects on proper brain and visual development in the fetus, and maintenance of neural and visual tissues throughout life [39].
\nIn different studies it has been shown that CLA, being an efficient ligand of PPAR alpha, is able to activate the peroxisomal beta oxidation [40] required for the synthesis of DHA starting from ALA. In addition, the peroxisomal beta oxidation is also the catabolic pathway of oxygenated eicosanoids [41], thus carrying out an anti-inflammatory activity. It follows that the diet should be rich in CLA and VA in order to increase the biosynthesis of DHA and the presence of fatty acids of the omega-3 series among highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA). Furthermore, CLA is metabolized in a similar way to linoleic and is able to decrease the formation and incorporation of arachidonic acid, contributing to the increase of the n-3 HUFA score.
\nAccording to data provided by the World Health Organization (WHO), the number of obese people in the world has tripled since 1975. Obesity and overweight are now recognized as real public health problems in every part of the world [42].
\nThe first cause of obesity and overweight is an energy imbalance between calories consumed and calories expended, which is mainly due to an increased intake of energy-dense foods rich in fat and to physical inactivity due to the sedentary nature of many forms of work and to the enhancement of urbanization. Overweight and obesity are strictly related to the insurgence of many other diseases affecting human health, represented by cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, musculoskeletal disorders, and some types of cancers.
\nIn recent decades, pediatric research has focused on finding a relationship between childhood obesity and infant nutrition in the first six months of life [43]. In fact, in the period between the final stages of fetal growth and the first months of the newborn life, preadipocyte cells develop in mature adipose tissue, driven by hormonal and nutritional stimuli. Childhood obesity appears to be associated with an increased risk of obesity, premature death, and disability in adulthood. Furthermore, obese children exhibit breathing difficulties, increased risk of fractures, hypertension, early markers of cardiovascular disease, insulin resistance, and psychological distress.
\nUntil recently, adipose tissue was considered only an energy reserve organ, but, following the increasing diffusion of obesity, researchers have focused attention in this field over the past twenty years [44], coming to the consideration that adipose tissue does not represent only an energy reserve, but is an important endocrine organ that has numerous targets, including some areas of the brain such as the hypothalamus. Adipose tissue is also involved in the regulation of many processes, such as homeostasis of fat mass and nutrients, regulation of the immune response, control of blood pressure, thyroid and reproductive system functions [45].
\nObesity is a metabolic disorder that manifests itself in two phenomena, namely the increase in the number of adipocytes, due to hypertrophic phenomena, and an abnormal lipid filling of already existing adipocytes, caused by hyperplastic phenomena [46]. Hyperplasia occurs mainly in the developmental age, while hypertrophy in adulthood. Obesity starts with an excessive energetic intake, due to the ingestion of fats and carbohydrates, which induces mature adipocytes to store the excess of energy as triglycerides that accumulated within the adipocytes cells, thus activating the adipogenesis with consequent growth of the cells in size and number. This cellular transformation causes a change in the adipokines secretion, the activation of pro-inflammatory processes and the increase of oxidative stress phenomena [47].
\nInfant diet is able to influence the development of adipose tissue in adults, because the transformation of preadipocyte cells into mature adipocytes takes place during the last stages of fetus growth and the first months of newborn life. Being milk the only food taken by the newborn in these phases, many researchers are interested to study the effects of milk fat component, particularly fatty acids, on the adipose tissue.
\nFlachs et al. [48] observed that some n-3 series LC-PUFAs (polyunsaturated fatty acids), as EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic), can exert a metabolic action on adipose tissue to prevent obesity. Some authors have tested the effect of MUFAs (monounsaturated fatty acids) and CLAs (conjugated linoleic acid) as herbal extracts for obesity [49]. Guo et al. [50] have shown that caprylic acid and MCFA (medium chain fatty acids) have the ability to inhibit the synthesis of triglycerides by adipocytes. Other authors have also observed a relationship between fatty acid composition of diet and childhood obesity, evidencing synergistic effects among different fatty acids; in particular the association of n-6 series PUFAs with high concentrations of LA (linoleic acid) and of ALA (alpha-linolenic acid) seems to support growth of adipose tissue under nutritional
It is therefore interesting to understand the effect of the digestive process on milk fatty acids bioavailability, and whether this process may influence adipose tissue. Caprine milk was compared to human and formula milk to evaluate evaluated the effect of
The role of ROS in adipose tissue is complex. In preadipocytes the accumulation of mitochondrial ROS could inhibit cell proliferation [54], whereas in mature adipocytes from obese rats high level of ROS were observed and protection of adipocytes from oxidative stress is recognized as a potential clinical strategy in obesity treatment [55].
\nCaprilic acid has been shown to induce ROS generation and might also modulate PPARγ activity indirectly via the ROS signaling pathways [50]. Accordingly, digested milk from caprine showed a mean content of free caprilic acid higher than FM and HM (5.17 μg/ml for caprine, vs. 4.85, 3.5 μg/ml of extract for formula and human milk respectively), and this could partly explain the lower ROS content in digested human and formula. On the other hand, many natural lipid compounds with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects have been used to treat obesity such as n-3 PUFA, EPA and DHA, MUFA and CLA [49]. Santillo et al. [5] observed a higher content of free oleic and linoleic acid in digested human milk and infant formula; oleic acid content 1.5 and 6-folds higher and linoleic acid content 2 and 5.5-folds higher than what observed in ruminant milk, respectively. Since ROS are key signaling molecules that play an important role in the progression of inflammatory disorders [56], NF-κB p65 and HMGB1 were evaluated. HMGB1 promotes inflammation and its receptors interact with NF-κB p65 forming a positive feedback loop to sustain inflammatory conditions [57]. Among treatments, the lowest gene expression was found in HM and CM, the highest in FM.
\nGoat milk has received increasing attention due to its composition, in particular for feeding of fragile categories such as infants and the elderly.
\nGoat milk protein fraction revealed the presence of a high number of alleles at the four casein loci, associated with different levels of casein synthesis into milk. Recent research evidenced the important role of goat milk protein fraction in eliciting hypoallergenic reaction and in triggering cytokine response in cow milk allergy and infant epilepsy, respectively.
\nMoreover the exploitation of caprine milk in infant nutrition, in particular cases of pediatric metabolic disorders, should further investigate the role of the acidic profile of such milk on the mechanisms of both adipocyte differentiation and pro-inflammatory
The role of goat’s milk as a nutritional intervention useful to support clinical therapies in some emerging pediatric diseases shows promising results thus deserves further research.
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This would enhance the understanding of the gaps in the field and, hence, provide directions for future research and developments.",book:{id:"8095",slug:"liposomes-advances-and-perspectives",title:"Liposomes",fullTitle:"Liposomes - Advances and Perspectives"},signatures:"Christian Isalomboto Nkanga, Alain Murhimalika Bapolisi, Nnamdi Ikemefuna Okafor and Rui Werner Maçedo Krause",authors:[{id:"284670",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Krause",slug:"rui-krause",fullName:"Rui Krause"},{id:"284672",title:"Mr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Bapolisi",slug:"alain-bapolisi",fullName:"Alain Bapolisi"},{id:"284673",title:"MSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Nkanga",slug:"christian-nkanga",fullName:"Christian Nkanga"},{id:"284675",title:"Mr.",name:"Okafor",middleName:null,surname:"Nnamdi",slug:"okafor-nnamdi",fullName:"Okafor Nnamdi"}]},{id:"39159",doi:"10.5772/51788",title:"Oxidative Stress in Diabetes Mellitus and the Role Of Vitamins with Antioxidant Actions",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-diabetes-mellitus-and-the-role-of-vitamins-with-antioxidant-actions",totalDownloads:6277,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:37,abstract:null,book:{id:"3203",slug:"oxidative-stress-and-chronic-degenerative-diseases-a-role-for-antioxidants",title:"Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases",fullTitle:"Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases - A Role for Antioxidants"},signatures:"Maria-Luisa Lazo-de-la-Vega-Monroy and Cristina Fernández-Mejía",authors:[{id:"46162",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria-Luisa",middleName:null,surname:"Lazo-De-La-Vega-Monroy",slug:"maria-luisa-lazo-de-la-vega-monroy",fullName:"Maria-Luisa Lazo-De-La-Vega-Monroy"}]},{id:"52680",doi:"10.5772/65715",title:"Endogenous Antioxidants: A Review of their Role in Oxidative Stress",slug:"endogenous-antioxidants-a-review-of-their-role-in-oxidative-stress",totalDownloads:3989,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Oxidative stress (OxS) constitutes a disturbance caused by an imbalance between the generation of free radicals and antioxidant system, which causes damage to biomolecules. This, in turn, may lead the body to the occurrence of many chronic degenerative diseases. Therefore, it is very important to know the functioning of those endogenous (and exogenous) antioxidants systems to prevent such diseases. Due to evolutionary conditions in living beings, among other functions have been developed and selected defense systems against the deleterious action of free radicals. Such systems are intrinsic in cells (at level intracellular and extracellular) and act together with the dietary exogenous antioxidants. All these antioxidant systems have very important role in preserving the oxide/reduction equilibrium in the cell. To understand the role of the transcription factor Nrf2 in regulating the processes of antioxidant defense, it must also know the role of many of the endogenous antioxidants that occur because of its activation. Therefore, this chapter makes a literature review of the most important general aspects of endogenous antioxidant systems, which will provide another point of view from which to approach the study and treatment of many chronic degenerative diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension, and Parkinson.",book:{id:"5407",slug:"a-master-regulator-of-oxidative-stress-the-transcription-factor-nrf2",title:"The Transcription Factor Nrf2",fullTitle:"A Master Regulator of Oxidative Stress - The Transcription Factor Nrf2"},signatures:"Tomás Alejandro Fregoso Aguilar, Brenda Carolina Hernández\nNavarro and Jorge Alberto Mendoza Pérez",authors:[{id:"154732",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Pérez",slug:"jorge-a.-mendoza-perez",fullName:"Jorge A. Mendoza-Pérez"},{id:"154908",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomás A.",middleName:null,surname:"Fregoso-Aguilar",slug:"tomas-a.-fregoso-aguilar",fullName:"Tomás A. 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Various diseases such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and neurodegenerative clearly exemplify the chronic oxidative stress. Therefore, it is important to consider that at low and moderate ROS levels, it can, for example, act as signaling molecules that support cell proliferation and differentiation and activate survival pathways in response to stress. Correlations between oxidative stress and disease should be carefully investigated in order to understand whether oxidative stress actually increases susceptibility to a particular disease or opposite.",book:{id:"5407",slug:"a-master-regulator-of-oxidative-stress-the-transcription-factor-nrf2",title:"The Transcription Factor Nrf2",fullTitle:"A Master Regulator of Oxidative Stress - The Transcription Factor Nrf2"},signatures:"Rosângela F.F de Araújo, Danyelly Bruneska G. Martins and Maria\nAmélia C.S.M. 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Mainly, the versatile techniques of ultra−/high-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC/HPLC) are in use for the analysis of assay and organic impurities/related substances/degradation products of a drug substance or drug product or intermediate or raw material of pharmaceuticals. A suitable analytical method is developed only after evaluating the major and critical separation parameters of chromatography (examples for UPLC/HPLC are selection of diluent, wavelength, detector, stationary phase, column temperature, flow rate, solvent system, elution mode, and injection volume, etc.). The analytical method development is a process of proving the developed analytical method is suitable for its intended use for the quantitative estimation of the targeted analyte present in pharmaceutical drugs. And it mostly plays a vital role in the development and manufacture of pharmaceuticals drugs.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Narasimha S. Lakka and Chandrasekar Kuppan",authors:[{id:"304950",title:"Prof.",name:"Chandrasekar",middleName:null,surname:"Kuppan",slug:"chandrasekar-kuppan",fullName:"Chandrasekar Kuppan"},{id:"309984",title:"Mr.",name:"Narasimha S",middleName:null,surname:"Lakka",slug:"narasimha-s-lakka",fullName:"Narasimha S Lakka"}]},{id:"72074",title:"The Chemistry Behind Plant DNA Isolation Protocols",slug:"the-chemistry-behind-plant-dna-isolation-protocols",totalDownloads:3546,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Various plant species are biochemically heterogeneous in nature, a single deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) isolation protocol may not be suitable. There have been continuous modification and standardization in DNA isolation protocols. Most of the plant DNA isolation protocols used today are modified versions of hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) extraction procedure. Modification is usually performed in the concentration of chemicals used during the extraction procedure according to the plant species and plant part used. Thus, understanding the role of each chemical (viz. CTAB, NaCl, PVP, ethanol, and isopropanol) used during the DNA extraction procedure will benefit to set or modify protocols for more precisions. A review of the chemicals used in the CTAB method of DNA extraction and their probable functions on the highly evolved yet complex to students and researchers has been summarized.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Jina Heikrujam, Rajkumar Kishor and Pranab Behari Mazumder",authors:[{id:"74521",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajkumar",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor",slug:"rajkumar-kishor",fullName:"Rajkumar Kishor"},{id:"309357",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranab Behari",middleName:null,surname:"Mazumder",slug:"pranab-behari-mazumder",fullName:"Pranab Behari Mazumder"},{id:"318351",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jina",middleName:null,surname:"Heikrujam",slug:"jina-heikrujam",fullName:"Jina Heikrujam"}]},{id:"64549",title:"Plant Lipid Metabolism",slug:"plant-lipid-metabolism",totalDownloads:2596,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"In plants, the synthesis of fatty acids takes place in the chloroplast and the fatty acid synthase is prokaryotic type. In plants, the structure of membrane lipids is different from that of eukaryotic cells. The membranes of the chloroplasts are essentially formed of galatolipids. This chapter will also focus on the structure and biosynthesis of fatty acids and membrane lipids in plants. Lipids of seeds are essentially composed of TAG; it would be interesting to describe their synthesis during the maturation of the seeds. Some plants contain in their reserve lipids unconventional fatty acids such as gamma linolenic acid in Borrago officinalis L., short-chain fatty acids C: 12 and C: 10, fatty acids with very long chains, and fatty acids that are cyclical. All of these fatty acids can have industrial and/or pharmaceutical applications.",book:{id:"7036",slug:"advances-in-lipid-metabolism",title:"Advances in Lipid Metabolism",fullTitle:"Advances in Lipid Metabolism"},signatures:"Fatiha AID",authors:[{id:"256576",title:"Prof.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Aid",slug:"fatiha-aid",fullName:"Fatiha Aid"}]},{id:"66369",title:"General Perception of Liposomes: Formation, Manufacturing and Applications",slug:"general-perception-of-liposomes-formation-manufacturing-and-applications",totalDownloads:3254,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"Liposomes are currently part of the most reputed carriers for various molecular species, from small and simple to large and complex molecules. Since their discovery, liposomes have been subject to extensive evolution, in terms of composition, manufacturing and applications, which led to several openings in both basic and applied life sciences. However, most of the advances in liposome research have been more devoted to launching new developments than improving the existing technology for potential implementation. For instance, the evolution of the conventional lipid hydration methods to novel microfluidic technologies has permitted upscale production, but with increase in manufacturing cost and persistent use of organic solvents. This chapter intends to present general concepts in liposome technology, highlighting some longstanding bottlenecks that remain challenging to the preparation, characterization and applications of liposomal systems. This would enhance the understanding of the gaps in the field and, hence, provide directions for future research and developments.",book:{id:"8095",slug:"liposomes-advances-and-perspectives",title:"Liposomes",fullTitle:"Liposomes - Advances and Perspectives"},signatures:"Christian Isalomboto Nkanga, Alain Murhimalika Bapolisi, Nnamdi Ikemefuna Okafor and Rui Werner Maçedo Krause",authors:[{id:"284670",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Krause",slug:"rui-krause",fullName:"Rui Krause"},{id:"284672",title:"Mr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Bapolisi",slug:"alain-bapolisi",fullName:"Alain Bapolisi"},{id:"284673",title:"MSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Nkanga",slug:"christian-nkanga",fullName:"Christian Nkanga"},{id:"284675",title:"Mr.",name:"Okafor",middleName:null,surname:"Nnamdi",slug:"okafor-nnamdi",fullName:"Okafor Nnamdi"}]},{id:"61865",title:"A Click Chemistry Approach to Tetrazoles: Recent Advances",slug:"a-click-chemistry-approach-to-tetrazoles-recent-advances",totalDownloads:2600,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Introduction to tetrazole and click chemistry approaches was briefed in a concise way in order to help the readers have a basic understanding. Tetrazole and its derivatives play very important role in medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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