Biomarkers in PCa detection and prognosis.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6360",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Horizons in Laparoscopic Surgery",title:"New Horizons in Laparoscopic Surgery",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Approximately 100 years ago, after the first diagnostic laparoscopy and subsequent developments, the adventure began with laparoscopic appendectomy and cholecystectomy and reached a point where any surgical procedure could be performed easily. Today, many endoscopic surgical procedures have an important role not only in general surgery, but also in the daily practice of many surgical branches. This vertiginous development and change of speed make rapid replacement of the visual and printed materials necessary for training in this area. This book is prepared by surgeons who are very successful in their field.",isbn:"978-1-78923-733-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-732-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-427-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69822",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"new-horizons-in-laparoscopic-surgery",numberOfPages:116,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f135ee4d1d0cc5f961b558004f073b07",bookSignature:"Murat Ferhat Ferhatoglu",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6360.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8294,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 29th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 19th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 15th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 14th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 12th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"200126",title:"M.D.",name:"Murat Ferhat",middleName:null,surname:"Ferhatoglu",slug:"murat-ferhat-ferhatoglu",fullName:"Murat Ferhat Ferhatoglu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/200126/images/4973_n.png",biography:"Ferhatoglu M.D. has been working as an assistant professor in Okan University, General Surgery Clinic since 2016. M.Ferhat Ferhatoglu M.D has specialized in gastrointestinal system surgery. Presenting 51 presentations at national and international congresses. Ferhatoglu M.D. also has 4 articles and 1 book section.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Okan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1146",title:"Laparoscopic Surgery",slug:"laparoscopic-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"59815",title:"Laparoscopic Appendectomy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74192",slug:"laparoscopic-appendectomy-2018",totalDownloads:1097,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Appendectomy represents a fundamental step in the training course of a surgeon in so much that for several decades it has been the first surgical operation assigned to a training surgeon. Yet, laparoscopic appendectomy has not spread with the same characteristics as the operation of cholecystectomy for which laparoscopy has rapidly become the gold standard. We can moreover note that nowadays, in spite of a certain initial distrust, the laparoscopic methodology is fully employed in the treatment of acute appendicitis, even though the use of such technique is controversial in cases of acute complicated appendicitis.",signatures:"Paolo Ialongo, Giuseppe Carbotta and Antonio Prestera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59815",authors:[{id:"213618",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Ialongo",slug:"paolo-ialongo",fullName:"Paolo Ialongo"},{id:"213631",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Prestera",slug:"antonio-prestera",fullName:"Antonio Prestera"},{id:"213778",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Carbotta",slug:"giuseppe-carbotta",fullName:"Giuseppe Carbotta"}],corrections:null},{id:"62900",title:"Diastasis Recti and Other Midline Defects: Totally Subcutaneous Endoscopic Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75653",slug:"diastasis-recti-and-other-midline-defects-totally-subcutaneous-endoscopic-approach",totalDownloads:932,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diastasis of the rectus is defined as the separation of the midline or alba line, which originates in a laxity of the interlocking fibers from the aponeurosis of both rectus muscles. At present, its surgical correction continues to be discussed. However, there is a multiplicity of factors that justify it.",signatures:"Pablo José Medina, Guido Luis Busnelli and Walter Sebastián Nardi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62900",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62900",authors:[{id:"213193",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Pablo",surname:"Medina",slug:"jose-pablo-medina",fullName:"Jose Pablo Medina"},{id:"213197",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",surname:"Nardi",slug:"walter-nardi",fullName:"Walter Nardi"},{id:"215349",title:"Dr.",name:"Guido",surname:"Busnelli",slug:"guido-busnelli",fullName:"Guido Busnelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"61213",title:"Robotic Hysterectomy for Cancer and Benign Pathology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76466",slug:"robotic-hysterectomy-for-cancer-and-benign-pathology",totalDownloads:1006,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The da Vinci Surgical System is an innovative technology that has advanced the laparoscopic treatment of benign and malignant diseases in gynecology. In this chapter, we will discuss the da Vinci Surgical System technology, including its history, utilization, surgical technique for benign and oncologic hysterectomy, future directions and surgical complications. Through a review of the literature, we aim to chronicle the current trends of application in both benign and oncologic gynecologic conditions and describe the current standards of care in this innovative and evolving operative technology. Although the future utility of robotic surgeries and robotic hysterectomies necessitates further research, the potential application of this surgical method affords great promise.",signatures:"Adrian Kohut, Leah Goldberg and Alexandre Buckley De Meritens",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61213",authors:[{id:"212008",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"Buckley De Meritens",slug:"alexandre-buckley-de-meritens",fullName:"Alexandre Buckley De Meritens"},{id:"225697",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",surname:"Kohut",slug:"adrian-kohut",fullName:"Adrian Kohut"},{id:"225698",title:"Dr.",name:"Leah",surname:"Goldberg",slug:"leah-goldberg",fullName:"Leah Goldberg"}],corrections:null},{id:"58211",title:"Laparoscopic Surgery for Gastric Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72852",slug:"laparoscopic-surgery-for-gastric-cancer",totalDownloads:997,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In patients with gastric cancer, surgical resection is the only treatment that can offer cure or increase long-term survival. With the accumulation of experience in laparoscopic radical gastrectomy and the progress in surgical instruments, laparoscopic surgery for gastric cancer has gained popularity despite initial concerns regarding safety and oncological adequacy. As a result, laparoscopic technique has been widely applied in gastric cancer. Different meta-analyses showed that laparoscopic procedures are associated with less blood loss but longer operation time. Many studies have reported outcomes of laparoscopic surgery for early gastric cancer, but several authors also have shown that a laparoscopic approach can also be used in cases of advanced gastric cancer. We therefore conducted this study to expand our experience and to evaluate laparoscopic gastrectomy step by step in the light of recent reports while defining key points and surgical technique.",signatures:"Talha Sarigoz, Inanc Samil Sarici, Ozgul Duzgun and Mustafa Uygar\nKalayci",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58211",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58211",authors:[{id:"213577",title:"Dr.",name:"Talha",surname:"Sarigoz",slug:"talha-sarigoz",fullName:"Talha Sarigoz"},{id:"213868",title:"Dr.",name:"Samil",surname:"Sarici",slug:"samil-sarici",fullName:"Samil Sarici"},{id:"214666",title:"Dr.",name:"Ozgul",surname:"Duzgun",slug:"ozgul-duzgun",fullName:"Ozgul Duzgun"},{id:"214667",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustafa Uygar",surname:"Kalayci",slug:"mustafa-uygar-kalayci",fullName:"Mustafa Uygar Kalayci"}],corrections:null},{id:"60143",title:"Total Laparoscopic Hysterectomy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75652",slug:"total-laparoscopic-hysterectomy",totalDownloads:1295,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The applications of minimally invasive pelvic surgery continue to grow. This chapter focuses primarily on the preoperative evaluation, surgical technique and post-operative care of total laparoscopic hysterectomy. Since laparoscopic assisted vaginal hysterectomy is a slight modification of the procedure it is not being discussed separately. The major physiologic obstacles to safe laparoscopy include pregnancy, increased intra cranial pressure, abnormalities of cardiac output and gaseous exchange in the lung, chronic liver diseases and coagulation disorders. In a redo surgery there may be problems of laparoscopic port entry.",signatures:"Nidhi Sharma and Vanusha Selvin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60143",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60143",authors:[{id:"220214",title:"Prof.",name:"Nidhi",surname:"Sharma",slug:"nidhi-sharma",fullName:"Nidhi Sharma"},{id:"225521",title:"Dr.",name:"Vanusha",surname:"Selvin",slug:"vanusha-selvin",fullName:"Vanusha Selvin"}],corrections:null},{id:"61192",title:"Auto-tracking camera for dry-box laparoscopic training",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76716",slug:"auto-tracking-camera-for-dry-box-laparoscopic-training",totalDownloads:786,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"While laparoscopic surgery is less invasive than open surgery and is now common in various medical fields, laparoscopic surgery often requires more time for the operator to achieve mastery. Dry box training is one of the most important methods for developing laparoscopic skill. However, the camera is usually fixed to a particular point, which is different from practical surgery, during which the operational field is constantly adjusted by an assistant. Therefore, we introduced a camera for dry box training that can be moved by surgeons as desired by using computer vision. By detecting the ArUco marker, the camera attached onto the servomotor successfully tracked the forceps automatically. This system could easily be modified and become operable by a foot switch or voice, and collaborations between surgeons and medical engineers are expected.",signatures:"Masakazu Sato, Minako Koizumi, Kei Inaba, Yu Takahashi, Natsuki Nagashima, Hiroshi Ki, Nao Itaoka, Chiharu Ueshima, Maki Nakata and Yoko Hasumi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61192",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61192",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"59483",title:"Handheld Devices for Laparoscopic Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74117",slug:"handheld-devices-for-laparoscopic-surgery",totalDownloads:1280,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite the well-known benefits of minimally invasive surgery (MIS) to the patients, this surgical technique implies some technical challenges for surgeons. These technical limitations are increased with the introduction of laparoendoscopic single-site (LESS) surgery. In order to overcome some of these technical difficulties, new handheld devices have been developed, providing improved functionalities along with precision-driven and articulating instrument tips. In this chapter, we will review the current status of handheld devices for laparoscopy and LESS surgery. Devices that provide additional and innovative functionalities in comparison with conventional surgical instruments will be considered. Results will be based on studies published in the scientific literature and our experience. These surgical devices will be organized into two main groups, mechanical devices and robotic-driven devices. In general, these instruments intend to simulate the dexterity of movements of a human wrist. Mechanical devices are cheaper and easier to develop, so most of the available handheld instruments fall into this category. The majority of the robotic-driven devices are needle holders with an articulating tip, controlled by an interface implemented on the instrument handle. In general, these handheld devices claim to offer an enhancement of dexterity, precision, and ergonomics.",signatures:"Francisco M. Sánchez-Margallo, Juan A. Sánchez-Margallo and Amir\nSzold",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59483",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59483",authors:[{id:"14715",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco M.",surname:"Sánchez-Margallo",slug:"francisco-m.-sanchez-margallo",fullName:"Francisco M. Sánchez-Margallo"},{id:"188738",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan A.",surname:"Sánchez Margallo",slug:"juan-a.-sanchez-margallo",fullName:"Juan A. Sánchez Margallo"},{id:"214776",title:"Dr.",name:"Amir",surname:"Szold",slug:"amir-szold",fullName:"Amir Szold"}],corrections:null},{id:"60942",title:"How to Prevent Irregular Adsorption of Fatty Tissue into the Irrigation-Suction Instrument",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76467",slug:"how-to-prevent-irregular-adsorption-of-fatty-tissue-into-the-irrigation-suction-instrument",totalDownloads:901,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Background: While using an irrigation-suction instrument for laparoscopic surgery, the irregular adsorption of fatty tissue may damage the tissue or obstruct continuous sucking. New devices of divided silicone drain tip and Count-on Q™ to prevent irregular adsorption of fatty tissue were reported. Materials and methods: A cigarette-type silicone drain was cut 4 cm in length, slipped over the instrument to cover the side holes, leaving 1.2 cm free from the end and fixed by means of 1-0 silk above the side holes. The free tip was divided vertically into four even pieces like octopus arms. Count-on Q™ was the irrigation-suction instrument equipped with multiple small side holes. Results: Divided silicon drain tip could prevent the irregular adsorption of fatty tissue (greater and lesser omentum or epiploic appendices) and could suck saline, fresh, and coagulated blood continuously. Count-on Q™ also could prevent the irregular adsorption of fatty tissue and could suck saline and fresh blood except coagulated blood continuously.",signatures:"Tokihito Nishida and Hajime Ikuta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60942",authors:[{id:"215296",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tokihito",surname:"Nishida",slug:"tokihito-nishida",fullName:"Tokihito Nishida"},{id:"215298",title:"Dr.",name:"Hjime",surname:"Ikuta",slug:"hjime-ikuta",fullName:"Hjime Ikuta"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1041",title:"Advanced Laparoscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dc4dd4e41e2604c5b585fb734757b0e8",slug:"advanced-laparoscopy",bookSignature:"Ali Shamsa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1041.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",surname:"Shamsa",slug:"ali-shamsa",fullName:"Ali Shamsa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"714",title:"Advances in Laparoscopic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e517c04d6d192c2f823eadc2998ac58",slug:"advances-in-laparoscopic-surgery",bookSignature:"Arshad M. Malik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/714.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63407",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",surname:"Malik",slug:"arshad-malik",fullName:"Arshad Malik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5390",title:"Laparoscopic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4007519c91e2b804f5ef9039b691db5",slug:"laparoscopic-surgery",bookSignature:"Arshad M. Malik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5390.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63407",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",surname:"Malik",slug:"arshad-malik",fullName:"Arshad Malik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5928",title:"Hernia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"da6d5993833758a0ca3e4abb4e913a56",slug:"hernia",bookSignature:"Fethi Derbel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5928.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"194",title:"Laparoscopy",subtitle:"An Interdisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"475e8b8971f1aabf4c4be1c3ae857696",slug:"laparoscopy-an-interdisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Ivo Meinhold-Heerlein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/194.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62528",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivo",surname:"Meinhold-Heerlein",slug:"ivo-meinhold-heerlein",fullName:"Ivo Meinhold-Heerlein"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3818",title:"Inguinal Hernia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"026d64acf82215197f973c339c00ed03",slug:"inguinal-hernia",bookSignature:"Silvestro Canonico",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3818.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"157129",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvestro",surname:"Canonico",slug:"silvestro-canonico",fullName:"Silvestro Canonico"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10492",title:"Advances in Minimally Invasive Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99d1149818bdb9bfa83675488599529c",slug:"advances-in-minimally-invasive-surgery",bookSignature:"Andrea Sanna",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10492.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"327116",title:"M.D.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Sanna",slug:"andrea-sanna",fullName:"Andrea Sanna"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8326",title:"Recent Advances in Laparoscopic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb33202378533dfccd860269d494d6a6",slug:"recent-advances-in-laparoscopic-surgery",bookSignature:"Francisco M. Sánchez Margallo and Juan A. Sánchez-Margallo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8326.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14715",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco M.",surname:"Sánchez-Margallo",slug:"francisco-m.-sanchez-margallo",fullName:"Francisco M. Sánchez-Margallo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"82323",slug:"corrigentum-to-scientific-swift-in-bioremediation-an-overview",title:"Corrignedum to: Scientific Swift in Bioremediation: An Overview",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82323.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82323",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82323",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82323",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82323",chapter:{id:"45227",slug:"scientific-swift-in-bioremediation-an-overview",signatures:"Ranjith N. Kumavath and Pratap Deverapalli",dateSubmitted:"October 10th 2012",dateReviewed:"March 18th 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 2nd 2013",book:{id:"3547",title:"Applied Bioremediation",subtitle:"Active and Passive Approaches",fullTitle:"Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2013",bookSignature:"Yogesh B. Patil and Prakash Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3547.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164249",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogesh",middleName:"Bhagwan",surname:"Patil",slug:"yogesh-patil",fullName:"Yogesh Patil"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"163692",title:"Dr.",name:"Ranjith",middleName:null,surname:"Kumavath",fullName:"Ranjith Kumavath",slug:"ranjith-kumavath",email:"rnkumavath@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"167339",title:"Mr.",name:"Pratap",middleName:null,surname:"Devarapalli",fullName:"Pratap Devarapalli",slug:"pratap-devarapalli",email:"pratap66666@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Tasmania",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"45227",slug:"scientific-swift-in-bioremediation-an-overview",signatures:"Ranjith N. Kumavath and Pratap Deverapalli",dateSubmitted:"October 10th 2012",dateReviewed:"March 18th 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 2nd 2013",book:{id:"3547",title:"Applied Bioremediation",subtitle:"Active and Passive Approaches",fullTitle:"Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2013",bookSignature:"Yogesh B. Patil and Prakash Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3547.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164249",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogesh",middleName:"Bhagwan",surname:"Patil",slug:"yogesh-patil",fullName:"Yogesh Patil"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"163692",title:"Dr.",name:"Ranjith",middleName:null,surname:"Kumavath",fullName:"Ranjith Kumavath",slug:"ranjith-kumavath",email:"rnkumavath@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"167339",title:"Mr.",name:"Pratap",middleName:null,surname:"Devarapalli",fullName:"Pratap Devarapalli",slug:"pratap-devarapalli",email:"pratap66666@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Tasmania",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},book:{id:"3547",title:"Applied Bioremediation",subtitle:"Active and Passive Approaches",fullTitle:"Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2013",bookSignature:"Yogesh B. Patil and Prakash Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3547.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164249",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogesh",middleName:"Bhagwan",surname:"Patil",slug:"yogesh-patil",fullName:"Yogesh Patil"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10979",leadTitle:null,title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Challenges of Child Rearing in a Changing Society",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Parenting is a lifelong task and parents are always remaining as a parent. Parenting in the present situation faces many challenges which need to be reviewed and understood with profuse equanimity and alacrity. This book tries to consider the process of parenting in different conditions such as during COVID-19 lockdown, in the refugee camps, and in different cultural structures and economic conditions. Situations that families face due to changing conditions such as global changes which cause lifestyles, immigration patterns, social conflicts, and raising children with developmental disabilities have been discussed. Topics such as professional concern with child care and education, gender roles and caregiving, and father’s involvement in parenting, have been covered in different chapters of the book.",isbn:"978-1-83969-973-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-972-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-974-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95672",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"parenting-challenges-of-child-rearing-in-a-changing-society",numberOfPages:252,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6f345ebcf4fd61e73643c69063a12c7b",bookSignature:"Sayyed Ali Samadi",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10979.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:1336,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 2nd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 30th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 29th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 17th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 16th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in the field of establishing services for parents and children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and other developmental disabilities in low and middle-income countries. Dr. Samadi obtained his doctorate at the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland, UK. He published 68 journal papers and edited 16 books.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"52145",title:"Dr.",name:"Sayyed Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Samadi",slug:"sayyed-ali-samadi",fullName:"Sayyed Ali Samadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52145/images/system/52145.png",biography:"Dr. Sayyed Ali Samadi was born and raised in Mahabad the Kurdish city of Iran. He studied in Iran and the UK. He is an active researcher and an advocate in the field of developmental disabilities. His background is in Instructional Technology, child psychology, after which he received his Ph.D. in Intellectual and developmental disabilities. He has been acted as the advisor for establishing health and educational services for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders in Low- and middle-income countries. He has published over 40 research papers in international peer-review journals and published several books and book chapters in both Persian and English. Presentably he is working as the senior advisor for establishing the health, rehabilitation, and training services at Bahoz center in Erbil the Kurdistan region of Iraq.",institutionString:"University of Ulster",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Ulster",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1334",title:"Parenting",slug:"parenting"}],chapters:[{id:"78724",title:"Decolonizing Imperialized Upbringing Styles in the African Context",slug:"decolonizing-imperialized-upbringing-styles-in-the-african-context",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"422295",title:"Dr.",name:"JULIUS",surname:"KIAMBI",slug:"julius-kiambi",fullName:"JULIUS KIAMBI"}]},{id:"78649",title:"The Ubuntu Parenting: Kairos Consideration for the 21st Century Dynamics and Globalization",slug:"the-ubuntu-parenting-kairos-consideration-for-the-21st-century-dynamics-and-globalization",totalDownloads:93,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"422364",title:"Dr.",name:"Blessing",surname:"Shambare",slug:"blessing-shambare",fullName:"Blessing Shambare"}]},{id:"80022",title:"A Review of Parenting in A Multicultural Country: The Malaysian Experience",slug:"a-review-of-parenting-in-a-multicultural-country-the-malaysian-experience",totalDownloads:152,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"424598",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruziana",surname:"Masiran",slug:"ruziana-masiran",fullName:"Ruziana Masiran"}]},{id:"79316",title:"The Caregivers’ Perspective in Coping with the Challenges Faced by Orphans and Vulnerable Children at the Household Level in Zimbabwe",slug:"the-caregivers-perspective-in-coping-with-the-challenges-faced-by-orphans-and-vulnerable-children-at",totalDownloads:107,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"306414",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Ringson",slug:"john-ringson",fullName:"John Ringson"}]},{id:"81061",title:"Online Training for Parents of Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders during COVID-19 Pandemic",slug:"online-training-for-parents-of-individuals-with-autism-spectrum-disorders-during-covid-19-pandemic",totalDownloads:54,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"52145",title:"Dr.",name:"Sayyed Ali",surname:"Samadi",slug:"sayyed-ali-samadi",fullName:"Sayyed Ali Samadi"}]},{id:"79261",title:"Exploring the Quality of “Quality Time”: A Temporal View on Mothers’ Experiences during COVID-19",slug:"exploring-the-quality-of-quality-time-a-temporal-view-on-mothers-experiences-during-covid-19",totalDownloads:85,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"424000",title:"Dr.",name:"Ortal",surname:"Slobodin",slug:"ortal-slobodin",fullName:"Ortal Slobodin"}]},{id:"79726",title:"Between Home and School: Exploring Parents’ Experiences of Educating in a Pandemic",slug:"between-home-and-school-exploring-parents-experiences-of-educating-in-a-pandemic",totalDownloads:121,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"324010",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",surname:"Ross",slug:"helen-ross",fullName:"Helen Ross"}]},{id:"79795",title:"Parental Education, Ethnicity, and Functional Connectivity between Nucleus Accumbens and Frontoparietal Network",slug:"parental-education-ethnicity-and-functional-connectivity-between-nucleus-accumbens-and-frontoparieta",totalDownloads:103,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"311058",title:"Dr.",name:"Shervin",surname:"Assari",slug:"shervin-assari",fullName:"Shervin Assari"}]},{id:"81060",title:"Stories of Struggle and Resilience: Parenting in Three Refugee Contexts",slug:"stories-of-struggle-and-resilience-parenting-in-three-refugee-contexts",totalDownloads:46,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"320585",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Deborah",surname:"Young",slug:"deborah-young",fullName:"Deborah Young"},{id:"320586",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicole",surname:"Sager",slug:"nicole-sager",fullName:"Nicole Sager"},{id:"438090",title:"Prof.",name:"Alia",surname:"Assali",slug:"alia-assali",fullName:"Alia Assali"},{id:"438093",title:"Mrs.",name:"Manar",surname:"Younis",slug:"manar-younis",fullName:"Manar Younis"},{id:"438095",title:"Mr.",name:"Marios",surname:"Dakis",slug:"marios-dakis",fullName:"Marios Dakis"}]},{id:"79257",title:"Communication in Healthy Parenting: The Interplay of Positive Parenting Strategies and Parents’ Communication Styles",slug:"communication-in-healthy-parenting-the-interplay-of-positive-parenting-strategies-and-parents-commun",totalDownloads:141,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"423262",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Amarachi",surname:"Ijeoma Dooshima Simon",slug:"amarachi-ijeoma-dooshima-simon",fullName:"Amarachi Ijeoma Dooshima Simon"}]},{id:"79404",title:"Parental Alienation: In the Child’s Worst Interest",slug:"parental-alienation-em-in-the-child-s-worst-interest-em-",totalDownloads:316,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"193768",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Teresa C.",surname:"Silva",slug:"teresa-c.-silva",fullName:"Teresa C. Silva"}]},{id:"79783",title:"Creating Communities of Parents",slug:"creating-communities-of-parents",totalDownloads:100,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"424903",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingunn",surname:"Skjesol",slug:"ingunn-skjesol",fullName:"Ingunn Skjesol"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"301331",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Vulovic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/301331/images/8498_n.jpg",email:"mia.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6494",title:"Behavior Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a81a7163705b2765f9eb0b21dec70e",slug:"behavior-analysis",bookSignature:"Huei-Tse Hou and Carolyn S. Ryan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6494.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"96493",title:"Prof.",name:"Huei Tse",surname:"Hou",slug:"huei-tse-hou",fullName:"Huei Tse Hou"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9052",title:"Psychoanalysis",subtitle:"A New Overview",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"69cc7a085f5417038f532cf11edee22f",slug:"psychoanalysis-a-new-overview",bookSignature:"Floriana Irtelli, Barbara Marchesi and Federico Durbano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9052.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174641",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriana",surname:"Irtelli",slug:"floriana-irtelli",fullName:"Floriana Irtelli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10981",title:"Sport Psychology in Sports, Exercise and Physical Activity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5214c44bdc42978449de0751ca364684",slug:"sport-psychology-in-sports-exercise-and-physical-activity",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10981.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde Dorthea Grindvik",surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-dorthea-grindvik-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde Dorthea Grindvik Nielsen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10211",title:"The Science of Emotional Intelligence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"447fc7884303a10093bc189f4c82dd47",slug:"the-science-of-emotional-intelligence",bookSignature:"Simon George Taukeni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10211.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202046",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon George",surname:"Taukeni",slug:"simon-george-taukeni",fullName:"Simon George Taukeni"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7811",title:"Beauty",subtitle:"Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f6fd59694706550db8dd1082a8e457b",slug:"beauty-cosmetic-science-cultural-issues-and-creative-developments",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine and Júlia Scherer Santos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7811.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"59625",title:"An Overview on Prostate Pathophysiology: New Insights into Prostate Cancer Clinical Diagnosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74269",slug:"an-overview-on-prostate-pathophysiology-new-insights-into-prostate-cancer-clinical-diagnosis",body:'\nThe human prostate is a pelvic gland located under the urinary bladder and in front of the rectum, and it is composed by glandular and non-glandular structures surrounded by one same capsule [1, 2, 3]. It consists mainly of muscular-fibrous tissue, which it is subdivided into about 50 tubule-alveolar glands [4], at the lateral and posterior segment of the urethra, which drain to 20–30 small prostatic ductules opening in the prostate, or close to the posterior wall of the prostatic urethra [5, 6, 7, 8]. The prostatic secretion, which accounts for approximately 20% of the seminal fluid, confers a characteristic odor of this flowing, and participates in the activation of spermatozoa [8]. The ducts of the prostatic glands open into a sulcus located on each side of the urethral ridge, called the prostatic sinus. The prostate is traversed throughout the prostatic portion of the urethra, from the base to the apex, with a slightly curved course in the anterior-posterior direction, and closer to its anterior face [5, 6, 7, 8].
\nThe prostate is anatomically described as an inverted pyramid whose apex is the lowest portion, and which is located about 1.5 cm behind the lower border of the pubic symphysis and is directly related to the upper face of the urogenital diaphragm. The base of the prostate gland is in a horizontal plane that passes through the middle part of the pubic symphysis, and it is directly related to the cervix of the bladder and the inner ostium of the urethra. Inferior-lateral surfaces are convex and are separated from the superior fascia of the pelvic diaphragm by a venous plexus, and are related to the pubococcygeal muscles [6, 7, 8, 9]. The posterior surface is flattened and triangular, and it is related to the bladder of the rectum. The anterior surface is narrow and separated from the pubic symphysis by retropubic fat tissue. The upper part is related to the seminal glands and to the lower extremities of the vas deferens, and near its base presents small depressions for the entrance of the ejaculatory ducts [6].
\nDespite not being clearly distinguished anatomically, the following prostate lobes are traditionally defined: right, left and a middle lobe [5, 6, 7, 8]. In pathology, the prostate is described in different zones (peripheral zone, central zone, transition zone and anterior fibro-muscular zone) [9]. The right and left lobes are not isolated from each other, being connected, prior to the urethra, by the isthmus of the prostate, constituted by fibromuscular tissue. Their muscular fibers represent the superior continuation of the external sphincter muscle of the urethra to the cervix of the bladder, and it is devoid of glandular tissue. The middle lobe, of variable size, is the part of the prostate that protrudes internally from the upper part of the posterior face of the organ, between the ejaculatory duct and the urethra [5, 6, 7, 8]. However, structurally, the middle lobe is indeed inseparable from the right and left lobes. In each prostate lobe we can identify four lobules: (I) Posterior-Inferior, located posterior to the urethra, and inferior to the ejaculatory ducts. It constitutes the face of the prostate, palpable to digital rectal examination; (II) Lateral-Inferior, directly lateral to the urethra, forming the major part of the right or left lobe; (III) Superomedial, deeply to the inferoposterior lobe, surrounding the ipsilateral ejaculatory duct; (IV) Anteromedial, deeply to the inferolateral lobe, directly lateral to the proximal portion of the prostatic urethra.
\nThe superior fascia of the pelvic diaphragm reflects in the superior direction from the visceral fascia of the pelvis to envelop the prostate, and then continues superiorly over the bladder. The portion covering the prostate is dense and fibrous, being called the fascia of the prostate. It is located externally to the prostate capsule and is separated from it, laterally and anteriorly, by the loose connective tissue harboring the prostatic venous plexus. The fascia of the prostate fuses anteriorly with the tendinous arch of the pelvic fascia, which at the level of the pube is called the medial puboprostatic ligament [5, 6, 7]. Smooth muscle fibers fulfill this ligament, and it is called the puboprostatic muscle. The lateral puboprostatic ligament extends from the fascia of the prostate to the tendon arch of the pelvic fascia. Inferior to the puboprostatic ligaments, the prostate associates with the medial borders of the pubococcygeus muscle, and from this point the muscle fibers extend in the superior direction to fuse with the fascia of the prostate, forming the prostate lifting muscle. Later, the fascia of the prostate is separated from the tunica of the rectum by the rectovesical septum [6, 10].
\nThe prostatic arteries are usually direct branches of the inferior bladder artery from one of the branches of the internal iliac artery. In some cases, it may be a branch of the internal pudendal artery, or the medial rectal artery [5, 6, 7, 10]. The veins draining the prostate girdle, to form the prostatic venous plexus, located in the fascia of the prostate. The prostatic venous plexus continuous superiorly with the bladder venous plexus, and communicates posteriorly with the internal vertebral venous plexus. The lymphatic vessels of the prostate drain into the internal iliac lymph nodes [5, 6, 7, 10]. Finally, the prostate is innervated by sympathetic fibers from the lower hypogastric plexus. These fibers innervate smooth muscle fibers and blood vessels [5, 6, 7, 10].
\nThere are considerable variations related to the prostate anatomy, biochemistry and pathology of several mammal species. In humans, the sexual accessory tissues (or glands) produce high concentration of several biologically active substances, such as fructose, citric acid, spermine, prostaglandins, zinc, proteins including immunoglobulins, and specific enzymes (i.e. esterases and phosphatases) [11].
\nThe growth, differentiation and maintenance of the activity of the prostate gland [12] are mainly controlled by androgens, which is the basis of the anti-androgenic therapies for the treatment of primary prostate cancer. The development and physiology of the prostate is also directly modulated by somatothrophic hormones (such as insulin, prolactin and growth hormone), retinoic acid and estrogen [13, 14], as well as a biomolecular scenario of complex interactions between the epithelium and stroma [15], which sum up to a complicated and poorly understood regulatory mechanism.
\nReceptors type androgen receptor (AR) and estrogen receptor (ER) are responsible for mediating the physiological effects of androgens and estrogens, respectively [16, 17]. Briefly, the receptor located in the cytoplasm binds to testosterone or dihydrotestosterone, dissociates a heat shock protein (HSP), dimerizes, and it is translocated to the nucleus, where, together with a variety of co-activators and co-repressors, activates or inactivates different sets of genes [18]. The classic AR has 110 kDa and several features in common with members of the nuclear receptor family, such as estrogen receptors, progesterone, thyroid hormones, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) [19].
\nTestosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) act through AR. The AR primarily functions as a transcription factor. It is an extremely important molecule, responsible for the primary male sex differentiation (formation of gonads and external genitalia), and for the pubertal acquisition of the male secondary characteristics (events associated with puberty and adolescence) [20]. It is also liable for most cases of complete androgen insensitivity (resulting in infertile XY karyotype female) [21], and it is deeply associated with the origin of prostate tumors and, particularly, with the recurrence of androgen independent cancer [22, 23, 24].
\nThe most striking androgen dependence of the prostate gland is observed by hormonal or surgical castration. In a rat model, removal of the testes results in prostate involution to approximately 10% of its original size after 21 days. Epithelial cells death and stroma reorganization are responsible by such event [25]. Similar to AR, estrogen receptors (ERs) belong to the family of nuclear receptors. The two subtypes, ERα and ERβ, have different physiological roles. They share homology with each other, but are the products of different genes [26]. Both ERα and ERβ are expressed in the prostate. In adults, ERα and ERβ are preferentially found in the stroma and in the epithelium, respectively [27]. Similarly to the AR, ER expression might be suppressed by methylation of its promoters, and this epigenetic alteration was suggested to be involved in both benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer development [28, 33].
\nThe action of estrogens on prostatic ductal morphogenesis and cell differentiation is complex [14]. However, a brief exposure of rodents to estrogens during neonatal development causes irreversible and dose-dependent effects on morphology, cellular organization and function of the gland [29, 30]. Reduced prostate size at adulthood was associated with decreased responsiveness at puberty due to reduced AR content [31]. The reduced AR levels were justified by increased proteasomal degradation of AR protein at postnatal day 10 [32].
\nEstrogen exposure to occasional doses during the gestation period causes increased concentrations of androgen receptor in mice, ductal budding and prostate weight later in the adulthood [34]; whereas the neonatal exposure to high doses compromises the growth epithelial differentiation, and accounts for changes in the secretory function, as well as for incidence of prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) and prostatitis [14, 29]. The effect of high doses of estrogens on the neonatal prostate is due not only to the changes in the androgen concentrations, via permanent actions on the hypothalamic-gonadal pituitary gland, but also due to direct effects on the prostate gland, since the administration of testosterone is not able to reverse those effects [35]; this phenomena is known as estrogenic
High doses of estrogen administered in adult animals function as castration, resulting in the inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, by suppression of the gonadotrophin releasing hormone, and consequent blockage of the hormone testosterone by the testes [36, 37]. Nonetheless, such effects can be reversed (contrary to those observed in neonates), by replacing testosterone or dihydrotestosterone hormones.
\nIt is well established that some of the circulating androgens are converted into estrogens in various peripheral tissues by the enzyme aromatase [38]. The aromatase was also identified in the human prostate, suggesting that this gland is able to perform the aromatization reaction and it is a feasible local source of estrogen production [39]. Estrogens acts in target cells all over the body and in addition to sexual organs they influence growth, health and cell activity. Despite early work of estrogens used as therapy for androgen-resistant prostate cancer, it can be critical in predisposing prostate cancer.
\nEstrogens also participate in several pathological changes in the prostate; among the very well described pathologies is the induction of chronic inflammation [40, 41], squamous metaplasia reported in several species of mammals [42, 43, 44], and human prostate cancer [45].
\nThere are several pathological complications, including benign and malign proliferative alterations, often aging escalate-associated, that affect prostate gland. So, studies focusing on the growth regulation and physiology of the prostate are very precious to understand the origin and progression of these pathologies.
\nBenign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) is a common urological issue that causes prostate enlargement in men after 40-years-old. It is a noncancerous augmentation of the prostate gland size, with stromal and glandular epithelial hyperplasia in the transition zone. It is estimated that 50% of 50 year old, and 75% of 80 year old men could have some lower urinary tract symptom (LUTS). In such condition the urethra can be partially or totally blocked, resulting in urinary retention, weak urination stream, incomplete bladder emptying and hesitancy; and so carrying secondary problems as urinary tract infections, bladder stones and chronic kidney disease, culminating in kidney failure. The LUTS is reflection of the hormonal changes rising with age, and resulting in abnormal stromal and epithelial cell proliferation (hyperplasia) in the transition zone of the prostate. The molecular etiology of these events remains unclear, but few studies attempt to correlate it to sex steroids hormones [46], also known as gonadocorticoids and gonadal steroids, that interact with vertebrate androgen and estrogen receptors. It is important to mention that the BPH is generally not a precursor lesion to a prostate cancer (PCa) condition.
\nSome animal models studies, including dogs and chimpanzees, have been performed in order to understand the prostate conditions. Chimpanzees sporadically suffer from age-associated BPH, and are the closest match to human prostate gland. Throughout the time, dogs are like human counterpart because they develop BPH containing distinct nodules of hyperplasia with diffuse areas of compression of the rectum producing constipation, a symptom opposed to the urinary retention in men [47, 48]. In order to supply these deficiencies, some transgenic animal models using other normal mammal species were developed. Prostate-specific 15-LOX-2 transgenic mouse and PPAR∂ knockdown mice naturally develop increased prostate size with age, in addition to epithelial-hyperplasia, and prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia progression [49, 50].
\nNearly 14 million new cases of cancer occurred worldwide during 2012 [51], generating around 8.2 million deaths. More than a half of cancer deaths arose in countries of medium or low human development index (HDI). The four most common types, in this order were lung, female breast, bowel and PCa. Among malignant neoplasms that affect men, PCa is the most common, after non-melanoma skin tumors, especially in the male population from the sixth decade of life. This is a recognized public health problem, since according to data from the Mortality Information System (MIS), 13,773 deaths were caused by PCa in Brazil in 2013 [52].
\nConsidering the statistics worldwide, PCa prevalence is only beaten by lung cancer in men. Unlike some types of tumors, the incidence of PCa has increased over the years. There are two main factors for this association: the improvement of diagnostic methods and the extended life expectancy of men over the years; since PCa has slow growth and its incidence is age-associated, it is very comprehensible the increased detection of this malignant neoplasia lately in the years. The origin of PCa and the several processes giving direction to PCa carcinogenesis are still unclear, but often are assumed that several components may influence it, among which stands out: diet, genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors; all currently being widely investigated in the literature.
\nThe treatment of PCa can be very controversial because there are many variables, such as the patient’s age, prostatic specific antigen (PSA) concentrations and the stage of the tumor. Patients in inoperable conditions, due to age, are treated with hormone therapy or radiation. The most common hormone therapy for PCa is the androgen deprivation, since the prostate gland is a highly androgen dependent gland, and because the majority of prostate tumors originate from androgen-dependent glandular epithelial cells of the prostate [53]. The therapies in use for PCa will be best addressed later in this chapter.
\nThe diagnosis and follow-up of PCa patients are often difficult because of the absence of specific markers that could change accordingly to the status of disease, the best therapy, and the existence of future complications caused by the chosen treatment.
\nFor several decades many researchers joined efforts to study biomarkers of prognosis and treatment for PCa. Almost 50-years, PSA measurement represented the best marker for PCa. The primary idea was to substitute the digital rectal examination by PSA screening; nevertheless this was not possible despite the low specificity and false positive rate, as it is also observed in BPH [54]. No significant progress in the use of PSA as a precise biomarker of PCa was achieved during the past years.
\nBeyond this scenario, advances in genetic testing for PCa risk and new molecular diagnostic assays have been designed to improve diagnostic accuracy and treatment decision beyond prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing. PSA is a protein of the kallikrein family synthesized in the prostatic epithelium and secreted in the seminal fluid. From its discovery in 1970 to the present day, it is a diagnostic tool used as a tumor marker for early diagnosis, treatment and monitoring of patients with neoplasia in conjunction with the rectal examination. However, many studies have questioned the use of this biomarker for a diagnosis, due to the exponential increase in the diagnosis of PCa and, consequently, the increase of unnecessary hormonal, radiotherapeutic, chemotherapeutic and surgical treatments such as radical prostatectomy [55, 56]. PSA evaluation is performed by its measurement in serum using immunoassay (34 kDa). Normal values vary according to the method used. In most tests, values of up to 2.5 ng/mL are allowed as normal. If this value is higher, it is indicated to request the dosage of fractionated PSA, which relates total PSA to free PSA (fPSA). The result is expected to be equal to or greater than 20%; if it is lower, there is a probability that it is a PCa [57]. However, this test does not have 100% of specificity or sensitivity, insofar as there is PCa whose PSA is not altered, and there are other transient factors that can raise serum PSA levels, such as prostatitis [58], benign prostatic hyperplasia [59], prostatic biopsies [60] and trauma, due to prostatic cell lysis releasing PSA into the bloodstream [61].
\nDespite results enhancing detection at earlier stage and decreasing the number of metastatic patients, the use of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) to detect PCa has low specificity, unnecessary biopsies and frequently mistaken diagnoses. Also, PCa has various features so prognosis following diagnosis is greatly variable. Hence, there is a requirement for new prognostic biomarkers, particularly to differentiate between inactive and aggressive forms of the disease, to improve clinical management of PCa patients. Research continues into finding additional markers that may allow this goal to be attained.
\nIn order to improve the specificity of PSA as a tumor biomarker, tests called PHI (Prostatic Health Index), that predicts the risk of having PCa and 4 K score™ (predicts the risk of having high-risk of PCa) were launched on the American and European markets [62]. 4 K score™ blood test combines 4 prostatic biomarkers (total PSA, fPSA, intact PSA, and human kallekrein 2(hK2)) with the age of the patient, the digital rectal exam (DRE) findings (presence of a nodule or not), and the result of previous biopsies [63]. The higher the score, the greater the probability of finding tumor cells in a biopsy (Gleason ≥ 7). This test combination is interesting because it does not allow unnecessary biopsies to be performed, whereas post-operative, as well as any surgery, has risks and can lead to future complications for the patient, affecting his quality of life.
\nAnother non-invasive test available is the ExoDxTM Prostate (IntelliScore) Test18, which, through urinalysis, assesses the risk of developing invasive PCa, and thereby target the best treatment by molecular analysis of three specific genes in exosome and microvesic RNAs released by tumor cells, called extracellular vesicles (further discussed in this chapter) [64]. These related genes (
It is important to note that these tests are not accessible to the entire population, either because of the high cost of the technology, or because some countries have still not approved it. Thus, the main diagnostic method used nowadays for the screening and detection of the PCa remains PSA testing and rectal examination (DRE). If the results of these exams are altered, a biopsy is necessary to confirm the diagnosis, and determine the aggressiveness and prognosis of the cancer. This is done by histological analysis of the biopsied tissue, following classification according to the Gleason Scale. This system consists of the sum of 2 values that represent the degree of the tumor, and that determine the dominant cellular pattern and the most frequent cellular pattern, respectively. Tumor grades range from 1 to 5, the former representing more differentiated and prostate restricted tumors, while the latter represents totally undifferentiated tumors that have normally infiltrated the glandular stoma. The score, therefore, ranges from 2 (1 + 1) to 10 (5 + 5), and values below 4 on the Gleason Scale represent a well differentiated PCa; between 5 and 7, an intermediate PCa; and between 8 and 10, advanced PCa [66]. The determination of the degree and stage of cancer allows classification into high, intermediate and low risk categories.
\nThe clinical picture of castrated-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is quite heterogeneous, ranging from the asymptomatic increase in the PSA indices to the distant metastasis (commonly bone metastasis), with an important impairment of the patient’s quality of life [66]. This is a reflection of the complexity and diversity of biomolecular alterations already found in biopsies. Tumor progression is related to a number of genetic changes that can affect AR, signaling cascades, apoptosis mechanisms and cell regulation, or, as in many cases, a combination of all of them [67].
\nBiomolecular techniques, such as fluorescent
The Metastatic prostate adenocarcinoma (metPA) is diagnosed by immunohistochemistry. Nowadays very promising biomarkers have been used to determine prostatic origin of metPA, such as prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) and NKX3.1 [71]. PSMA is a type II membrane protein not secreted and is expressed in all forms of prostate tissue, but it is expressed at high levels on malignant prostate cells with limited extraprostatic expression [72]. Many approaches to target PSMA include DNA-based vaccines, as well as passive administration of monoclonal antibodies (PSMA-mAb), including 7E11.C5.3, that has already been approved by USA FDA (Food and Drug Administration); the medication is commercially available as ProstaScint® [72, 73].
\nCompared to PSA, PSMA is upregulated with androgen deprivation, and its expression was correlated with cancer aggressiveness and poor prognosis, while PSA decreases with androgen deprivation [72]. PSMA was also evaluated in PCa using PET molecular imaging system. After all, PSMA is not specific only to prostate gland; it is expressed in other normal tissues (such as salivary glands, duodenal mucosa, renal tubular cells, and neuroendocrine cells in the colon), and in malignant cells (renal cell carcinomas, colon carcinomas, and endothelial cells that surround or are into the tumors) [74].
\nAlthough multiple independent studies sought to demonstrate evidence that genetic variations may be independent predictors of PCa risk in addition to family history and serum PSA levels, the challenge in the years to come will be to introduce these new gene-based diagnostic and prognostic tests in algorithms integrating the other known risk factors including age, ethnicity, family history and PSA level to better tailor diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for PCa.
\nSeveral studies have related to novel PCa biomarkers that can precisely detect, and treat, types of aggressive cancer by headlining circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs)
Representative TEM images of exosomes derived from (a) C42 PCa cell line, (b) LNCaP xenograft serum and (c) patient plasma by ultracentrifugation method. Exosomes were negatively stained with 2% uracyl acetate after removal of moisture. Arrows indicate cup-shaped structures which are identified as exosomes (30–100 nm in diameter). From: Kharmate et al. [
Other studies suggest possible micro-RNAs roles in PCa [79] due to their recruitment to EVs present in various human body fluids; they are miR-2909 and miR-615-3p, which was detected in urinary-exosomal of PCa patients [80, 81]. Also EVs was useful to monitor the response to radiation therapy, in the search for a personalized treatment according to different profiling levels [82].
\nAdditionally to androgens (as described in Section 3), prostate physiology is, in part, regulated by the epidermal growth factor (EGF), whose action is mediated by its receptor (EGFR). EGFR is one of the mediators of cell proliferation, and its overexpression has been associated with aggressiveness and invasion of PCa. It has been described and identified as an important anti-PCa target, and some inhibitors of EGFR were tested with limited effectiveness in prostate cancer patients; they are Gefitinib, Lapatinib, and Erlotinib [83, 84, 85]. Recently, EGFR was also observed in EVs (Figure 2) of PCa patients [86].
\nPrevious studies have demonstrated that PSA can be detectable in plasma and urine derived EV’s [87]. Logozzi et al. [88] demonstrated that an acid microenvironment (such as the tumor microenvironment), functions as a key factor for the exosomal releasing, and determines the quality and quantity of released vesicles, including the ones containing PSA, an enzyme that needs an acidic microenvironment for full activation, in PCa.
\nTo summarize, in recent years, many new promising PCa biomarkers have been identified
Biomarkers in PCa detection and prognosis.
The prostate specific antigen (PSA) remains the most used biomarker in the management of early prostate cancer (PCa), in spite of the problems related to false positive results and overdiagnosis. New biomarkers have been proposed in recent years with the aim of increasing specificity and distinguishing aggressive from non-aggressive PCa. The emerging role of the prostate health index and the 4Kscore: both are blood-based tests related to the aggressiveness of the tumor, which provide the risk of suffering PCa and avoiding negative biopsies. Furthermore, the use of urine has emerged as a non-invasive way to identify new biomarkers in recent years, including the
Adapted from: Filella and Foj [69]. (*Recommended by the National Comprehensive Cancer Network).
\nPCa treatment is variable, and it is chosen according to the staging of the cancer and, mainly, according to the patient’s own preference. Since this type of cancer has slow growth, the presence of low-risk groups, where tumor is diagnosed still
Radical prostatectomy may be the first choice of the patient who opts for complete removal of the gland, by caution of future metastasis. It is an effective procedure, however, just like any surgical procedure, there may be complications and compromise the patient’s quality of life. For this procedure, the most common complications are the urinary incontinence, erectile dysfunction, and inguinal hernia; anyhow, the prognosis tends to be positive and long-lasting [91]. Nonetheless, some tumors may recur over time even after radical prostatectomy. In such cases, it is important to evaluate whether the recurrence was local or occurred at a distance (lymph nodes or other organs, such as liver, bone, or lung).
\nHormone therapy is usually used in patients with lymph node involvement or distant metastasis. It consists of reducing androgen concentrations to the level of castration. This can be done by surgical method through bilateral orchiectomy, or through drugs that act on the androgen receptor (AR) pathways; the latter being more commonly used nowadays. At first, hormone deprivation therapy has great effects on the control of advanced PCa. However, it is known that part of the cases evolves to the state of CRPC. The mechanisms responsible for progression of tumor growth, despite hormonal blockade, have not been fully elucidated yet. Current studies have shown that molecular changes in the androgen receptor (AR) are related to such progression. Among these changes, it is relevant to mention the overexpression of AR, mutations in the AR gene that allow its activation by other endogenous steroids, increased production of growth factors activating AR even in the absence of androgen, changes in co-regulatory proteins and upregulation of enzymes related to androgen synthesis [92].
\nThere are two drug lines for hormone therapy; the first line accounts for the central blockers that constitute the agonists of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH agonists), and the peripheral androgen receptor blockers. Usually they are used in a comminuted way, since the central blockers, for example, Leuprolide (Lupron) and Gosserelin Acetate (Zoladex), acts through the interruption of the pituitary feedback mechanism, inhibiting LH realizing by the pituitary gland, and leading to a decreased testoterone production [63]. However, because these drugs initially boosted testosterone production, the combination with peripheral androgen receptor blockers, such as Bicalutamide (Casodex), Flutamide (Flutamide) and Androcur (Androcur), shall be indicated due to their binding capacity to the ARs in a way that inhibits androgenic stimulation, deactivating their genetic expression [93].
\nThe second line of therapy is most commonly used when PCa is resistant to the first-line hormonal therapies stage. Abiraterone Acetate (Zytiga) is a drug that primarily acts on the adrenal gland through the inhibition of the 17α-hydroxylase/C17, 20-lyase (CYP17) enzyme, essential for androgen biosynthesis in tissues [94, 95]. Enzalutamide (Xtandi) is another drug of this therapeutic line that works by inhibiting androgen receptors, their signaling pathways, and is able to act on anti-androgen-resistant tumor cells.
\nIt is important to emphasize that hormonal therapy is a palliative treatment, in that it acts to contain the progression of advanced PCa, and not its elimination. In this context, given the scarcity of effective treatments for these types of tumors, it is promising to still search for new biomarkers capable of not only diagnosing PCa early, but also being able to evaluate its aggressiveness and prognosis.
\nFrom a historical perspective, it is always a question and debate in what way β-thalassemia has spread in the world to reach such high incidences in certain populations. Hemoglobinopathies, including hemoglobin variants and thalassemia, are a group of inherited disorders that arise due to mutation and/or deletions of one or more globin genes that result in the production of structurally abnormal Hb variants in the former and reduced rate of synthesis of the normal globin chains in the latter [1, 2]. Thalassemia is a group of disorders of hemoglobin in which either globin chain synthesis is reduced or absent, therefore it is termed as a quantitative disorder [3]. This inherited disorder of hemoglobin is considered the commonest single-gene disorder globally with an autosomal recessive inheritance, which estimated around 300,000 to 400,000 babies born each year suffering from the same [4]. It is increasingly prevalent in the Mediterranean, Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa along with other continents such as Europe, North America, and Australia due to population migration and therefore, has become a global health problem [5]. The carrier frequencies for β-thalassemia in these areas range from 1 to 20%, and rarely may be higher. The frequencies for the milder forms of β-thalassemia are much greater, varying from 10 to 20% in parts of sub- Saharan Africa to 40% or more in some Middle Eastern and Indian populations, to as high as 80% in northern Papua New Guinea and some isolated groups in the northeast of India [4].
Among the different hemoglobinopathies, Beta-thalassemias and Sickle Cell Disorders (SCD) pose a significant health burden in India. The average prevalence of β-thalassemia carriers is 3–4%, which translates to 35 to 45 million carriers in our multi-ethnic and culturally and linguistically diverse population of 1.21 billion people that also includes around 8% of tribal groups. Several ethnic groups have a much higher prevalence (4–17%) [6, 7]. Every year 10,000 children are being born with thalassemia which approximately accounts for 10% of the total world incidence of thalassemia-affected children [8] and one in eight thalassemia carriers live in India. There are nearly 42 million carriers of the β-thalassemia trait. There are communities in which it is more prevalent like Sindhis, Punjabis, Gujaratis, Bengalis, Mahars, Kolis, Saraswats, Lohanas, and Gaurs [9]. However, in the absence of National Registries of patients, the exact numbers are not known. The March of Dimes Global Report on Birth Defects has estimated that the prevalence of pathological hemoglobinopathies in India is 1.2 per 1000 live births. It has been suggested that there would be 32,400 babies with a serious hemoglobin disorder born each year based on 27 million births per year in India [10, 11, 12]. Of the 10,000 to 12,000 thalassemic children born annually in India, very few are optimally managed mainly in urban regions although the Government of India has included the care and management of patients with thalassemia and sickle cell disease in the 12th Five Year Plan. It has been estimated that 2 million units of packed red cells would be needed for transfusion of thalassemia patients in the country [13, 14]. Better management for beta-thalassemia major patients mainly in urban regions in India with regular and safe blood transfusions and adequate iron chelation allows them to have a better quality of life.
Hemoglobinopathies are more common in Gujarat compared to other Indian states. Model and Petrou [15] have estimated a 12% incidence of major hemoglobinopathy traits in Gujarat. Several studies have revealed a high prevalence of β-thalassemia trait (BTT) in some caste groups in Gujarat [16, 17, 18]. Certain castes and tribes in Gujarat are yet to be investigated for thalassemia and other abnormal haemoglobins. About 10–15% of the tribal population of India is in Gujarat, particularly in South Gujarat and the prevalence of sickle cell trait (SCT) varies from 0 to 31.4% among different tribes [19, 20].
Diagnosis and management of this disorder both in adults and in newborns, using appropriate approaches and uniform technology are important in different regions of a vast and diverse country like India. SRKRC is running a screening and prevention program for Beta-thalassemia and Sickle cell anemia for the last 15 years. Under this program, students from colleges and universities are screened for hemoglobinopathies. The prevalence of Beta-thalassemia trait (BTT) was 4.4% and sickle cell anemia was 1.3%, reported by SRKRC [20]. Castes like Lohana (10.8%), Sindhi (10.2%), Prajapati (6.3%) and Ghanchi (6.2%) had a higher prevalence of BTT, whereas Gamit, Vasava, Chaudhary and Mahyavanshi had a higher prevalence of BTT (15.9, 13.6, and 6.9%) and SCT (22.2, 15.2, and 4.2%) respectively [20]. This prevalence rate is not much different from the other parts of the country. Surat is a multiethnic city. Castes like Lohana, Sindhi, Prajapati, Ghanchi, Gamit, Vasava, Chaudhary, and Mahyavanshi have a high prevalence of thalassemia and sickle cell anemia are prevalent. In Surat city, the prevalence of Beta- thalassemia trait was 4.4% and sickle cell anemia was 1.3%, reported by SRKRC.
In every part of the world, there are individual groups that require counseling for screening and diagnosis of their disease status. Such groups are [21];
Pre-marriage counseling and screening
Antenatal screening
Preconception counseling and screening
Prenatal diagnosis
Neonatal screening
Cord Blood for Haemoglobinopathy Screening
Genetic counseling
Undiagnosed Hemoglobinopathies is a potential threat, pre-marriage counseling and screening is quick way that brings immediate change and result. In India still, 50% of the marriages take place where a girl and a boy do not know each other. In such premarital counseling can be difficult. Premarital counseling can be done after screening the carrier state of an individual and making him/her understand the importance of this test and future consequences. Counseling can be done by preparing booklets, short movies and posters to increase awareness in society. The marriage register can also do premarital consoling when any marriage gets registered at the marriage registrar’s office. In villages, the main leaders or panchayatmukhiya can take the responsibility of counseling and increase awareness among the people. Furthermore, some studies found the increased rate of marriage cancelation due to a better understanding of the disease and counseling by the couples at risk [22]. However, the actual targets have not been achieved yet due to many reasons including consanguineous marriages, screening just before the marriage, individual or family commitment, non-availability of alternative suitable partner, etc.
It is very important in cases where premarital testing has not been done. Antenatal screening usually takes place roughly between 12- and 20-weeks gestations of pregnancy. This screening is a sandwich between premarital screenings, counseling and prenatal diagnosis. After the antenatal screening, if both the partners found minor for Beta- thalassemia or sickle cell anemia, proper counseling should be done for prenatal diagnosis. When a thalassemia major child takes birth, to give him/her quite healthy and stable life a family needs to bear almost 2 lakhs per year including blood transfusion and medications. Even after spending such a huge amount of money and other pain full procedures of blood transfusion, a major child may not live more than 20–30 yrs. We can prevent the birth of such a child with the help of prenatal diagnosis by spending 10,000 rupees. By preventing the birth of a thalassemia major child, we can get rid of pain and disappointment.
The infertility rate has increased due to stress, unhealthy lifestyles, marriages at older age, etc. that ultimately enhances procedures like Intra-Uterine Insemination (IUI) and In-vitro Fertilization (IVF). Both these procedures should be done under the medical council guidelines. However, in India, it is very difficult where even pregnant women do not register in clinics before 12 weeks of gestation. In the case of preconception, counseling and screening are very important as if anyone partner is minor; another partner of egg/sperm donor must be screened for the same before conception.
The purpose of prenatal hemoglobinopathy screening is to identify and counsel asymptomatic individuals whose offspring are at risk of an inherited hemoglobinopathy. Although, prenatal diagnosis is a huge set-up and sustains process that needs expertise in molecular biology techniques. Proper and effective counseling is the key factor for prenatal diagnosis. A couple who are not screened for Beta-thalassemia minor and diagnosed at the time of pregnancy, for such kind of couple would be requiring prenatal diagnosis within 3 months of pregnancy. After the result of prenatal diagnosis, if the unborn is diagnosed as thalassemia major, a gynecologist may give an option of abortion to such a couple.
Universal screening should be done where all newborn babies in these high-risk groups are screened, as this would allow identification of other clinically significant disorders such as homozygous Beta-thalassemia and all cases of Hb S–Beta-thalassemia that could be transfusion dependent. Minor couples who do not go for prenatal diagnosis, their newborn should be tested for mutation of thalassemia major.
Once a thalassemia major baby is born in a family it is very important to make the parents and the family understands the consensus of the disease. Genetic guidance is an effective preventive and educational process that improved the quality of life of patients, preventing complications and sequels and allowed the referral of those who may transmit altered genes for clinical diagnosis and to genetic counseling services. A trained counselor, a hematologist or a pediatrician can effectively do this job. It is always a challenge for a family to raise such a diseased child like a normal one, moreover to bear the mental, physical and economical trauma lifelong that will be associated with the blood transfusions and other treatments for the child.
For screening and detection of hemoglobinopathies especially the minor cases, certain guidelines have been prepared nationally and internationally [21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. In India, the Ministry of Health and Welfare, Government of India issued “Guidelines on hemoglobinopathies in India” in the year 2016 [28]. Before screening test, individuals’ family history, clinical evaluation if any, family origin, basic details like age, birth date, gender, the occupation should be recorded in the form of informed consent. A basic test like complete blood count (CBC) on an automated or semi-automated analyzer along with the stained peripheral blood smear should be assessed primarily. Abnormal red cell morphologies like microcytosis, iron deficiency anemia and anemia of chronic disease should be ruled out and investigations would be carried out for thalassemia with considering other hemoglobinopathies as well.
An automated cation exchange High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is the method of choice for hemoglobin estimation. HPLC gives an accurate estimation and quantification of different haemoglobins (Hb) like Hb A2, Hb F, Hb A and also the detection of Hb variants like HbS, HbD, HbE, HbD Punjab, etc. Despite the high cost of HPLC machines, many centres in India have this facility. The accuracy of HPLC is very high than that of the electrophoresis processes which is a more manual method compared to HPLC. Methods like isoelectric focusing, capillary and paper electrophoresis were earlier choices to use, now not used extensively in India. Followings are the screening tests used for thalassemia and other hemoglobinopathies.
This test is based on the osmotic fragility of red blood cells (RBCs) using the 0.36% buffered saline and has been used as a preliminary test particularly for the Beta-thalassemia carriers in India. The excessive use of this test in India may be because of the low cost, no need for any specialized equipment, and result within 10 minutes though the test gives false results due to very low specificity, false positivity, and false negativity in many clinical conditions like iron deficiency anemia where RBCs become fragile. Especially it is not recommended where automated cell counters are available. However, the primary investigation of large population in the rural area with fewer facilities would be carried out with this test.
There are substantial changes are happening in the RBC indices in the case of Beta-thalassemia minor with Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) <80 fl and Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCH) <27 pg. with usually high RBC counts for the level of hemoglobin. Deviations in indices occur when samples are not run within a few hours. In such a case MCH is a more stable and reliable parameter than MCV. It is not always the case that each Beta-thalassemia minor has low MCV, MCH and high RBC count, Atypical Beta-thalassemia minor may show completely normal indices which can be missed during screening.
Hb A2 levels >4.0% along with low MCV, MCH and higher RBC counts are considered as the classical case of Beta-thalassemia carrier. HPLC being the method of choice gives an accurate quantification of Hb A2. Correct interpretations of borderline HbA2 levels (3.3–3.9%) are of utmost importance and need to be done with great caution. Such borderline cases should be confirmed by the DNA-based diagnostic methods. Mutations in the promoter region or the poly-A tail of the b-globin gene may have the completely normal RBC indices and/or HbA2 in the Beta-thalassemia carriers. Figures 1 and 2 depict the retention time graph of different hemoglobins on HPLC (Figures obtained from our Research department).
HPLC report of with normal levels of Hb A2.
HPLC report of high levels of Hb A2: A case of Beta-thalassemia.
Quantification of other hemoglobin variants apart from Hb A2 is also important to know the heterozygosity with two Hb variants like Beta-thalassemia carriers + sickle cell anemia carriers, Beta-thalassemia carriers + Hb E carriers, Beta-thalassemia carriers + Hb D carriers, etc. HPLC results with >10%, HbA2% is suggestive of the presence of other Hb variants like HPLC also quantifies Hb S, Hb D Punjab and Hb E and some fewer common variants which may elute in the P3 window (Hb J variants) or as unknown peaks.
Many large studies, either hospital-based or population screening programs for identification of hemoglobinopathies using HPLC analysis have been reported from India recently [12, 13, 14, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32]. A multicenter study on screening university students and pregnant women in six states (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, West Bengal, Assam, and Punjab) showed that the prevalence of Beta-thalassemia varied from 1.48% to 3.64% [12].
A large study on screening for hemoglobinopathies among non-tribal and tribal populations from different cities in Gujarat showed an overall prevalence of Beta-thalassemia trait of 1.95% and HbS trait of 6.5%. A high prevalence of Beta-thalassemia trait was seen among the Bhanushalis (8.1%), Bhakta (7.9%) and Lohanas (6.5%) [20]. A study of 65,779 cases by HPLC from Maharashtra reported 11.2% of BTT and 2.2% of SCT [33]. Tribal groups in Maharashtra have shown a prevalence of the Beta-thalassemia trait of 1.6 to 5.6% [34] while the prevalence of Beta-thalassemia trait has also been high (6.3 to 8.5%) among some tribal groups in Orissa [35] and in the non-tribal populations of Madhya Pradesh in Central India (9.59%) [36]. Thus, Beta-thalassemia is not uncommon among many non-tribal and tribal populations in India.
This is completely a manual technique starting from preparing the hemolysate to the quantifying bands that appear on the cellulose acetate membrane at alkaline pH. Such manual technique required adequate experience and high skills. The technique is not used at those centres where HPLC is available as it’s a manual, time-consuming and cumbersome method and results may vary from person to person though it is highly cost-effective compared to HPLC.
Quantification of Hb F (Fetal hemoglobin) is extremely important to identify diseased and carrier conditions. HPLC is one of the most widely used methods for this purpose. Earlier alkali denaturation was extensively used for the same. Hb F is the important parameter for the Indian population to differentiate between Beta-thalassemia and iron deficiency anemia because later is also more prevalent in India. When Hb F is being enumerated using HPLC, it needs to be ensured that the peak coming into the Hb F window is Hb F and not another Hb variant. Figure 3 shows the diagrammatic view of screening carrier cases of hemoglobinopathies.
Screening of Beta-thalassemia carriers and other haemoglobinopathies [
Common Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) based detection techniques used for identifying the Beta-thalassemia point mutations are allele-specific PCR, reverse dot blot (RDB) analysis, real-time PCR with melting curve analysis, and DNA sequencing [28, 37]. DBS (Dried blood spot) filter paper matrix is required for the extraction of DNA from the whole blood sample which includes crude boiling preparation, alkali denaturation and other kit-based methods. As per the laboratory need and setup, the best methods of DNA extraction for PCR-based analysis may be selected [38]. PCR-based molecular assays are extremely susceptible to the aerosol contamination of amplicons. To minimize this one way-directional workflow is required that is amplification and analysis must be done in the separated rooms/labs with all the necessary and safety precautions [39]. A positive control (having genotype positive DBS or known samples for heterozygous or homozygous hemoglobinopathies), negative control and a regent control (no template control) must be run with each PCR protocol.
This technique employs two primers identical in sequence except for the 30- terminus base, one of which is complementary to the wild type and the other for the mutant base; a common primer for the opposite strand must of course be used as well [37]. For primer extension to occur using Taq polymerase which has no 30–50 exonuclease (proofreading) activity, perfect matching of the primer 30-terminus with the DNA template must occur. With a normal individual, the PCR product will be seen only in the reaction employing the wild-type primer set. A heterozygote will generate a band using both wild type and mutant primer set, and an individual with a homozygous mutation will be negative with the normal and positive with the mutant primer set.
This is quite a routine procedure identifying suspected mutation using hybridization of an allele-specific oligomer (ASO) DNA probe [37]. For each mutation, two hybridization reactions are conducted, one with the probe for the mutant sequence and the normal sequence. The stringency of hybridization has to be optimized for each ASO probe. The ASO probes have an amino group at the 50-terminal base that enables them to attach to the nylon membrane strip after this hybridization takes place with amplified DNA that is labeled with biotin. Normal allele gives develop dots with each wild type probe but not with any mutant probe. Minor/carrier/heterozygotes give one mutation dot and one normal dot, whereas major/homozygotes give dot with the only mutated probe. Being a semi-automated method critical care should be taken at the time of washing the blots and optimization is required that can be achieved by the optimizing ASO probe length. Figure 4 shows the in-house developed blots of different thalassemia mutations.
Detection of common Indian Beta-globin gene mutation by CRDB (source: Obtained from in-house experiment).
The analysis of transfusion-dependent thalassemia major cases, attending our centre, suggested that there is a high prevalence in Muslims, Patels, Sindhis, ModhBanias, and Mahayavanshi [40, 41, 42]. Certain sub-castes of Patel [19] and tribal communities are already studied for sickle cell disorders [43, 44]. Dhodia Patel, the third largest tribal group in Gujarat, needs b-thalassemia studies as thalassemia major cases are identified in this community [41, 42].
The purpose of the present investigation was to establish and standardize a multiplex-ARMS procedure to detect ethnic-specific common mutations like IVS I-5 (G/C), Codon 41/42 (-TCTT), 619-bp deletion and FS 8/9 (þG) in one tube. This method is very convenient to screen the most commonly known molecular defects in a single Multiplex ARMS-PCR tube and detection on agarose gel electrophoresis based on specific PCR product size for each mutation [45, 46, 47, 48].
Our in-house developed method was subsequently tested on 110 unrelated samples with unidentified Beta-thalassemia mutations. The codons IVS 1–5 mutation was the most common beta-thalassemia mutation in the Surat population. The following mutations were presented in decreasing frequency: IVS 1e5 (G/C) < Codon 8/9 (þG) < Codon 41/42 (-CTTT) < 619 bp deletion. Figure 5 shows the amplification of 4 common mutations on an agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide. This ARMS multiplex system was found reliable, cost-effective, fast and most applicable for mutation screening of Thalassemia in Surat populations [40].
3% agarose gel showing the multiplex ARMS-PCR for four common mutation of Beta-thalassemia.
The next advance in molecular diagnostics for hemoglobin disorders will be next-generation sequencing. Recently, NGS has been introduced to screen for thalassemia. More loci including genetic modifiers which have significant effects on clinical manifestation should be covered in the NGS screening, which is important for precise diagnosis and treatment of thalassemia [49, 50, 51].
There will be some technical challenges in implementing next-generation sequencing, especially for the HBA genes, which, because of the nearly identical sequence between the HBA1 and HBA2 genes, will make it challenging to determine whether a given mutation belongs to one or the other of these genes. We can hope that the cost of these technologies will eventually decrease enough to make them available to resource-limited settings where the diagnosis of hemoglobin disorders will be most valuable.
Several other methods are used apart from these above-mentioned. In that Real-time PCR with melting curve analysis, Direct DNA sequencing, multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) and Next-generation sequencing have been used. RT-PCR or quantitative PCR eliminates the post PCR steps, time consumption and labour intensiveness of conventional PCRs [52, 53]. If any novel or rare mutation is present in the population, direct DNA sequencing would be the best method for the same that uses streptavidin-coated magnetic beads [54, 55]. MLPA allows the detection of any deletions or duplications in the screened regions. It requires only thermocycler and CE equipment [30, 56]. Limitations of conventional thalassemia diagnosis methods are missed diagnoses due to normal or borderline red blood cell indices and/or Hb A2 levels, various labour-intensive methods may need to identify disease-causing mutation for thalassemia that have more than 1800 mutations ranging from point mutation to large deletion.
The success of the prevention and control of any disease depends upon the awareness among the general population and how well the population is educated about the same [57]. In India, many social welfare clubs like Rotary, Lions, various NGOs, even Thalassemia Parents-Patients societies have been conducting education and awareness programs. Yet, awareness about b thalassemia among pregnant women in 6 states in the multi-centric Jai Vigyan programme was very limited varying from 0.2% to 4.8% in Bangalore, Vadodara, Mumbai, Dibrugarh and Ludhiana and 20.7% in Kolkata [25]. More than 50% of the rural population has not heard about thalassemia or they have some misconceptions and myths regarding this [34], whereas the majority of the people of urban areas were not ready for pre-marital screening [35]. Yet thalassemia education has not been included in the high school curriculum in India. However, this strategy has worked in the Mediterranean region [6]. The use of mass media would create a great impact over a longer period by repeatedly showing the short films or programs on thalassemia [36].
For every country and population single strategy may not work all the time [28]. Defining and selecting the target population and their screening on time are the important aspects for possible prevention and control. Table 1 shows the different timings and the age groups where screening can be possible.
Newborn |
|
Adolescence |
|
Premarital |
|
Antenatal screening/ Prenatal diagnosis (PND)/ Preconception |
|
Population screening & preventive measures needs to be taken.
A Blood center plays a crucial role in providing safe blood particularly to those patients for whom RBC transfusion is the principal support to live. As stated by the World Health Organization (WHO), nearly 120 million units of blood are donated every year. However, this is not sufficient to meet the global need many patients requiring a transfusion do not have timely access to safe blood. Regular donations are required to ensure there is always a supply for those in need. Maintaining safe and effective procedures around the collection, storage and use of donated blood is essential. Collectively called haemovigilance, these procedures cover the entire blood transfusion chain and are used to standardize the use of blood in healthcare.
The Blood Transfusion Service (BTS) in India is fragmented and disintegrated under various controls, and there is a wide gap between demand and supply. As said by the Executive Director of Thalassaemia International Federation, India is a subcontinent with a population of 1,380,004,385 people (17.7 per cent of the total global population). It has an estimated prevalence of patients with Transfusion-Dependent β-Thalassaemia (TDT) of 150,000 with a predicted annual number of affected births of 12,500. With such a disease burden, there is a huge requirement for Blood centers and blood donors. Based on current estimates, an estimated two million units/year of packed red cells are needed to address the needs of TDT in India [58].
Indian Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoH& FW) identified 2626 functional Blood centers across the country in the year 2016 from which, 76 per cent were public and not-for-profit-owned and 24 per cent were owned by the private sector. However, 61 per cent of these were situated in eight states, out of which only two (Maharashtra and Gujarat) have a high thalassemia prevalence. The Blood centers/million population in high thalassemia-prevalence states, including Uttar Pradesh (1.2), West Bengal (1.3), Rajasthan (1.5) and Chhattisgarh (two) is less than the national average of 2.2 Blood centers/1,000,000 population. It was estimated in 2017 that the annual collection was 11.1 million units of blood while the demand was 14.6 million units [58].
In Thalassemia Major Patient’s transfusion therapy is often initiated before one or two years of age [59, 60, 61, 62]. Complications directly related to transfusion include blood-borne infections, development of anti-RBC antibodies (both auto- and alloimmunization), and allergic, febrile or delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions. Hb levels above 12.0 g/dL for adult women and 13.0 g/dL for adult men are considered normal [63]. General transfusion guidelines recommend initiating transfusions at an Hb threshold of 6.0–10.0 g/L, depending on the presence and severity of clinical conditions [64]; however, these guidelines focus mainly on correcting anemia rather than suppressing ineffective erythropoiesis and may not be applicable to patients with β- thalassemia [65]. Guidelines for the management of β-thalassemia are available, including international guidelines by the Thalassaemia International Federation (TIF) [66, 67] and several national guidelines [68, 69, 70].
Life-long and regular blood transfusion is required to treat thalassemia major. This results in excessive accumulation of iron in the body (iron overload) that in the long term gives severe clinical complications such as heart and liver failure, diabetes, hypogonadism. Iron overload may be prevented and treated by daily removal (iron chelation therapy) [71, 72, 73].
Patients with β-thalassaemia major should receive leucoreduced packed red blood cells with a minimum hemoglobin content of 40 g [66, 67]. Only the transfusion of pRBCs can maintain the required hemoglobin percentage necessary for the normal growth of the diseased child. The transfused blood should be obtained from voluntary non-paid donors and collected, processed, screened, stored and transported by a trusted and high-quality blood transfusion centre [59]. If possible fresh blood should be transfused (not older than 10–12 days) as 2, 3-DPG (2, 3- Di-phophoglyceric acid) gets depleted in stored blood that reducing the capacity to deliver oxygen to the tissues [74]. Decreased recovery and shortened half-life may increase transfusion requirements. For all these, it is important to strengthen the Blood centers and component therapy should be ensured and mandatory. As per the guideline issued by the Indian Ministry of Health & Welfare in the year 2016 [28], A blood centre should be fully occupied with good infrastructure having component separation facility without that packed red cells are not available, and pretesting strategies should be followed for such chronically transfused patients are;
Forward and Reverse blood group typing for ABO and RhD [28]
In newly diagnosed patients along with ABO & RhD, extended phenotyping at least for C, c, E, e, Kell and Duffy would be desired [26, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78]
Allo-antibody screening at regular intervals is necessary. If an alloantibody is detected, the patient should be transfused with that particular antigen-negative blood [26, 28]
Every 3 months, patients should be tested for virus serology to detect initiation of the transfusion-transmitted infections (HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C viruses) [26, 28, 79]
Ideally the patient should receive NAT (Nucleic Acid Amplification Test) tested blood product as NAT offers the possibility to minimized the window period [26, 28]
Precautions for grouping, cross-matching and transfusion should be applied to chronically transfused patients like any other recipient [26, 28].
Avoid close relative blood transfusion in such patients [26, 28].
As mentioned above it’s the huge responsibility of every blood center to provide safe blood to these chronically transfused patients. Flowing are the procedures that should be carried out at every blood centre for providing safe blood and managing such patients.
For the health of chronically transfused patients with thalassemia, a blood donor should be careful by keeping the criteria of regular voluntary and non-paid donors [26, 28, 79]. The process of donor selection is usually done through questionnaires. These questionnaires are prepared by considering the national need, resources, the prevalence of the transfusion-transmitted infections and also by adhering to the directions from the European Union (EU), World Health Organization (WHO), American Association of Blood centers (AABB). Quality of collected blood would be maintained by proper collection, testing, stored and distribution following all the quality-controlled procedures. The huge problem of low blood donation and blood supply is a lack of voluntary and non-paid donors. A public awareness campaign, including posters and an annual event to honor donors, was implemented to encourage voluntary and non-paid blood donors [80].
Leucocyte-reduced red blood cells concentrate should be prepared by a method known to deplete leucocytes in the final component to less than 5x108 when intended to prevent febrile reactions and to less than 5x106 when it is required to prevent alloimmunization or CMV infection [26, 28, 71, 79, 81]. For achieving a level < 5x106, the use of a leucocytes filter is necessary. Reduction of leukocytes to 5x106 is considered the critical threshold for eliminating adverse reactions attributed to contaminating white cells and for preventing platelet alloimmunization. Two types of preparation methods for Leucocyte depleted packed RBCs are;
Packed red blood cells 15 ml/kg body weight, should be administered at the rate of 5 ml/kg/hr [28]. As per the pre-transfused hemoglobin level, 1–2 units of pRBCs may be required by patients. 3.5 ml/kg of pRBCs with around 60% HCT can raise hemoglobin by 1gm/dl.
Different anticoagulant solutions are used to store the blood products which prevent coagulation and store red cells without losing their metabolic activity [28, 71, 79, 81]. Table 2 shows the list of anticoagulants that are commonly used. In thalassaemia major decreased recovery and a shortened red cell half-life may increase transfusion requirements and as a consequence the rate of transfusion iron loading, the current practice is to use red cells stored in additive solutions for less than two weeks. Blood units should preferably be transported in monitored insulated boxes which maintain a temperature of between 2 and 8°C.
Name of Anticoagulant | Shelf life |
CPD (Citrate, Phosphate, Dextrose) | 21 |
CP2D (Citrate, Phosphate 2, Dextrose) | 21 |
CPDA-1 (Citrate, Phosphate, Dextrose, Adenine) | 35 |
CPD, CP2D or CPDA-1 with Additive solution | 42 |
Anticoagulants and their shelf life period.
The following data should be regularly recorded at each transfusion:
Date of transfusion
Time of initiation and time of completion of transfusion.
Bag number of the blood unit transfused
Weight/volume of packed cells transfused
Patient demographics (height, weight, pre-transfusion Hb, blood group and other details)
Clinically assess the size of liver and spleen
Transfusion details of each patient to be entered into their transfusion card, to ensure proper database maintenance and traceability.
Every recipient should receive ABO & RhD type specific compatible whole blood or red blood cell components [26, 28, 71, 79, 81]. ‘O’ packed red cells should be transfused only when ABO type specific unit is absent. RhD positive recipients can receive either RhD positive or negative components. But RhD negative recipient should receive transfusion only of RhD donor; however, in reasonable circumstances, RhD positive unit may be transfused only when the receiver does not have the RhD antibodies. In the case where clinically significant atypical antibodies are detected, a negative unit particular for that antigen or least compatible unit should be transfused. When a patient is massively transfused within a period of 24 hrs, a fresh sample should be used for subsequent transfusions.
In the case of multitransfused patients like thalassemia major and sickle cell disease, blood transfusion should be done after the confirmed diagnosis. Before the first transfusion, patients should be typed for complete red cell genotyping that help to determine subsequent development allo-antibodies in such patients after repeated transfusion of different blood units. The development of multiple alloantibodies is common in these patients [88]. Therefore, it is important to monitor the patient carefully and to give him/her particular antigens negative blood unit for transfusion. Anti-E, anti-C and anti-Kell alloantibodies are most common. However, 5–10% of patients present with alloantibodies against rare erythrocyte antigens or with warm or cold antibodies of unidentified specificity [79].
Even before embarking on transfusion therapy, patients should have been gone through extended blood group antigen typing at least for C, c, E, e, and Kell which would be beneficial to identify antibodies in case of alloimmunization [79]. The rate of alloimmunization among transfusion-dependent thalassemia (TDT) patients is varying from 2.5–37% in different parts of the world [70, 87, 89]. The prevalence of anti-E, anti-c, and anti-c with anti-E in the Indian population is about 22–36%, 6.4%–38.8%, and 6.4%, respectively [90, 91, 92]. Relative immunogenicity of blood group antigen in a multi-transfused patient with an increase in a number of RBC unit exposure give the following grading: K > Jka > Lua > E > P1 > c > M > Leb > C > Lea > Fya > S [93]. Extended blood group antigen phenotyping should be done to reduce the risk of alloimmunization. Keeping that thing in mind; our blood center phenotyped 500 ‘O’ grouped donors for 35 blood group antigens [94].
Patients dependent on blood transfusion for survival, are exposed to a variety of risks [71, 79]. Therefore, it is utmost important to improve blood safety, find ways to minimize or reduce transfusion requirements and less exposures to number of donors. The adverse transfusion events are:
Blood safety depends on both donor health screening and donation testing. The strategy employed for a given infectious agent depends on the epidemiology of the particular agent in a given donor population, blood processing steps that might reduce transmission (such as pre-storage universal leucoreduction), and the availability of testing equipment and kits adapted for donor screening [98].
The different testing platforms can be used for screening TTIs. Tests that detect viral nucleic acid (NAT testing), a viral component (Hepatitis B surface antigen, or HBsAg; the p24 antigen of HIV), or the host’s immune response to the infection (antibody testing performed using Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or enzyme immunoassay (EIA)/chemiluminescence assay (CLIA) for antibodies such as anti-HIV, and anti-HBV). Any unit tested positive once for TTI must not be used for transfusion. Window period infections can be missed by ELSIA and chemiluminescence assay [98].
In general, window periods are shortest for NAT testing, longer for antigen testing, and longest for antibody detection. The lag time for anti-HIV to detect HIV infection can be as long as 21 days, for HBsAg test to detect HBV infection as long as 42 days, and for anti-HCV to detect HCV infection as long as 60 days. This lag period gets truncated (shortened) by direct tests for viral gene amplification with NAT [98]. Being costlier investigation than ELISA and chemiluminescence assay, NAT testing is still not available at many centers in developing countries like India [99].
Single unit NAT testing is more sensitive than using mini pool NAT where small numbers of donor samples are pooled [100]. Using this mini pool NAT of 10 samples, at our centre more than 8000 seronegative units were tested, out of those 44 donors were found positive for HBV, 5 for HIV and 2 for HCV. So ultimately these NAT positive units were stopped to be transfused to the patients [101]. Thalassemia and Sickle cell anemia patients should be transfused to the NAT tested unit [28]. In India only a few blood center hospital-based or private are doing either ID-NAT or mini-pooled NAT [99, 102, 103, 104]. In the year 2019 at our centre, as a part of the regular protocol, we tested 196 thalassemia major patients who are taking blood units from our centre only for transfusion, by ELISA and NAT (ID-NAT) for HIV1, HBV and HCV, the prevalence of HCV infection was found high by both the methods [105].
The testing algorithms for TTI s are also variable as per the testing facilities available at the blood centers. In the urban areas, screening for TTI is carried out by the ELISA technique with good quality measures while the remote rural areas are still left with a rapid test of questionable sensitivity. Moreover, in the remote rears where laboratory testing for TTI’s is not quality assured, equipment is not calibrated and maintained, and the validation of results is not carried out. Even at the good centers that are doing ELISA using 3rd generation kits; not able to cut down the window period which can be achieved by 4th generation ELSIA. It’s a big pressure on the Indian Blood center to adopt NAT for screening TTIs as Blood centers around the countries like USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and some countries in Europe and Asia have already used the same [106].
Because of the need for sensitivity in testing systems, TTI screening may lead to false biological false positive results. Many TTI test systems rely on cut-off values to determine whether a result is reactive or not, so the test results that fall close to a range of uncertainty may give the intermediate result. For such kind of indecisive results, extreme care needs to be taken with follow-up action for that particular donor, including confirmatory testing on the donation. The confirmed reactivity to certain TTIs such as HIV, HBV and HCV leads to permanent exclusion of the donor, whereas the risk of other TTIs such as malaria may have specified time deferrals [98].
On an average, each unit of packed cells contains 200 to 250 mg of iron [28, 79]. A patient, who receives 15–30 units of pRBC units per year, receives an excess of 3–6 grams of elemental iron that results in to iron overload, a serious problem in massively transfused patients. Iron supplements are contraindicated as iron absorption may increase up to 1–2 gm. Serum ferritin, MRI of Liver and heart, and Liver biopsy would be good parameters to check the severity of iron over load in multitransfused patients. Iron chelation therapy should be started in patients whose serum ferritin value is >1000 μg/L after 10–15 transfusion. Different chelating agents are mentioned in the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, India in 2016 for the prevention of hemoglobinopathies. They are Desferrioxamine (recommended dose is 25 mg-50 mg/kg/day) [71], Deferiprone (standard dose is 50 mg–100 mg/kg/day), Deferasirox (administered at a dose of 20 mg–40 mg/kg/day) and combination of desferrioxamine and deferiprone should be available for the patients. Before administering any chelating agent to the patient, the toxicity of an agent and required monitoring measures should be taken in account.
Over a century, for detection of RBC antigen, a gold standard method, hemagglutination has been used to predict phenotype. Hemagglutination also term as serology is a sensitive, easy to perform, low costing and specific technique for the determination of RBC phenotype and is considered as optimal method for patient care. The serology technique reduces issuing time for blood units by extensive typing of donor’s antigens. On other hand, with advances in immunohematology gives an understanding of the molecular basis of many blood group antigens. Molecular genotyping will help to type donors for a wider spectrum of minor blood group antigens and also genotype blood group antigens of multiply transfused patients such as sickle cell anemia or β-thalassemia or patients having positive direct antiglobulin test [106].
In multitransfused patients, haemagglutination fails to phenotype the patient’s antigens due to donor-derived erythrocytes from previous transfusions. The molecular background of blood group polymorphisms is used for blood group antigen typing [107]. Previous studies have shown that molecular methods prove successful in determining the correct antigen profile of a multitransfused patient [108, 109, 110]. Both the blood donors and recipients can be genetically typed for all the clinically significant blood group antigens and antigen-matched blood can be provided to the recipient [108, 109, 110, 111, 112].
This approach could significantly reduce the rate of alloimmunization. Many PCR-based molecular detection assays are available. As per the laboratory facilities low throughput, medium- throughput and high-throughput PCR-based assays are available for blood group genotyping, PCR-RFLP technique though to be the first to be used for the purpose [107, 113, 114]. Many researchers around the world have used different PCR-based platform to genotype clinically significant antigens among multitransfused patients as well as in blood donors [115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123]. Our blood center has also typed regular voluntary blood donors, multitransfused patients (Thalassemia major & Sickle cell disease) and the tribal population [124, 125] for Rh, Kell, Duffy and Kidd blood group system; there was the statistically significant difference was observed in the phenotypic and genotypic prevalence of all these system’s antigens especially in the thalassemia major patients.
Haemoglobinopathies in India are always the burning problem especially Beta-thalassemia major and Sickle cell disease; due to various aspects including screening of the patients in remote areas, lack of awareness about the severity of the diseases in rural as well as in urban areas, consanguine marriages, poor antenatal and prenatal screening tests, delay in timely detection of the diseased child, having misconceptions, myths, rigidity and superstitions among the general population, inert-caste marriages likewise many more adding to the burden.
SRKRC being the first charitable blood Centre in Surat city is providing safe blood for the last 44 years by following all the National guidelines. Just like what a blood centre should do, SRKRC is continuously updated with the current trends in transfusion medicine for the management of, especially multi transfused patients like Beta-thalassemia major and SCD. Starting from supplying perfectly crossed matched washed red cells or leuco-depleted pRBC’s units to these patients. SRKRC has also implemented regular time interval strategies for irregular antibody screening, investigations TTI’s, and providing the iron chelation therapy as well for batter management of these patients. Although for TTI’s, ELISA is the mandatory test, in addition to that SRKRC is doing NAT testing which reduces the window period of TTI’s and adds an extra layer of safety to the transfused blood units. Transfusion reactions are also one of the problems with these patients, antigen matched blood or antigen-negative blood (in case of alloantibody in-patient) should be transfused by typing patient and donor thoroughly with gold standard serology and advanced molecular genotyping techniques. SRKRC has developed a molecular genotyping facility for clinically significant blood group antigens that would serve the same purpose. As a blood centre, SRKRC is doing all above-mentioned possible transfusion practices and protocols that may help to enhance the time interval between two transfusions.
Along with routine blood centre activity, SRKRC is also running prevention and control programs for Beta-thalassemia and Sickle cell anemia for the last 16 years. This program includes the screening of the premarital, antenatal, PND and neonatal cases with proper counseling for every target population that significantly helps to prevent and control the disease.
Hence, it is suggested that nationalized policies are needed to be implemented at the micro-level for screening, counseling, prevention, blood transfusion and management of such patients to achieve the final goal of ‘HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES FREE COUNTRY’. India has many international, national and state-wise prevention and control programs for different diseases like HIV, Tuberculosis (TB), Malaria, SCD, etc., that include testing, medication and management of the individual patient at very cost-effective or free of cost manner. Likewise, for not just Beta-thalassemia but also for transfusion-dependent and severe hemoglobinopathies, nationalized prevention and control programs should be formed by combining the screening, counseling, blood transfusion and treatment aspects.
National Medical Commission (NMC) of India is running a doctor of medicine (MD) PG programme on the subject of Transfusion Medicine (TM) in most medical colleges in India. It is a clinical MD degree after MBBS and recognized by NMC and the curriculum completely covered all the advanced and clinical aspects related to Immune hematology, Blood Transfusion therapy, Blood Centre Direction, haemoglobinopathies and its management. More than 150 TM specialist doctors passing out every year in India, so enough specialist doctors would be available to meet the requirement of the concept programme. A concept, “District Haemoglobinopathy Clinic” along with Regional Blood Centre, programme under the name of #Make Country Free from Haemoglobinopathies is to be recommended.
Aim, Facilities and goals of the “District Haemoglobinopathy Clinic” should be like;
Generation of ‘Nationalized unique ID’ and ‘National haemoglobinopathy Registry’ suffering from haemoglobinopathy in a particular district.
Regional Blood Centre: As described above, under TM specialist directions advanced fully equipped blood centre establishment at the district level for the high quality and safest blood products provision to all diagnosed patients. District regional blood centre should have quality and audit responsibility of all other blood centres where pt’s is taking blood. Moreover, test discrepancies and complicated patients should be referred to the district clinic for further investigation and quality care therapy.
Transfusion Centre: Under the TM specialist, a transfusion centre should be established for monitoring of serum ferritin and iron for starting chelation therapy, and assured blood unit for the transfusion. In addition, under the unique ID, patient’s record of each transfusion, treatment and testing should be maintained in Web software linked and visible to all care giving physicians, which would be helpful in-patient management if he/she will migrate from one place to the other.
Goal of Zero marriage between two carrier persons: Screening for all hemoglobinopathy with HPLC of premarital/adolescent age of the all-high-risk group people of districts, counseling and prevention to achieve Goal of Zero marriage in between two haemoglobinopathy disease carrier persons in a particular district.
Goal of Zero conception of the foetus with the homozygous state: Screening for all hemoglobinopathy with HPLC of all married couples of the all-high-risk group people of districts, counseling and prevention to achieve Goal of Zero conception of the foetus with the homozygous state in particular district couples who missed at pre-marital/adolescent stage.
Goal of 100% Newborn screening for haemoglobinopathies: Screening for all hemoglobinopathy with HPLC of all newborns of the districts to achieve Goal of 100% Newborn screening for haemoglobinopathies in a particular district and to enroll start the early quality care & medical treatment for the diagnosed newborn at District haemoglobinopathy clinic.
100% mandatory hemoglobinopathies screening report at pre-marital/adolescent age stage during the education and before marriage registration of couples, identifying the carrier state person, counseling and prevention for the same.
All these facilities at one place would be a great help to an affected child and a family that they should not have to roam here and there, although to set up such facilities Government aids are much needed.
These district-level clinics should be integrated inter-districts through Nodal officers to create State-level registry and database; these State-level reference clinics should be integrated Inter-State through Zone level officer of the Country to create National level registry and all databases. These could be assessable by caregiving physicians anywhere in the country, with all history and given therapeutic management, which could be helpful for better prospective care and increase the quality of life of patients. Only by implementing this level of concept programme, we could make Country Free from Haemoglobinopathies and zero birth of hemoglobinopathy case can be achieved in the Country.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. An Author, one must:
',metaTitle:"Authorship Policy",metaDescription:"IN TECH's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, one must:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/authorship-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All contributors who meet these criteria are listed as Authors. Their exact contributions should be described in the manuscript at the time of submission.
\\n\\nConversely, all contributors who do not meet these criteria should be listed in the Acknowledgments section of the manuscript, along with a short description of their specific contributions.
\\n\\nCHANGES IN AUTHORSHIP
\\n\\nIf it is felt necessary to make changes to the list of Authors after a manuscript has been submitted or published, it is the responsibility of the Author concerned to provide a valid reason to amend the published list. Additionally, all listed Authors must verify and approve the proposed changes in order for any amendments to be made.
\\n\\nAFFILIATION
\\n\\nAuthors are responsible for ensuring all addresses and emails provided are correct. Under affiliation(s) all Authors should indicate where the research was conducted. Please note that no changes to the affiliation(s) can be made after the chapter has been published.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-05-29
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"All contributors who meet these criteria are listed as Authors. Their exact contributions should be described in the manuscript at the time of submission.
\n\nConversely, all contributors who do not meet these criteria should be listed in the Acknowledgments section of the manuscript, along with a short description of their specific contributions.
\n\nCHANGES IN AUTHORSHIP
\n\nIf it is felt necessary to make changes to the list of Authors after a manuscript has been submitted or published, it is the responsibility of the Author concerned to provide a valid reason to amend the published list. Additionally, all listed Authors must verify and approve the proposed changes in order for any amendments to be made.
\n\nAFFILIATION
\n\nAuthors are responsible for ensuring all addresses and emails provided are correct. Under affiliation(s) all Authors should indicate where the research was conducted. Please note that no changes to the affiliation(s) can be made after the chapter has been published.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-05-29
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6654},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5944},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2452},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12681},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1014},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17700}],offset:12,limit:12,total:133952},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"-dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9985",title:"Geostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"423cb3896195a618c4acb493ce4fd23d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jeffrey M. Yarus, Dr. Marko Maucec, Dr. Timothy C. Coburn and Associate Prof. Michael Pyrcz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9985.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"78011",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeffrey M.",surname:"Yarus",slug:"jeffrey-m.-yarus",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Yarus"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12143",title:"Herbs and Spices - New Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dbbc40b4b09244389b52ca80dcc10768",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Eva Ivanišová",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12143.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"352448",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",surname:"Ivanišová",slug:"eva-ivanisova",fullName:"Eva Ivanišová"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11994",title:"MXenes - Fabrications and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"184e1a0c9b5e62ebb3c7ebc53103db9f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Dhanasekaran Vikraman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11994.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"199404",title:"Prof.",name:"Dhanasekaran",surname:"Vikraman",slug:"dhanasekaran-vikraman",fullName:"Dhanasekaran Vikraman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12007",title:"Updates in Volcanology - Linking Active Volcanism and the Geological Record",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a55d00d84b7616824cc783586c092525",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Károly Németh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12007.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12202",title:"Sexual Violence - Issues in Prevention, Treatment, and Policy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d3d39a00095ec14f7f869ed5b5211527",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kathleen Monahan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12202.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"463306",title:"Dr.",name:"Kathleen",surname:"Monahan",slug:"kathleen-monahan",fullName:"Kathleen Monahan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12307",title:"New Insights Into Dystonia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1b011946aab26d18e0f4cfa61eb4249a",slug:null,bookSignature:" Tamer Rizk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12307.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"170531",title:null,name:"Tamer",surname:"Rizk",slug:"tamer-rizk",fullName:"Tamer Rizk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12326",title:"Drug Formulation Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"be61949c97a884e4342d41ec7414e678",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rahul Shukla",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12326.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"319705",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Shukla",slug:"rahul-shukla",fullName:"Rahul Shukla"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11856",title:"Testosterone - Functions, Uses, Deficiencies, and Substitution",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8549d2b1fcd1242f85a6a70447b1db10",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Hirokazu Doi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11856.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"473383",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hirokazu",surname:"Doi",slug:"hirokazu-doi",fullName:"Hirokazu Doi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11668",title:"Mercury Pollution",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0bd111f57835089cad4a9741326dbab7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ahmed Abdelhafez and Dr. Mohamed Abbas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11668.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"196849",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Abdelhafez",slug:"ahmed-abdelhafez",fullName:"Ahmed Abdelhafez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11447",title:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f68e3c3430a74fc7a7eb97f6ea2bb42e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11447.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12063",title:"Critical Infrastructure - Modern Approach and New Developments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a88b0006f3a58c0a60f89e06efb31102",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Antonio Di Pietro and Prof. Jose Marti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12063.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"284589",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Di Pietro",slug:"antonio-di-pietro",fullName:"Antonio Di Pietro"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12387",title:"Natural Killer Cells - Lessons and Challenges",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5576cda9d50adf4e4256e47427560510",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Leisheng Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12387.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"439674",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Leisheng",surname:"Zhang",slug:"leisheng-zhang",fullName:"Leisheng Zhang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:39},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:66},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:120},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:424},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4422},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10774",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:"protein-detection",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"407",title:"Agricultural Microbiology",slug:"agricultural-microbiology",parent:{id:"59",title:"Microbiology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-microbiology"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:132,numberOfWosCitations:611,numberOfCrossrefCitations:272,numberOfDimensionsCitations:787,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"407",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10249",title:"Mycorrhizal Fungi",subtitle:"Utilization in Agriculture and Forestry",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4b82bacf1200d591715f59fad618ec4d",slug:"mycorrhizal-fungi-utilization-in-agriculture-and-forestry",bookSignature:"Ramalingam Radhakrishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10249.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219072",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramalingam",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"ramalingam-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Ramalingam Radhakrishnan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6329",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"Plant Diseases, Pathogen Diversity, Genetic Diversity, Resistance and Molecular Markers",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"549fa517876fb9e6cbbdfdc820b2109c",slug:"fusarium-plant-diseases-pathogen-diversity-genetic-diversity-resistance-and-molecular-markers",bookSignature:"Tulin Askun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6329.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89795",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulin",middleName:null,surname:"Askun",slug:"tulin-askun",fullName:"Tulin Askun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4692",title:"Microbiology in Agriculture and Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"253eae9043fbdabe3fe0bdf315200d7a",slug:"microbiology-in-agriculture-and-human-health",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4692.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",middleName:null,surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"18396",doi:"10.5772/22331",title:"Salinity Stress and Salt Tolerance",slug:"salinity-stress-and-salt-tolerance",totalDownloads:21937,totalCrossrefCites:55,totalDimensionsCites:158,abstract:null,book:{id:"371",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress in Plants - Mechanisms and Adaptations"},signatures:"Petronia Carillo, Maria Grazia Annunziata, Giovanni Pontecorvo, Amodio Fuggi and Pasqualina Woodrow",authors:[{id:"47290",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Pontecorvo",slug:"giovanni-pontecorvo",fullName:"Giovanni Pontecorvo"},{id:"47803",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasqualina",middleName:null,surname:"Woodrow",slug:"pasqualina-woodrow",fullName:"Pasqualina Woodrow"},{id:"47804",title:"Prof.",name:"Petronia",middleName:null,surname:"Carillo",slug:"petronia-carillo",fullName:"Petronia Carillo"},{id:"47808",title:"Prof.",name:"Amodio",middleName:null,surname:"Fuggi",slug:"amodio-fuggi",fullName:"Amodio Fuggi"},{id:"47809",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Grazia",middleName:null,surname:"Annunziata",slug:"maria-grazia-annunziata",fullName:"Maria Grazia Annunziata"}]},{id:"18402",doi:"10.5772/22248",title:"Soil Salinisation and Salt Stress in Crop Production",slug:"soil-salinisation-and-salt-stress-in-crop-production",totalDownloads:8982,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:null,book:{id:"371",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress in Plants - Mechanisms and Adaptations"},signatures:"Gabrijel Ondrasek, Zed Rengel and Szilvia Veres",authors:[{id:"46939",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabrijel",middleName:null,surname:"Ondrasek",slug:"gabrijel-ondrasek",fullName:"Gabrijel Ondrasek"},{id:"108025",title:"Prof.",name:"Zed",middleName:null,surname:"Rengel",slug:"zed-rengel",fullName:"Zed Rengel"},{id:"108026",title:"Dr.",name:"Szilvia",middleName:null,surname:"Veres",slug:"szilvia-veres",fullName:"Szilvia Veres"}]},{id:"18406",doi:"10.5772/24661",title:"Stomatal Responses to Drought Stress and Air Humidity",slug:"stomatal-responses-to-drought-stress-and-air-humidity",totalDownloads:11449,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:50,abstract:null,book:{id:"371",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress in Plants - Mechanisms and Adaptations"},signatures:"Arve LE, Torre S, Olsen JE and Tanino KK",authors:[{id:"58772",title:"Ms.",name:"Louise",middleName:null,surname:"Arve",slug:"louise-arve",fullName:"Louise Arve"},{id:"59624",title:"Dr.",name:"Sissel",middleName:null,surname:"Torre",slug:"sissel-torre",fullName:"Sissel Torre"},{id:"59625",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorunn",middleName:"Elisabeth",surname:"Olsen",slug:"jorunn-olsen",fullName:"Jorunn Olsen"},{id:"59626",title:"Dr.",name:"Karen",middleName:null,surname:"Tanino",slug:"karen-tanino",fullName:"Karen Tanino"}]},{id:"18407",doi:"10.5772/22465",title:"Plant Genes for Abiotic Stress",slug:"plant-genes-for-abiotic-stress",totalDownloads:9760,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:null,book:{id:"371",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress in Plants - Mechanisms and Adaptations"},signatures:"Loredana F. Ciarmiello, Pasqualina Woodrow, Amodio Fuggi, Giovanni Pontecorvo and Petronia Carillo",authors:[{id:"47290",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Pontecorvo",slug:"giovanni-pontecorvo",fullName:"Giovanni Pontecorvo"},{id:"47803",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasqualina",middleName:null,surname:"Woodrow",slug:"pasqualina-woodrow",fullName:"Pasqualina Woodrow"},{id:"47804",title:"Prof.",name:"Petronia",middleName:null,surname:"Carillo",slug:"petronia-carillo",fullName:"Petronia Carillo"},{id:"47808",title:"Prof.",name:"Amodio",middleName:null,surname:"Fuggi",slug:"amodio-fuggi",fullName:"Amodio Fuggi"},{id:"47816",title:"Dr.",name:"Loredana F.",middleName:null,surname:"Ciarmiello",slug:"loredana-f.-ciarmiello",fullName:"Loredana F. Ciarmiello"}]},{id:"18401",doi:"10.5772/23310",title:"Soil Bacteria Support and Protect Plants Against Abiotic Stresses",slug:"soil-bacteria-support-and-protect-plants-against-abiotic-stresses",totalDownloads:9275,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:null,book:{id:"371",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress in Plants - Mechanisms and Adaptations"},signatures:"Bianco Carmen and Defez Roberto",authors:[{id:"51522",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Defez",slug:"roberto-defez",fullName:"Roberto Defez"},{id:"51531",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Bianco",slug:"carmen-bianco",fullName:"Carmen Bianco"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73929",title:"Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) Fungi as a Tool for Sustainable Agricultural System",slug:"arbuscular-mycorrhizal-am-fungi-as-a-tool-for-sustainable-agricultural-system",totalDownloads:567,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"A sustainable agriculture is a type of agriculture that focuses on producing long-term crops and livestock without having any adverse effect on the environment. However, agricultural malpractices like excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, as well as climate change have aggravated the effects of biotic and abiotic stresses on crop productivity. These led to the degradation of ecosystem, leaving bad impacts on the soil qualities and water body environment. As an alternative to the rising agricultural energy, the use of Vesicular– Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (AM) may be a better option. Being natural root symbionts, AM provide essential inorganic nutrients to host plants, thereby improving its growth and yield even under stressed conditions. AM fungi can also potentially strengthen the adaptability of a plant to the changing environment, as a bio-fertilizer. The chapter provides a comprehensive up-to-date knowledge on AM fungi as a tool for sustainable agricultural system. Thus, further research focusing on the AM -mediated promotion of crop quality and productivity is needed.",book:{id:"10249",slug:"mycorrhizal-fungi-utilization-in-agriculture-and-forestry",title:"Mycorrhizal Fungi",fullTitle:"Mycorrhizal Fungi - Utilization in Agriculture and Forestry"},signatures:"Kavita Chahal, Vaishali Gupta, Naveen Kumar Verma, Anand Chaurasia and Babita Rana",authors:[{id:"327437",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Chahal",slug:"kavita-chahal",fullName:"Kavita Chahal"}]},{id:"48639",title:"Negative and Positive Staining in Transmission Electron Microscopy for Virus Diagnosis",slug:"negative-and-positive-staining-in-transmission-electron-microscopy-for-virus-diagnosis",totalDownloads:5167,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Visualization of virus particles and morphological features depends on the resolution of microscopes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is the starting point for obtaining the best resolution of images. Two different techniques are available and described in this paper. Firstly, negative staining of viral suspensions provides detailed information of virus particles' structure. It is a technique that can be quickly performed and is able to accommodate the highest magnifications of virus particles. Secondly, ultra-thin sections of virus-infected tissues or cell cultures, combined with a positive staining technique can provide information regarding the localization of viruses inside or around cells. These two complementary techniques for investigating the structure of a virus and its parasitic life cycle are presented in this paper.",book:{id:"4692",slug:"microbiology-in-agriculture-and-human-health",title:"Microbiology in Agriculture and Human Health",fullTitle:"Microbiology in Agriculture and Human Health"},signatures:"Debora Ferreira Barreto-Vieira and Ortrud Monika Barth",authors:[{id:"174492",title:"Dr.",name:"Debora",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Barreto-Vieira",slug:"debora-barreto-vieira",fullName:"Debora Barreto-Vieira"},{id:"175200",title:"Dr.",name:"Ortrud Monika",middleName:null,surname:"Barth",slug:"ortrud-monika-barth",fullName:"Ortrud Monika Barth"}]},{id:"18412",title:"C4 Plants Adaptation to High Levels of CO2 and to Drought Environments",slug:"c4-plants-adaptation-to-high-levels-of-co2-and-to-drought-environments",totalDownloads:26513,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"371",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress in Plants - Mechanisms and Adaptations"},signatures:"María Valeria Lara and Carlos Santiago Andreo",authors:[{id:"60504",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Andreo",slug:"andreo",fullName:"Andreo"},{id:"62008",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:"Valeria",surname:"Lara",slug:"maria-lara",fullName:"María Lara"}]},{id:"60831",title:"Introductory Chapter: Fusarium: Pathogenicity, Infections, Diseases, Mycotoxins and Management",slug:"introductory-chapter-fusarium-pathogenicity-infections-diseases-mycotoxins-and-management",totalDownloads:1872,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"6329",slug:"fusarium-plant-diseases-pathogen-diversity-genetic-diversity-resistance-and-molecular-markers",title:"Fusarium",fullTitle:"Fusarium - Plant Diseases, Pathogen Diversity, Genetic Diversity, Resistance and Molecular Markers"},signatures:"Tulin Askun",authors:[{id:"89795",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulin",middleName:null,surname:"Askun",slug:"tulin-askun",fullName:"Tulin Askun"}]},{id:"58344",title:"Fusarium Wilt: A Killer Disease of Lentil",slug:"fusarium-wilt-a-killer-disease-of-lentil",totalDownloads:1814,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus subsp. culinaris) is an important dietary source of protein and other essential nutrients in South and West Asia, North and East Africa. Lentil crops are vulnerable to a number of diseases caused by fungi, viruses, nematodes, insect pests, parasitic plants and abiotic stresses. Among them, the most significant and serious soil-borne disease is Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis: Fol). Fusarium wilt causes yield loss up to 50% in farmers’ fields. The pathogen showed high levels of phenotypic and genotypic diversity in India, Algeria, Syria and Iran. The disease thrives at 22–25°C temperature and affect lentil either at seedling and vegetative or the reproductive stages of the crop. To minimize yield losses, an integrated management strategy comprising resistant/partial resistant cultivars, adjusting sowing time, bio-control and chemical seed treatments is the best approach to reduce the incidence of the Fusarium wilt of lentil. This review covers past achievements in managing the disease, pathogen diversity and identify gaps in managing Fusarium wilt to improve productivity and production of the crop.",book:{id:"6329",slug:"fusarium-plant-diseases-pathogen-diversity-genetic-diversity-resistance-and-molecular-markers",title:"Fusarium",fullTitle:"Fusarium - Plant Diseases, Pathogen Diversity, Genetic Diversity, Resistance and Molecular Markers"},signatures:"Neha Tiwari, Seid Ahmed, Shiv Kumar and Ashutosh Sarker",authors:[{id:"213094",title:"Dr.",name:"Neha",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"neha-tiwari",fullName:"Neha Tiwari"},{id:"213095",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashutosh",middleName:null,surname:"Sarker",slug:"ashutosh-sarker",fullName:"Ashutosh Sarker"},{id:"213176",title:"Dr.",name:"Seid Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Kemal",slug:"seid-ahmed-kemal",fullName:"Seid Ahmed Kemal"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"407",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. Soogun, Ayesha B.M. Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North",slug:"spatial-variation-and-factors-associated-with-unsuppressed-hiv-viral-load-among-women-in-an-hiv-hype",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82193",title:"Enterococcal Infections: Recent Nomenclature and emerging trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104792",signatures:"Kavita Raja",slug:"enterococcal-infections-recent-nomenclature-and-emerging-trends",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82207",title:"Management Strategies in Perinatal HIV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105451",signatures:"Kayla Aleshire and Rima Bazzi",slug:"management-strategies-in-perinatal-hiv",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kasenga is a graduate of Tumaini University, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Moshi, Tanzania and Umeå University, Sweden. He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). Dr. Kasenga is married to Grace and blessed with three children, a son and two daughters: Happy, Lettice and Sungani.",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11677",title:"New Insights in Mammalian Endocrinology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11677.jpg",hash:"c59dd0f87bbf829ca091c485f4cc4e68",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 5th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"321396",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Subhan",surname:"Qureshi",slug:"muhammad-subhan-qureshi",fullName:"Muhammad Subhan Qureshi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11676",title:"Recent Advances in Homeostasis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11676.jpg",hash:"63eb775115bf2d6d88530b234a1cc4c2",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 15th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar",surname:"Zaman",slug:"gaffar-zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Zaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12213",title:"New Advances in Photosynthesis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12213.jpg",hash:"2eece9ed4f67de4eb73da424321fc455",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 15th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:31,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",volumeInSeries:32,fullTitle:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195290/images/system/195290.png",institutionString:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institution:{name:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",slug:"protein-detection",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",volumeInSeries:31,fullTitle:"Protein Detection",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:"Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",slug:"cell-culture-advanced-technology-and-applications-in-medical-and-life-sciences",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",volumeInSeries:30,fullTitle:"Cell Culture - Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",slug:"hydrolases",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",volumeInSeries:29,fullTitle:"Hydrolases",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110708/images/system/110708.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",volumeInSeries:28,fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",volumeInSeries:26,fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts",subtitle:"Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",slug:"fibroblasts-advances-in-inflammation-autoimmunity-and-cancer",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Katja Lakota",hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",volumeInSeries:25,fullTitle:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",middleName:null,surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/328755/images/system/328755.jpg",institutionString:"BioMed X Institute",institution:{name:"University Hospital of Zurich",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinases",subtitle:"Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",slug:"protein-kinases-promising-targets-for-anticancer-drug-research",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rajesh Kumar Singh",hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",volumeInSeries:24,fullTitle:"Protein Kinases - Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9753",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",subtitle:"Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9753.jpg",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids-recent-advances",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shagufta Perveen and Areej Mohammad Al-Taweel",hash:"575689df13c78bf0e6c1be40804cd010",volumeInSeries:21,fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids - Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:12}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"23",type:"subseries",title:"Computational Neuroscience",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. Natto",slug:"herbs-and-oral-health",totalDownloads:55,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80441",title:"Periodontitis and Heart Disease: Current Perspectives on the Associative Relationships and Preventive Impact",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102669",signatures:"Alexandra Roman, Andrada Soancă, Bogdan Caloian, Alexandru Bucur, Gabriela Valentina Caracostea, Andreia Paraschiva Preda, Dora Maria Popescu, Iulia Cristina Micu, Petra Șurlin, Andreea Ciurea, Diana Oneț, Mircea Viorel Ciurea, Dragoș Alexandru Țermure and Marius Negucioiu",slug:"periodontitis-and-heart-disease-current-perspectives-on-the-associative-relationships-and-preventive",totalDownloads:53,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79498",title:"Oral Aspects and Dental Management of Special Needs Patient",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101067",signatures:"Pinar Kiymet Karataban",slug:"oral-aspects-and-dental-management-of-special-needs-patient",totalDownloads:83,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Pinar",surname:"Karataban"}],book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79699",title:"Metabolomics Distinction of Cigarette Smokers from Non-Smokers Using Non-Stationary Benchtop Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis of Human Saliva",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101414",signatures:"Benita C. Percival, Angela Wann, Sophie Taylor, Mark Edgar, Miles Gibson and Martin Grootveld",slug:"metabolomics-distinction-of-cigarette-smokers-from-non-smokers-using-non-stationary-benchtop-nuclear",totalDownloads:54,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80295",title:"Preventive Methods and Treatments of White Spot Lesions in Orthodontics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102064",signatures:"Elif Nadide Akay",slug:"preventive-methods-and-treatments-of-white-spot-lesions-in-orthodontics",totalDownloads:82,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79876",title:"Management and Prevention Strategies for Treating Dentine Hypersensitivity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101495",signatures:"David G. Gillam",slug:"management-and-prevention-strategies-for-treating-dentine-hypersensitivity",totalDownloads:88,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80020",title:"Alternative Denture Base Materials for Allergic Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101956",signatures:"Lavinia Cosmina Ardelean, Laura-Cristina Rusu and Codruta Victoria Tigmeanu",slug:"alternative-denture-base-materials-for-allergic-patients",totalDownloads:162,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79297",title:"Oral Health and Prevention in Older Adults",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101043",signatures:"Irma Fabiola Díaz-García, Dinorah Munira Hernández-Santos, Julio Alberto Díaz-Ramos and Neyda Ma. Mendoza-Ruvalcaba",slug:"oral-health-and-prevention-in-older-adults",totalDownloads:107,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79903",title:"Molecular Docking of Phytochemicals against Streptococcus mutans Virulence Targets: A Proteomic Insight into Drug Planning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101506",signatures:"Diego Romário da Silva, Tahyná Duda Deps, Otavio Akira Souza Sakaguchi, Edja Maria Melo de Brito Costa, Carlus Alberto Oliveira dos Santos, Joanilda Paolla Raimundo e Silva, Bruna Dantas da Silva, Frederico Favaro Ribeiro, Francisco Jaime Bezerra Mendonça-Júnior and Andréa Cristina Barbosa da Silva",slug:"molecular-docking-of-phytochemicals-against-streptococcus-mutans-virulence-targets-a-proteomic-insig",totalDownloads:107,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79754",title:"Evaluation of Trans-Resveratrol as a Treatment for Periodontitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101477",signatures:"Tracey Lynn Harney",slug:"evaluation-of-trans-resveratrol-as-a-treatment-for-periodontitis",totalDownloads:102,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79515",title:"White Spot Lesions and Remineralization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101372",signatures:"Monisha Khatri, Shreya Kishore, S. Nagarathinam, Suvetha Siva and Vanita Barai",slug:"white-spot-lesions-and-remineralization",totalDownloads:70,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79371",title:"The Contrasting Effects between Caffeine and Theobromine on Crystallization: How the Non-fluoride Dentifrice Was Developed",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101116",signatures:"Tetsuo Nakamoto, Alexander U. Falster and William B. Simmons Jr",slug:"the-contrasting-effects-between-caffeine-and-theobromine-on-crystallization-how-the-non-fluoride-den",totalDownloads:127,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79409",title:"The Dental Implant Maintenance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101187",signatures:"Gayathri Krishnamoorthy, Aparna I. Narayana and Dhanasekar Balakrishnan",slug:"the-dental-implant-maintenance",totalDownloads:104,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79387",title:"Ulcerative Lesions of the Oral Cavity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101215",signatures:"Nelli Yildirimyan",slug:"ulcerative-lesions-of-the-oral-cavity",totalDownloads:135,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79319",title:"Empirical Study on Medical Information and Communication Technology System in Dentistry in Southeast Asia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101080",signatures:"Ichiro Nakajima, Ken-ichiro Ejima, Yoshinori Arai, Kunihito Matsumoto, Kazuya Honda, Hirofumi Aboshi, Marina Hamaguchi, Akao Lyvongsa, Bounnhong Sidaphone, Somphone Phanthavong, Chanthavisao Phanthanalay and Souksavanh Vongsa",slug:"empirical-study-on-medical-information-and-communication-technology-system-in-dentistry-in-southeast",totalDownloads:145,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9493",title:"Periodontology",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Clinical Features",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9493.jpg",slug:"periodontology-fundamentals-and-clinical-features",publishedDate:"February 16th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Petra Surlin",hash:"dfe986c764d6c82ae820c2df5843a866",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Periodontology - Fundamentals and Clinical Features",editors:[{id:"171921",title:"Prof.",name:"Petra",middleName:null,surname:"Surlin",slug:"petra-surlin",fullName:"Petra Surlin",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:"University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova",institution:{name:"University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9588",title:"Clinical Concepts and Practical Management Techniques in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9588.jpg",slug:"clinical-concepts-and-practical-management-techniques-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Aneesa Moolla",hash:"42deab8d3bcf3edf64d1d9028d42efd1",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Clinical Concepts and Practical Management Techniques in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8202",title:"Periodontal Disease",subtitle:"Diagnostic and Adjunctive Non-surgical Considerations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8202.jpg",slug:"periodontal-disease-diagnostic-and-adjunctive-non-surgical-considerations",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif",hash:"0aee9799da7db2c732be44dd8fed16d8",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Periodontal Disease - Diagnostic and Adjunctive Non-surgical Considerations",editors:[{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8837",title:"Human Teeth",subtitle:"Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8837.jpg",slug:"human-teeth-key-skills-and-clinical-illustrations",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan and Farid Bourzgui",hash:"ac055c5801032970123e0a196c2e1d32",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Human Teeth - Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:{id:"52177",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",middleName:null,surname:"Bourzgui",slug:"farid-bourzgui",fullName:"Farid Bourzgui",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52177/images/system/52177.png",biography:"Prof. Farid Bourzgui obtained his DMD and his DNSO option in Orthodontics at the School of Dental Medicine, Casablanca Hassan II University, Morocco, in 1995 and 2000, respectively. Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). He is the author of several scientific articles, book chapters, and books.",institutionString:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"