Thermal and electrical properties of the materials used in the model.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3627",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Mechatronic Systems Applications",title:"Mechatronic Systems",subtitle:"Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Mechatronics, the synergistic blend of mechanics, electronics, and computer science, has evolved over the past twenty five years, leading to a novel stage of engineering design. By integrating the best design practices with the most advanced technologies, mechatronics aims at realizing high-quality products, guaranteeing at the same time a substantial reduction of time and costs of manufacturing.\r\n\r\nMechatronic systems are manifold and range from machine components, motion generators, and power producing machines to more complex devices, such as robotic systems and transportation vehicles. With its twenty chapters, which collect contributions from many researchers worldwide, this book provides an excellent survey of recent work in the field of mechatronics with applications in various fields, like robotics, medical and assistive technology, human-machine interaction, unmanned vehicles, manufacturing, and education. We would like to thank all the authors who have invested a great deal of time to write such interesting chapters, which we are sure will be valuable to the readers.\r\n\r\nChapters 1 to 6 deal with applications of mechatronics for the development of robotic systems. Medical and assistive technologies and human-machine interaction systems are the topic of chapters 7 to 13.Chapters 14 and 15 concern mechatronic systems for autonomous vehicles. Chapters 16-19 deal with mechatronics in manufacturing contexts. Chapter 20 concludes the book, describing a method for the installation of mechatronics education in schools.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-040-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5892-9",doi:"10.5772/206",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"mechatronic-systems-applications",numberOfPages:364,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Annalisa Milella Donato Di Paola and Grazia Cicirelli",publishedDate:"March 1st 2010",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3627.jpg",numberOfDownloads:78081,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:43,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:96,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:null,dateEndSecondStepPublish:null,dateEndThirdStepPublish:null,dateEndFourthStepPublish:null,dateEndFifthStepPublish:null,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"1065",title:"Dr.",name:"Annalisa",middleName:null,surname:"Milella",slug:"annalisa-milella",fullName:"Annalisa Milella",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1065/images/system/1065.jpg",biography:"I received the Laurea (summa cum laude) and Research Doctorate degrees from the Politecnico of Bari, Italy, in 2002 and 2006, respectively, both in Mechanical Engineering. In 2005, I was a visiting PhD student at the EPFL Autonomous Systems Laboratory. Currently, I am a researcher at the Institute of Intelligent Systems for Automation (ISSIA), National Research Council (CNR) of Bari, Italy.\nMy main research interests include:\n- computer vision applied to robotics and intelligent systems\n- self-localization methods for mobile robots\n- robotic non-destructive inspection\n- robotic surveillance systems",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Institute of Intelligent Systems for Automation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"17156",title:"Dr.",name:"Grazia",middleName:null,surname:"Cicirelli",slug:"grazia-cicirelli",fullName:"Grazia Cicirelli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/17156/images/system/17156.jpg",biography:"Grazia Cicirelli received the Laurea degree (summa cum laude) in Computer Science from the University of Bari (Italy) in 1994. Until 2001 she held grants from the Italian National Research Council (CNR) for research activities in Robotics and Image Processing. From 2001 she is a Technologist Researcher at the Institute of Intelligent Systems for Automation (ISSIA) of CNR in Bari. Her principal interests include pattern recognition, artificial intelligence, image processing for robotic applications and intelligent systems for video-surveillance. She has worked on and directed numerous research projects in different research areas such as Quality Control, Intelligent Transportation Systems, Autonomous Mobile Robotics. She is author of numerous research papers published in International Conference Proceedings, National and International Journals. 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\r\n\tThis book will explore how gender and sexual minorities have created communities of meaning and political expression around the world. Through a series of case studies, historical considerations, and reflections, different communities of gender and sexual minority groups will be explored. The book will give an overview of the wide variety of experiences that people who identify as gender and sexual minority group members have used in the formation of community, both online and in person. We will see that some of these creations of the community are a reaction to the exclusion by the larger society in which members are embedded. We will also see that people create a community in the face of oppression, engage in dialogue and activities (political and social), and create meaning in their identities. We will witness how these spaces give voice to change, resilience, and survival. For all of us who are queer and trans, community means at a minimum the place in which we can thrive and be seen.
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Marie, Ontario, Canada, this work combines my research interests in the rural communities and my volunteer work advocating for members of the Queer and Trans communities.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"463750",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Woodman",slug:"deborah-woodman",fullName:"Deborah Woodman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/463750/images/system/463750.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deb Woodman (she/her) teaches at Algoma University, Ontario, Canada in the department of Sociology and Anthropology housed in the Faculty of Cross Cultural Studies. She identifies as a member of the Queer community and has been engaged with volunteer work for years, creating curriculum for Queer/Trans community events as well as working with public agencies. This publication brings her interests together by combining her doctoral work on rural communities with her advocacy work with Queer and Trans folk.",institutionString:"Algoma University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Algoma University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6494",title:"Behavior Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a81a7163705b2765f9eb0b21dec70e",slug:"behavior-analysis",bookSignature:"Huei-Tse Hou and Carolyn S. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"78247",title:"Timber-Concrete Composite Structural Elements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99624",slug:"timber-concrete-composite-structural-elements",body:'Timber-concrete composite (TCC) structural elements are usually horizontal elements, which carry the load in one direction (so called one-way spanning elements) subjected to uniaxial bending. Timber and concrete part of TCC element are connected with one of several types of connectors in order to achieve composite action [1]. Since concrete has almost negligible tensile strength, timber is commonly on the lower side of the element, where tensile stresses are expected, and concrete is on the upper side, where compressive stresses occur. While there are also some reversed TCC structural elements with concrete on the bottom side [2] and even some TCC wall systems [3], this chapter focuses on most typical application of TCC structural elements described above.
A development of TCC structural elements began around 100 years ago in Germany, aiming at renovation and strengthening of existing timber floors. Paul Müller patented TCC floor system, made of upright timber boards with concrete topping in 1922. Another patent was received by Otto Schaub in 1939 for TCC slab made of timber ribs and concrete slab, connected with Z- or H-shaped steel connectors [1]. While in Europe TCC elements were firstly used as floor systems only, TCC bridges of short and medium span were developed in 1930s in America, as a result of shortage of steel for concrete reinforcement. Construction of TCC bridges spread to Australia and New Zealand in 1950s, where they were probably built by US army. In Europe, TCC bridges did not appear until 1990s [4].
Nowadays, however, TCC structural elements are getting more and more popular worldwide. They are used both in restoration and renovation of existing, often historical structures as well as for new buildings and bridges. Figure 1 shows TCC bridge over river Agger in Germany, which was built in 2014 [5], and 8-story building called LifeCycle Tower One in Austria, which has TCC horizontal structural elements and was built in 2012 [6].
Examples of structures with TCC structural elements. (a) Bridge over river Agger, Germany [
In this chapter, various types of TCC floor systems are presented and described regarding type of the element and connection type, as well as types of timber and concrete. Next, specific characteristics and advantages of TCC structural elements in comparison with fully concrete or fully timber floor systems are thoroughly discussed from viewpoints of engineering, architecture, construction process and ecology. Furthermore, basic mechanical principles of TCC structural elements are presented, together with most often used simplified methods for their design. The chapter concludes with discussion on worldwide inclusion of TCC structures in currently applicable standards.
TCC structural elements are very diverse. While there are only two main types of geometry of TCC floors (beam and slab type), there are a lot of different types of connections between timber and concrete with considerably different behaviour. Also, there are several possibilities for type of concrete and even more for type of timber.
TCC structural elements are usually slab-like elements (floors in buildings and decks of bridges) and can be either of uniform thickness or ribbed, depending on several factors such as aesthetics, height limit and availability of materials. At the same time, TCC structural elements are almost always one-way-spanning elements, and can be modelled as beams, loaded with uniaxial bending. Therefore, there can be some confusion with the terms: is it a TCC beam or is it a TCC slab? Hereinafter, the following terms will be used: beam type of TCC floors and slab type of TCC floors. Beam type cross-section consists of a timber web and a concrete flange, i.e. timber part is much narrower than the concrete part. Consequently, the neutral axis of the entire TCC cross-section is located in the web. On the other hand, concrete and timber parts of slab type have equal widths and neutral axis is often in the concrete part. Besides the difference in appearance of both types, presented in Figure 2, there is also the difference in location of the neutral axis, which influences the portion of the concrete where tensile cracking can occur, and consequently influences appropriate design methods.
Examples of slab type and beam type of TCC floor systems. (a) An example of slab type of TCC floors. (b) An example of beam type of TCC floors.
Timber part of TCC cross-section can be made from massive timber (beams or boards) or engineered wood products such as laminated veneer lumber (LVL), cross-laminated timber (CLT), glued laminated timber (Glulam),… Especially with slab type of TCC floors there is also a matter of orientation of timber components; boards, plates and lamellas of LVL beams can be orientated either horizontally (placed one on top of another) or vertically (placed next to each other) [7]. Furthermore, while beam type of TCC floor usually has web made of one timber beam, there can also be two connected timber beams next to each other [8]. Such solution is necessary in case of certain type of connectors (e.g. nailplates), but can also be used in other cases.
Concrete in TCC structural elements is usually normal-weight concrete, reinforced only with small amount of steel reinforcement in order to prevent cracking of concrete due to its shrinkage. However, some research was conducted regarding the use of light-weight concrete with the aim of achieving smaller self-weight of TCC element (e.g., [9]). Furthermore, steel-fibre-reinforced concrete (SFRC) in TCC structural elements has proven to reduce possibility of explosive spalling of concrete in fire conditions [10].
The lower side of concrete part of TCC cross-section could be bare, or it can be covered with permanent formwork made of thin timber layer (e.g. plywood).
Timber-concrete connection has major influence on behaviour of TCC structural element. The perfect connection has enough strength for transfer of shear forces between the two materials, enough stiffness to allow only limited slip and enough ductility to avoid brittle failure of the connection. Additional, non-mechanical properties of the connection, such as cost and handiness, can also influence the choice on the connection type [1]. However, the perfect connection is nearly impossible to achieve in practice. Several connection systems have been developed, each with its own advantages:
When strength of
Some of the connection types are schematically presented in Figure 3. An interested reader can also find graphical comparison of stiffness and ductility of various connection systems (with respect to their normalised strength) in [11]. Additionally, more variations of connections can be found e.g. in [12].
Connection types. (a) Connection with dowels. (b) Connection with inclined screws at 45° in two rows. (c) Notched connection with inclined sides. (d) Notched connection with vertical sides and dowels. (e) Glued connection. (f) Connection with nailplates.
In one-way-spanning simply supported floors, which is most often the case for TCC floors, the greatest shear force in the connection occur close to the supports, while it can be negligible in the middle of the span. The failure of one connector near the supports would lead to an additional load in the remaining connectors, which could result in more brittle failure of the TCC element [11]. In order to avoid that, the spacing between separate connectors near the supports is sometimes reduced, while at the midspan the spacing can be increased [13].
Due to their composite nature, TCC structural elements have pretty specific characteristics, some of them represent advantages over fully timber elements and other over fully concrete elements.
From architectural point of view, timber, as a natural structural material, is often preferred over concrete. Therefore, timber parts of TCC structural elements are usually left to be visible due to aesthetic reasons. Furthermore, visible timber parts are desired when TCC structural elements are used in restoration of historical buildings.
In comparison with fully concrete structural elements of similar mechanical performance, TCC structural elements have lower self-weight. Among other benefits, this contributes to easier transport of materials to the construction site, as well as to smaller seismic forces on the finished structure.
Moreover, TCC structural elements can be prefabricated, either as a whole element or timber and concrete part separately. This can expedite the process of construction on site and the use of resources can be more controlled in a workshop, which result in smaller amount of waste.
Strength of a structural element governs maximum load that the element can withstand without failure. In comparison with traditional timber-only floor systems, TCC floor systems (with properly connected timber and concrete parts) achieve up to three times higher load carrying capacity and up to six times greater bending stiffness [12]. Concrete on the upper side contributes to compressive load capacity of the TCC element, and timber on the lower side contributes to its tensile load capacity.
Bending stiffness of structural element is a resistance of an element against bending deformations, i.e. it determines how large deflections will occur under certain bending load. Greater bending stiffness of TCC elements, which means smaller deflection, is achieved due to elastic modulus of the concrete being several times higher than elastic modulus of the timber. In-plane rigidity of TCC floors is also improved when compared to timber floors. In fact, TCC floor systems can act as horizontal bracing of the structure and thus improve its seismic response, if both timber and concrete part of TCC element are connected to the walls [12].
Ductile structural elements can sustain large plastic deformations before failure. Properly designed and executed connection between timber and concrete can lead to improved ductility in comparison with fully concrete or fully timber floors. In order to achieve that, the connection must be sufficiently strong and rigid [1]. However, if the connection is too strong and stiff, a brittle tensile failure of the timber may occur prior to plastification of the connectors [12].
The bending stiffness of TCC structural element (which depends on the stiffness of the connection) influences distribution of deformation and stresses over TCC cross-section, and consequently importantly influences verification of ultimate limit states (ULS) as well as of serviceability limit states (SLS) [1]. As both timber and concrete are rheologically active materials, initial and long term response of TCC structural elements must be checked. Calculation of strength and stiffness of TCC elements is discussed in Section 5.
Normal-weight concrete has density around 2400 kg/m3, which is three to five times higher than hardwood and around five to eight times higher than softwood (depending on the quality class of timber) [14]. As a result, TCC floor systems provide better insulation for air-transmitted sound than fully timber systems. Furthermore, in comparison with fully concrete systems, TCC floor systems provide improved insulation for impact noise, due to increased damping characteristics [12].
As already mentioned, TCC structural elements can achieve longer spans than fully timber floors, due to higher strength and bending stiffness. However, a research on one TCC slab type floor system has shown that an increase of height of concrete part with the aim of achieving higher load capacity and consequently longer span has its limit. When this limit span is exceeded, vibration performance becomes the controlling design parameter. The reason is in reduced natural frequency of TCC element as a result of increased self-weight of the element due to increased concrete height [15]. Because of low natural frequency, TCC floor systems could be categorised as susceptible to resonance [16]. Nevertheless, the viscous damping ratio of TCC systems is higher than that of fully timber systems. Consequently, “springiness” felt by the users when jumping or walking on the floors is reduced and users are less annoyed [12]. It was experimentally confirmed, that the achieved values of occupancy annoyance for TCC floors are way below the annoyance limit proposed in Eurocodes [16].
Behaviour of TCC structural elements in fire conditions is an important factor in their design. First of all, there are certain phenomena, inherent to each of the two materials, which occur at exposure to high temperatures. In timber, being a combustible material, pyrolysis occurs at elevated temperatures, resulting in reduction of material properties and eventually (at approximately 300°C) in charring of material [17]. The charred layer of the timber part of TCC cross-section have negligible strength and stiffness and is for design purposes considered as mechanically completely ineffective layer. However, char works as a thermal insulation and therefore protects the remaining cross-section. On the other hand, mechanical properties of concrete are reduced when temperature exceeds 400°C [18]. Concrete part of TCC cross-section is usually quite thin slab, reinforced with small amount of steel reinforcement (aimed only at prevention of concrete cracking as a result of shrinkage). It has been shown that thin concrete slabs are more likely to experience explosive spalling than thicker ones [2]. Another research has shown that explosive spalling in beam type of TCC floor can be avoided with the use of concrete reinforced with steel fibres (SFRC) [10].
Geometry of the TCC cross-section changes during fire duration due to charring of timber and spalling of concrete. Additionally, height of the timber part can be reduced in case of laminated timber (LVL, CLT…) if separate lamellas fall off [13]. This can occur either due to charring and result in lesser thermal insulation of the remaining cross-section or earlier due to failure of glued connection between lamellas, which causes additional reduction of otherwise effective cross-section.
Elevated temperatures influence behaviour of the connection between timber and concrete as well. Reduction factors for both strength and stiffness of the connection depend on: (i) type of the connection, (ii) initial timber cover i.e. distance between initial boundary of the cross-section exposed to fire and the connectors and (iii) development of elevated temperatures and related charring progress. It appears that lateral timber cover in beam type of TCC floors is more important for protection of the connection than bottom timber cover [19].
An obvious, yet important difference presents itself between beam type and slab type of TCC floor systems in fire conditions. With beam type, there are three sides of timber part (lower and both lateral sides) directly exposed to fire and charring progress. Additionally, almost entire lower side of the concrete slab is either immediately exposed or initially protected with thin layer of permanent formwork only. On the other hand, only lower side of timber slab in slab type of TCC floor system is directly exposed, therefore, heat transfer and charring process can be considered one-dimensional [7].
A different approach to TCC floor systems, so-called reverse TCC system, has concrete slab below timber beams and timber deck. An important function of concrete slab in such systems is fire protection of the timber part. The research has shown that very thin concrete slabs already provides efficient thermal insulation and thickness of the slab is actually governed by required cover depth of steel reinforcement and by prevention of explosive spalling of concrete [2].
Thus far, behaviour of TCC structural elements in fire has been extensively experimentally investigated [20] and both analytical simplified methods and numerical methods for fire safe design have been developed, see for example [19, 21, 22], respectively. However, the variety of designs and complexity of behaviour of TCC structural elements in fire conditions calls for further research.
Design of buildings with TCC structural elements can contribute to more ecological and sustainable built environment in several ways.
Firstly, TCC floor systems were developed and are still being used for strengthening of existing timber floors with added concrete layer or as their replacement. Consequently, the lifetime of renovated building is prolonged and thus its sustainability is improved.
Furthermore, in comparison with reinforced concrete structural elements with similar structural performance, TCC elements contain less concrete and, clearly, more timber. This brings the following ecological advantages:
Unlike concrete, timber is a
Carbon footprint is defined as sum of greenhouse gas emissions caused by organisation, event, product or individual expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent. Several studies have shown that timber-based buildings generally have
Timber part of TCC element represents
Since concrete, which is obviously less friendly to the environment than timber, importantly influences structural performance of TCC element, the question remains: “What geometry of TCC cross-section is optimal for satisfying both structural and environmental needs?” It was shown for a specific slab type of TCC floors, that for achieving longer spans than 7 m it is better to increase height of timber part, while keeping concrete thickness in specified range [15]. However, due to many different designs of TCC structural elements that is not always the case.
TCC structural elements are most often simply supported one-way-spanning floors (either slab type or beam type), subjected to vertical external load resulting in positive bending moment only. Each of the two parts of the TCC cross-section (i.e. timber part and concrete part) is usually rectangular. Mechanical principles in this section are presented accordingly.
Due to positive bending moment, tensile normal stresses occur on the lower half of each part of the TCC cross-section and compressive normal stresses occur on their upper halves. The connection between timber and concrete restricts horizontal slip on the contact and transfers shear force, which is in equilibrium with internal normal force in each part of the cross-section. The magnitude of the shear force and inherent magnitude of the constant normal stresses in each part of the cross-section are determined by the stiffness of the connection. Therefore, stiffness of the connection between timber and concrete has important influence on total stress distribution over cross-section. Theoretically, there are three possibilities: perfectly rigid connection, semi-rigid connection and without connection [22].
Stress distributions over TCC cross-section for perfectly rigid connection, semi-rigid connection and without connection.
Failure of TCC structural element occur when any of its components fails; either the outermost fibres of timber part fail in tension, or the outermost fibres of concrete part fail in compression, or the connection fails due to exceeded shear capacity. Type of the connection determines its failure mode. For example, for notched type of the connection with dowels, shear failure of the dowel occur together with local compressive failure of timber (parallel to fibres) [22]. On the other hand, screwed connection with inclined screws (usually at 45°) in two rows work as a virtual truss with screws representing tensile and compressive diagonals; at the failure, tensily loaded screws fail due to withdrawal from timber part, while screws in compression experience buckling [19].
Behaviour of TCC structural element is quite complex, mostly due to non-linear response of semi-rigid timber-concrete connection. Therefore, currently available analytical design methods introduce several simplifications.
Majority of simplified design methods for TCC structural elements (see e.g., [19, 24]) is based on so-called gamma method [25], developed in 1956, with one of its formulations being presented also in EN 1995-1-1, Appendix B [26]. The method introduces gamma coefficient (
Another approach includes a crude simplification and completely disregards slip in the connection. Thus, Bernoulli hypothesis can be applied and stress distribution over TCC cross-section in ULS (due to exceeded tensile or compressive bearing capacity) can be determined, see e.g., [21, 27]). The advantage of this method in comparison with the gamma method is in possibility to consider cracking of concrete as a result of exceeded tensile strength. Cracked concrete cannot contribute to effective stiffness of the cross-section; as the height of the cracked part depends on stress distribution, the effective bending stiffness according to gamma method could not be determined.
There are also some simplified methods available for fire safe design of TCC structural elements. These methods are often basically the same as the methods for design at normal temperatures, but upgraded to include charring of timber and reduction of material properties due to elevated temperatures. Usually (but not always), simplified methods for reduction of geometry and material properties, which are already established and described in standards for timber or for concrete, are applied [17, 18].
While there are several proprietary TCC systems on the market [1], with detailed instructions for builders, Ceccotti [12] gives some general recommendations for construction of TCC structures. Mostly, he warns against water presence (use of wet timber should be avoided, timber should be protected from moisture when casting the concrete and connectors should be protected against corrosion). Regarding concrete, he advices to reinforce thicker layers of concrete, to use mixture with lower water/cement ratio and to leave propping in place longer than it is usual for fully concrete elements. Furthermore, he advices to avoid timber species, which could adversely react with cement (such as larch due to high-sugar-content extracts).
TCC structural elements are currently still very scarcely considered in design standards and guidelines worldwide. Most often, some information, which apply to timber-concrete connections, can be found in other standards (e.g. in standard for timber structures). There are also few specifications for timber-concrete bearing systems in some standards concerning bridges [1].
In
According to information from European commission [29] there are several
Standards, which include some specifications for TCC design in
Increasing popularity of TCC structural elements over last decades is connected to many advantages of TCC systems over more established fully concrete and fully timber systems. In comparison with fully concrete elements, TCC elements have improved aesthetic and ecological component, reduced self-weight, as well as improved sound insulation for impact noise. Main advantages of TCC elements over fully timber elements are increased load-carrying capacity and stiffness, improved insulation for air-transmitted sound and decreased annoyance of users because of vibrations. Connection between timber and concrete is a very important component of TCC system; its strength and slip stiffness ensure composite action of timber and concrete part and, if the connection is properly designed, increased ductility of TCC structural element can be achieved.
TCC structural elements come in variety of designs; in particular, there is many different types of connectors, each with its own characteristic behaviour. If properties of the connection (shear strength, slip modulus, spacing,…) are known, bending resistance of TCC element can be determined with one of existing simplified methods for design of TCC structures.
Design of TCC structural elements is scarcely represented in currently applicable standards. Lately, however, some design guidelines specifically for TCC floor systems were published in Canada. Furthermore, new part of Eurocodes, which will thoroughly consider design of TCC structural elements is already in preparation. Nevertheless, experimental research as well as development of more accurate design methods are still continuing, due to many different designs of TCC structural elements and their complex behaviour.
The research was financially supported by the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding No. P2-0260). The support is gratefully acknowledged.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
CCS | carbon capture and storage |
CLT | cross-laminated timber |
Glulam | glued laminated timber |
LVL | laminated veneer lumber |
SLS | serviceability limit state |
SFRC | steel-fibre-reinforced concrete |
TCC | timber-concrete composite |
ULS | ultimate limit state |
It is quite evident that extending or improving human senses has enabled human societies to prosper by acquiring information from their surroundings and gaining knowledge from it. Internet of Things (IoT) embody this trend today combining distributed sensing with high connectivity so that wise decisions and actions follow information gathering and analysis [1, 2]. Trillion Sensors is another paradigm onto which IoT is further exploited on the basis that the more extensive or intensive the deployment of sensor networks is, the more fruitful the knowledge that can be derived from them would be [3, 4].
Small dimensions (nanometers to micrometers) are appropriate in the sensitive part of sensors when they need to interact with phenomena or entities equally characterized by such small dimensions (light, molecules, living cells…). An overall small size for the sensors themselves is not devoid of interest either. The smaller they are, the more sustainable their fabrication is in terms of materials and energy, and the more cost-effective they become. Small size is also enabling in itself, e.g. medical implants, as well as convenient, e.g. payloads.
Sensing requires energy. A certain provision of energy autonomy is needed for sensors to be deployed in remote locations, harsh environments, or where they need to remain temporary unattended. Batteries is a common way to provide such autonomy, but their charge is finite impeding long-term autonomy scenarios. Moreover, their recharge, replacement and disposal imply a logistic and environmental burden that will not be affordable when IoT gets to its full extent mobilizing tens of billions of devices and an even larger number of sensors.
Secondary batteries can be kept recharged by coupling them with energy harvesters able to draw energy present in the environment [5]. Heat is abundant in natural scenarios, and waste heat is also abundant in human-made scenarios due to laws of thermodynamics and our profuse use of thermal machines. When such heat gives rise to temperature gradients (a situation as simple as a hot surface exposed to air), thermoelectricity is a convenient way to extract electric energy from them [6, 7].
For that extraction to be optimum, the external thermal gradient needs to be fully transposed into the thermoelectric generator itself. Physical interaction of small devices with their environment may exploit profitably some scale factors when going down in dimensions, but, sometimes, small sizes pose a handicap or challenge for such interaction, too. This is the case when trying to cool down locally a part of a small device by exchanging heat with the surrounding air. This chapter tries to illustrate this point by sharing the issues and strategies the authors have dealt, and are dealing with, in their quest for silicon-based miniaturized thermoelectric generators.
Silicon technology has been developed around an enabling and highly abundant semiconductor material. It is a mature technology apt to mass-production of devices with economy of scale and it is the champion technology of miniaturization. Not surprisingly, it boosted microelectronics in the XX century and nanoelectronics in the XXI century. In addition to the set of techniques that allow the fabrication of integrated circuits by depositing and patterning thin films on a silicon wafer, silicon technologies also developed micromachining techniques that allow carving and shaping the silicon wafers into structures that are able to interact with the environment. Sensors and actuators belong to the latter category. Since energy harvesters are environmental interacting devices and, application-wise, they should not be much larger than the sensors they will feed, it is only logical that their fabrication will similarly benefit from the silicon technologies toolbox. These technologies do not only excel in miniaturization but also in
The traditional thermoelectric generators mentioned above feature a π-architecture, where the π symbol gives a visual clue about how each thermocouple is built assembling vertically two semiconductor pellets (
Silicon technologies are of planar nature. They enable massive parallelism at
The main objective when defining the architecture and the technological route for a
The platform consists of a thin silicon area fabricated by eliminating the silicon beneath it. In order to preserve its thermal isolation from the surrounding bulk silicon, the physical connections between them should be minimized. Such connections are the mechanical supports that keep the platform in place (e.g. ancillary silicon bridges) and the thermoelectric materials themselves (and whatever supports they may need). In order to minimize the thermal conduction of these elements, they must be produced with
Figure 1 shows the schematics for such a device. Any hot surface in which this device is placed will act as a heat source. The top surface will be exposed to air acting as heat sink and will exchange heat with it. Due to their different thermal mass, the bulk rim area will hardly cool down, thus being the hot part of the device, while the platform will experience a larger decrease of temperature becoming the cold(er) part of it.
From left to right and top to bottom: 3D sketch of an integrated planar micro-thermocouple; SEM image of a fabricated device; schematic cross-section of the device identifying the thermally isolated platform and other relevant elements, and the expected heat flow from hot to cold areas in a transversal architecture. The typical area for the platform of the devices discussed is 1 mm2.
With respect to the thermoelectric material, the depicted device follows a uni-leg approach. Two thermoelectric materials are still at play, but a metal one replaces one of the semiconductor legs in order to close the circuit. Some thermoelectric performance is sacrificed because metals behave poorly thermoelectrically (they have higher thermal conductivities and close to zero Seebeck coefficients), but for the architecture presented and to keep processing simple, the use of a metal leg is technologically convenient.
Regarding the semiconductor thermoelectric material, one distinct feature of our approach is resourcing to silicon materials, namely arrays of silicon nanowires (Si NWs). The rationale behind this option is to attempt the fabrication of
Moreover, arrays of Si NWs can be conveniently grown as a post-process using a
The metal leg cannot be integrated in the same self-standing way. It is deposited as a thin film, so it needs a physical support. These ancillary supports need to be thermally optimized since they bridge the hot and cold areas. The nature of these supports has evolved across the different generations of our devices: from long and thin silicon bridges (400 μm x 100 μm x 15 μm) to wide and very thin Si3N4 membranes (100 μm x 1000 μm x 0.3 μm). Since thermal conductivity of Si3N4 is two orders of magnitude lower than the one of silicon, there is a net gain in thermal conductance, while enabling a shorter and wider (and less electrically resistive) metal leg.
The thermal impact on platform isolation of the
As said, longer NWs generally imply larger ΔT and, thus, a larger thermovoltage. However, a resulting larger voltage is not necessarily associated to a larger power. Power (
It must be noted that the heat transfer issues discussed in this chapter revolve about the challenge of exchanging heat in planar micromachined structures exhibiting very small exchange surfaces [18, 19, 20, 21, 22], while the particular nature of the thermoelectric material employed (e.g. NWs) is of no significance: the same conclusions will apply if silicon membranes, silicon-based thin films, or any other thermoelectric films of interest were considered instead.
When considering the optimum design for a thermoelectric microgenerator (μTEG) the generated power is the parameter which needs to be maximized. It is well known that for a given μTEG with its own internal resistance, the power that is transferred to the load is maximized when the internal resistance and the load resistance are equal. This case is usually known as load matching condition [23].
Considering the electrical circuit diagram shown in Figure 2, which represents a μTEG, formed by a voltage source (VOC) and its internal electrical resistance (RTEG), connected to a load resistance (RL), it is straightforward to evaluate the total dissipated power at the load as:
Equivalent circuit of a μTEG, formed by a voltage source (VOC) and its internal resistance (RTEG), connected in series with a load resistance (RL).
Finding the value of RL which maximizes PL implies after a few calculations the load matching condition, RTEG = RL. It is important to notice that the only parameter allowed to change in this optimization is the load resistance. Therefore, one can write the maximum power as:
As can be seen in Figure 3, where the output power of a μTEG is plotted versus load resistance for three different internal resistances, each curve has a maximum for the load matching condition. But now the influence of the internal resistance is highlighted, where the lower its value, the greater the power output. In Figure 3, for example, halving the internal resistance can double the power output at the load matching condition. This highlights the importance of reducing the internal resistance when designing a μTEG.
Power output of a μTEG versus load resistance for different RTEG values.
Some publications discussing load matching focus on the need to modify the internal resistance, increasing it, in order to match the load resistance [22]. According to Figure 3, this is in fact an error. It is always a better approach to minimize the internal resistance in order to increase the power output even further. Once the internal resistance is the minimum possible, then the load matching condition can be applied to maximize the power output. Actually, many integrated circuits exist which efficiently implement maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms to extract the maximum power from a power source by modifying its load resistance.
This load matching approach can be analogously applied to the temperatures involved in the μTEG and is known as thermal matching. A simplified conductance network describing the μTEG (KTEG) in parallel with KLK accounting for parasitic thermal leakages and in series with KS representing the conductance to ambient (to both heat source and heat sink) is shown in Figure 4.
Simplified thermal conductance network describing the μTEG with parallel and series thermal conductances.
To explore which is the KTEG value that maximizes Pmax, as was done in the electrical case, Eq. (2) can be rewritten as:
Where
Where ΔTA is the total available temperature difference, Tamb-Thot. KTEG is the internal thermal conductance of the μTEG and KS represents the thermal conductance to the ambient.
When decreasing RTEG, as deemed appropriated in the previous paragraphs, it is important to keep in mind that KTEG is bound to increase, as they are inversely proportional. This is because of the implicit assumption that changing KTEG implies a geometry modification, not a material property change and the geometry change affects both electrical resistance and thermal conductance of the μTEG. Ignoring any leakage contribution (KLK = 0 W/K) in Eq. (4), the power output (solid) and ΔT (dotted) versus KTEG can be seen in Figure 5. Three different KS cases have been considered to highlight the fact that, the larger KS, the larger the power output, even for a constant KTEG. It can be seen that when KTEG = KS, the maximum power condition when KLK = 0, then the temperature drop across the μTEG is 50% of the available temperature difference.
Pmax (left, blue curves) and ΔT/ΔTA (right, red curves) versus KTEG for different KS values. For KTEG = 1, thermal matching conditions would call for KS = 1, but larger Pmax values are possible for larger values of KS.
Similar to the electrical case, many papers discussing thermal matching focus on reaching a temperature drop in the μTEG equal to the temperature drop across KS [5, 24, 25]. When this KS represents a heat exchanger, some authors suggest a low KS heat exchanger to match KTEG and therefore maximize the power output according. While this approach assures operation at the mathematical local maximum for a given KS, it is a bad practice because it ignores the absolute maximum, which takes place at larger KS values for a given KTEG.
Looking at Figure 5, if KTEG = 1 W/K, this reasoning would imply that KS = 1 W/K would be necessary, and 50% of the total available temperature difference would drop across the μTEG. However, with a better heat exchanger, KS = 10 W/K or even KS = 100 W/K, then ΔT will asymptotically approach ΔTA, and the power output will asymptotically reach:
In conclusion, both load matching and thermal matching are conditions that are mathematically true, but from a practical point of view, care must be taken when designing a μTEG to maximize its power output. First of all, its electrical internal resistance (RTEG) must be minimized, and after that, power output can be maximized by connecting a load which matches that of the μTEG, or simply an IC implementing an MPPT algorithm. On the thermal side, as RTEG is minimized, the thermal conductance (KTEG) is consequently maximized. Then, as the μTEG is already optimized, and it is not possible to further increase KTEG, the only option is to act on the external components, which in this case is the heat exchanger, and to choose one with an as large as possible KS, so that almost all of the available ΔT will be internally transferred to the μTEG.
As mentioned before, the performance of μTEG devices depends on the temperature difference ‘seen’ by the thermocouples. Therefore, minimizing thermal resistances in series with those elements would improve the performance of the device. In this section, such improvement is demonstrated by decreasing the thermal resistance between the suspended platform and the ambient, usually the cold part, by favoring the heat flow locally. Two methods have been used to increase such heat exchange: (i) by forcing heat convection onto the platform and (ii) by contacting it with a cold mass. The promising results obtained from the experiments described in the next two subsections call for optimizing this effect through the development of a procedure to integrate a heat exchanging structure, which will be shown in section 4.
As the working scenario for the μTEG devices is dominated by a temperature difference between the hot and the cold parts, heat convection could play also an important role on how these temperatures are established. Convection is a mechanism of heat flux originated from the movement of the surrounding fluid, which will be typically air for the usual applications of the presented devices. Depending on how this movement is induced, convection can be classified as natural or forced.
Natural convection is based on the warming up of the air that is close to a heat source that, due to the lowering of its density, tends to move upwards, giving its place to colder air and so promoting the heat exchange. In forced convection, air is forced to move and then renew by an external force.
In order to demonstrate the improvement in the performance of the device, three different sets of experimental measurements have been performed on a device at three different convection conditions. The first one corresponds to natural convection, which occurs when the device is operated by letting it rest on top of a hot surface exposed to ambient at room conditions. The second and third sets of measurements correspond to forced convection regimes. In the second case, this is accomplished by the use of a standard CPU fan (see Figure 6) placed over the device, while in the third, an air jet, obtained through a syringe connected to the compressed air line in the laboratory, is directed towards the device. More details are available at [26].
Experimental setup used for the thermoelectrical characterization of μTEG devices under a forced convection regime induced by a CPU fan located on the top. The device is mounted on the thermal chuck of a Linkam station.
Such experimental measurements have been performed on two different devices, featuring 30 and 60 μm long silicon NWs (by filling 3 and 6 trenches as described in section 2.1). Consequently, each one of the devices has different electrical and thermal resistances.
The obtained experimental results are shown in Figure 7. The devices have been measured at different temperatures of the hot plate (from 50 to 200 °C in 25 °C steps).
Maximum power versus chip surface temperature for three different heat convection regimes and on two different devices (adapted from [
The measurement results show a very clear improvement in the performance as a result of forced convection. The maximum output power obtained when the device is mounted under the fan is multiplied by 3 when compared with the natural convection regime, while when under the more directed and higher flow air jet, the performance increases nearly three orders of magnitude: from a few nW to almost 0.7 μW. Moreover, the more performant air convection is, the less relevant become the thermal properties of the thermoelectric material. In natural and air forced convection cases, the larger output power corresponds to the longest nanowires, whereas in the air jet forced convection the opposite is true. This happens because the longer nanowires also have a larger electrical resistance, and its larger thermal resistance is not significant in this case where the platform to ambient thermal resistance is enough to assure a large ΔT.
In the previous subsection, it has been experimentally demonstrated how important a good thermal connection with the surrounding ambient is in order to improve the overall performance of μTEG devices. Nevertheless, forced convection scenarios are not always available and artificially forcing them needs additional energy consuming devices. Therefore, in order to explore a passive strategy to diminish the thermal resistance to the surrounding ambient, the effect of contacting the microplatform with a metallic probe has been assessed. With this experiment, the feasibility of the addition of a heat exchanging structure as a general strategy for the reduction of the thermal resistance to the ambient will be demonstrated.
The experimental setup consists of a metallic probe dipped in thermally conducting paste, which is carefully positioned on the micro-platform by the use of a micro-manipulator.
The performance improvement obtained by means of this approach can be observed in Figure 8, which shows a plot of the Seebeck voltage output of the device placed on a hot plate at 150 °C when the cold finger is being attached. It can be observed that the voltage increases rapidly after contact, and it rises even more when the applied force to the cold finger is increased slightly, so demonstrating the reduction of the thermal resistance when the physical contact is improved.
Voltage evolution while the cold finger is being attached and detached.
In Figure 9 the power curves obtained from the same device at a hot plate temperature of 250 °C with and without the cold finger are shown. It can be seen an important improvement in the performance of two orders of magnitude, from 1.3 to 142 nW, so proving the effectiveness of the cold finger approach as a proof of concept validating the further development of more effective heat exchanging structures.
Power curves for a device, with and without the cold finger, on a hot plate at 250 °C.
The previous section highlights the importance of physically contacting the platform in order to improve heat extraction, and thus cooling it more efficiently. According to section 2.2 and the results shown in section 3.2, the need for a heat exchanger has been proven. In this section, we study the implementation of such component on the μTEG. This poses several problems from the technological point of view, especially considering the starting device architecture used to expose the thermoelectric material to a thermal gradient. The thermally isolated platform is a fragile structure and physically contacting it without caution might break it. A proper methodology with auxiliary components needs to be developed components to provide such contact safely.
The approach implies to have a thermally conductive piece contacting the platform and interfacing this part of the device with a heat exchanger of appropriate size. For this reason, such piece will be dubbed as ‘adapter’. The contact needs to be compliant to absorb any excess vertical displacement with deformation. The compliant part of this contact will be a certain amount of silver paste. A rigid spacer (PMMA), sitting both on the silicon bulk rim and the platform, will also be necessary to limit the maximum excursion of the adapter over the platform so that pressure between the heat exchanger on top and the platform below can be applied in a safe way. Finally, the heat exchanger itself, a commercial one of similar footprint is assembled onto our chip. In this case, our chip is 7x7 mm2 and the smallest commercial heat exchanger found is 8x8 mm2. A PCB with a through-hole, to insert a copper plate improving the thermal conductance from the hot surface to the bulk silicon rim, and a slightly larger partial etch to fit the chip and facilitate the wire bonding to auxiliary copper traces, are included in the assembly as shown in Figure 10.
Isometric, cross section and detailed view of the proposed approach to safely contact the thin silicon platforms.
The feasibility of the approach has been first tested building a physical model and solving finite element simulations (COMSOL) to evaluate the expected improvement on performance. The thermal and electrical properties of the materials used in the model are listed in Table 1.
κ (W·m−1·K−1) | σ (S·m−1) | S (V·K−1) | |
---|---|---|---|
Silicon | 150 | 12·103 | |
Silicon oxide | 1.4 | — | |
Silicon nitride | 30 | — | |
Silicon NWs | 25 (1) | 12·103 (1) | 250·10−6 |
Tungsten | 174 | 7.76·106 (2) | |
Thermal paste | 5 | — | |
Copper | 401 | — | |
FR4 (PCB) | 0.3 | — | |
Spacer (PMMA) | 0.2 | — |
Thermal and electrical properties of the materials used in the model.
Silicon NWs are modeled as a block, not individual nanowires, and the block material properties assume an occupation of only 5% of the total area with nanowires, while the remaining 95% has air material properties.
Tungsten electrical conductivity is different from the bulk literature values. The sheet resistance on a real device has been measured to obtain this value.
The model boundary conditions include a constant hot temperature at the bottom (Thot = 100 °C) and natural convection on the vertical and horizontal walls of the heat exchanger through a heat exchange coefficient directly calculated in COMSOL for an air ambient temperature of 27 °C. When such element is not present, the heat exchange coefficient is applied directly on the platforms surface. Figure 11 shows the temperature distribution for the whole model under such conditions. As it can be seen, even with a heat exchanger, the lowest temperature reached in the cold part is slightly below 70 °C although the ambient temperature is 27 °C. This is because the thermal resistance from the heat exchanger to the ambient is approximately one third of the total thermal resistance while the thermal resistance from the bottom of the PCB (actually most of this is from the silicon chip) to the heat exchanger is approximately two thirds of it.
Temperature distribution for the whole model with Thot = 100 °C.
The internal temperature distribution for chips with four platforms with NW lengths of 10, 20, 30 and 40
Temperature distribution for each platform (from T1 to T4) without heat exchanger (left) and with heat exchanger (right).
On the other hand, for the case without heat exchanger (left), the temperature differences across the nanowires do not reach beyond 2 °C. In this case, the thermal resistance to the ambient is much larger than the nanowires thermal resistance, and a very small temperature drop develops across the active thermoelectric material.
If the temperature solution from the finite element model is coupled to an electrical model through the Seebeck coefficient of the nanowires, the I-V curves and power output for each platform considering both scenarios can be obtained.
These results are shown in Figure 13, where the power output has been plotted as power density considering a device area of 2 mm2, large enough to contain the whole platform (approximately 1 mm2) and space for additional contacts.
I-V curves (solid lines), and power output (dotted lines), versus current for T1-T4 devices, without (left) and with heat exchanger (right).
Clearly, a much larger power is obtained when the heat exchanger is in place due to the much higher ΔT perceived by the NWs. In addition, the behavior of the four platforms evolve differently. Without the heat exchanger, voltage and power scale with the length of nanowires since their thermal resistance is the dominant part of the total device thermal resistance and such length is directly determining the attained ΔT. However, when the presence of the heat exchanger secures most of ΔT, the positive effect of the lower thermal conductance of longer nanowires, which is still there, rapidly saturates and even reverse (see T4 vs. T3) because the detrimental impact of the increasing electrical resistance becomes dominant.
The significant increase in the generated power when applying a forced convection or a cold finger and the results from the simulations including a heat exchanger directed our efforts to the construction of the previously described heat exchanger assembly on our μTEGs (see Figure 10).
The preparation sequence of the required components is given in Figure 14a. A heat exchanger adapter is made from four Cu wires (one per on-chip a device), with diameter similar to the size of the suspended platform (which they will contact after the assembly) inserted in a square brass piece and machined to the appropriate length. The tips of the wires are dipped with thermal paste (Figure 14b) to fill the gap between the Cu wires and the suspended platforms to guarantee good thermal contact (Figure 14c). A PMMA spacer with a thickness appropriately matching the length of the protruding Cu wires is then assembled between the heat exchanger adapter and the μTEG, and finally, the aluminum heat exchanger is placed on top of adapter using a thermal paste (Figure 14d). Further details can be found in [27] from which Figures 14–17 have been adapted.
(a) Steps of the construction of the heat sink adapter. Optical microscope images of (b) the Cu wire dipped in thermal paste and (c) the footprint left on the platform of the test device. (d) An image of the final assembly.
Through the described integration scheme, a first evaluation of the performance improvement brought by a heat exchanger to the μTEG is enabled. In this study harvesting measurements with and without heat exchanger were performed by placing the assembled devices on a Linkam THMS 350 V heating stage at various temperatures in a natural convection environment. Three different cases were measured: without heat sink, with heat sink and with heat sink + pressing, where for the latter a force is applied on top of the assembly to reduce the thermal resistance of the thermal paste. Chips with different thermoelectric materials were measured: Si NWs, Si-Ge NWs and Si microbeams. At the current stage of technology maturity, a rather low number of devices has been measured, but the results shown in the next subsections correspond to significant devices of each category. In terms of measurement uncertainties, the most important source are thermal fluctuations that due to the thermoelectric nature of the device introduce variations in the measured V and I, which have been estimated to be below 10 μV and 1 μA, respectively.
The Seebeck voltage vs. hotplate temperature curves for the Si NWs-based μTEGs with different number of trenches are shown in Figure 15. As anticipated, all the devices presented output voltages that scaled with the number of trenches (i.e. length of NWs). However, the reduction of the thermal resistance between the cold side (suspended platform) and the ambient when a heat exchanger is integrated resulted in a large increase of ∆T across the NWs and hence higher overall voltages.
Seebeck voltage vs. hot plate temperature for Si NWs-based μTEGs with different number of trenches (T1-T4) with and without heat exchanger.
In terms of power, the maximum power densities obtained at hot plate temperatures of 100 °C without the heat exchanger were in the range of 0.05–0.1 μWcm−2. As expected, a tremendous increase in power density was observed after the integration of the heat exchanger + pressing, and values in the range 7–42 μWcm−2 were observed. No clear trends were observed with the number of trenches.
For devices with SiGe NWs, considerable higher Seebeck voltages were observed when compared to Si NWs (Figure 16), due to the higher thermal resistance resulting from the lower intrinsic thermal conductivity of the former. With and without heat exchanger, the devices performed better with increasing number of trenches. Also, power densities rose considerably with the integration of the heat exchanger. As already observed for the Si NWs, the voltage and generated power improved further when a slight pressure was applied to the heat exchanger, It is worth noticing that the maximum power thus obtained does not differ much for Si and SiGe NWs: 41.6 μWcm−2 vs. 45.2 μWcm−2, respectively, considering a T3 device on a hotplate at 100 °C. This points to the dilution of the effect of better starting thermal properties when the heat exchanger is present.
Seebeck voltage vs. hot plate temperature for SiGe NWs-based μTEGs with different number of trenches (T1-T3) with and without heat exchanger.
Si microbeams devices were fabricated to compare the performance of bulk Si with Si NWs. After the integration of the heat exchanger + pressing, the results presented in Figure 17 show a remarkable three orders of magnitude increase in the generated power from ∼650 pW to ∼690 nW for a T1 device, i.e. from 32.5 nWcm−2 to 34.5 μWcm−2. This result evidences again that once the heat exchanger is in place, the thermal properties of the thermoelectric material become second order. Hence, by optimizing their electrical properties and ensuring a good ∆T with the aid of a heat exchanger, it is possible to obtain high power densities even with high thermal conductivity thermoelectric materials such as Si microbeams.
I-V and power curves for the Si microbeams based μTEGs without heat exchanger (left) and with heat exchanger and pressing (right) for a hot plate temperature of 100 °C.
In order to translate the promising power densities of a single structure into useful absolute power levels, a certain number of thermocouples needs to be integrated and connected. The μTEGs design was modified to attain a higher integration density by reducing the number of active sides. The new thermocouple has a rectangular shape with one side featuring the membrane providing mechanical support and metallic connection, and the opposite side composed of the trenches to be filled with NWs. In Figure 18, a 3D schematic of the new unitary thermocouple is shown. The same cross-section profile of Figure 1 still applies. With this new design, many elements can be integrated in the same chip: up to fifty thermocouples (each with an approximate size of 5 x 0.6 mm2) fit in series or series–parallel configuration in a 49 mm2 chip, as shown in Figure 19. Both configurations would lead to the same harvested power, but the series one will scale up voltage while the parallel one will scale up current.
3D schematic of the new thermocouple design (left) and an optical microscope image of the fabricated micromachined platform.
Layout of the new compact design featuring 50 thermocouples in serial connection (left) and serial connection of 10 arrangements of 5 thermocouples in parallel configuration (right).
This compact design requires new components and a novel and more efficient approach for the integration of the heat exchanger in order to boost their thermal performance. A micromachined Si adapter (substituting the Cu wires, brass plate and PMMA spacer of the previous section) is necessary for the distribution of the force exerted on the platform by the heat exchanger, and different designs featuring the corresponding serial or parallel arrangements were fabricated. Figure 20 (left) depicts the Si adapter designs where the central columns contact the platform of each thermocouple in the chip and the ones at the corners act as force distributers. Similar to the previous section, a commercial Al mini heat exchanger will be placed on top of the Si adapter to help the circulation of heat from the Si rim of the μTEG (warm side) through the thermoelectric material to the platform (cold side) to achieve the desired larger ΔT. The heat flux representation through the assembly is shown in Figure 20 (right).
Schematic of the different designs of the micromachined Si adapter (left). Heat flux through a parallel type μTEG, the adapter and the heat exchanger (right).
To achieve a good thermal contact, which is key for a maximum generated power, a thermal interface material (TIM) needs to be placed between the thermocouple and the adapter. To this aim, an inkjet printer (Dimatix) was chosen to deposit a controlled amount of TIM only on the columns of the adapter.
After dispensing the TIM, the adapter is placed face-down onto the thermocouple chip already wirebonded on a PCB. This is done with the help of a pick & place machine (Finetech) that enables proper chip alignment and attachment with a controlled gentle force (0.1 N). A holder with a removable lid for the adequate handling of the Si adapter during the process has been designed and 3D-printed. It allows accessing the corresponding side of the adapter, first to the inkjet printer, and then to the pick & place machine. The whole assembly process is depicted in Figure 21.
New assembly route of the heat exchanger Si adapter onto the encapsulated μTEGs chip.
This is a still ongoing process. Two different inks are being tested to act as TIM between the adapter and the suspended platforms: a conductive silver nanoparticle ink (Agfa Orgacon SI-J20X) and a SU8 based polymeric ink (Micro Chem Prielex). The tests involve the assessment of the adequacy of the viscosity and adhesion of the TIM and the evaluation of the endurance of the μTEGs platforms during the assembly. Other TIM materials already used for the mainstream attachment of heat exchangers onto microprocessors can be also evaluated, as well as other ways of locally dispensing them, such as stamping. In any case, the goal is to obtain an integration route for the heat exchanger, without which no workable ∆T would be possible in such miniaturized devices, that is prone to the automatic handling of the involved chips and it is compatible with their dimensional and mechanical endurance constraints.
With this chapter, the authors have tried to show the challenges to sort out when fabricating microgenerators (μTEGs) with planar silicon technologies. Such technologies offer a cost effective way of mass-production of miniaturized devices. However, the very nature of such technologies, the high thermal conductivity of bulk silicon and the typical thickness of the layers involved advises using silicon micromachining to enable areas of lateral thermal contrast. Such transversal architectures helps to translate naturally occurring vertical thermal gradients into internal lateral ones. In this way, a temperature difference will develop across a horizontally and self-standing laid thermoelectric material whose length is a design parameter. A material properties trade-off ensues: the longer the material, the higher its thermal resistance, increasing the attainable ΔT and the obtained Seebeck voltage, but the larger will be its electrical resistance, reducing the power obtainable from that voltage. In addition, it has been shown that the overall attainable ΔT is heavily influenced by the very poor heat exchange capabilities with the environment of small bare surfaces. Simulations and experiments show that the presence of a heat exchanger largely increase the effective ΔT, but brings into play interesting heterogeneous integration challenges still to be fully solved in terms of an effective but gentle attachment of an intermediate adapter that needs to be designed ad hoc for proper heat flow handling. The presence of the heat exchanger also affects the tilting point of the previously mentioned thermal/electrical trade-off, and thus on the final choice of materials. In the examples given, silicon-based materials have been used (silicon microbeams, silicon and silicon germanium nanowires), but similar structures could be devised for instance for any thermoelectric material in thin film form.
This manuscript contains work supported by projects FP7-NMP-2013-SMALL-7 (Contract n. 604169) SiNERGY, TEC2016-78284-C3-1-R (AEI/FEDER, EU) MINAUTO and TEC2016-78284-C3-2-R (AEI/FEDER, EU) SIGGNAL. This research has made use of the infrastructure of the Spanish ICTS Network MICRONANOFABS (CNM site) partially supported by MINECO. I. Donmez-Noyan thanks the ‘Programa de Doctorat en Ciència de Materials de la UAB’ for the support in her formative activities.
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Makan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10590.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"247727",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhadi",middleName:null,surname:"Makan",slug:"abdelhadi-makan",fullName:"Abdelhadi Makan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9843",title:"Soil Contamination",subtitle:"Threats and Sustainable Solutions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6b175b72cb10952220515885ac49598c",slug:"soil-contamination-threats-and-sustainable-solutions",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9843.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8123",title:"Metals in Soil",subtitle:"Contamination and Remediation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bf06fb97dff16934a2319d873089ec6",slug:"metals-in-soil-contamination-and-remediation",bookSignature:"Zinnat Ara Begum, Ismail M. M. Rahman and Hiroshi Hasegawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8123.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6076",title:"Soil pH for Nutrient Availability and Crop Performance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"173305a5e0ae12b94fd56c04957acbdd",slug:"soil-ph-for-nutrient-availability-and-crop-performance",bookSignature:"Suarau Oshunsanya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6076.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175778",title:"Dr.",name:"Suarau",middleName:null,surname:"Oshunsanya",slug:"suarau-oshunsanya",fullName:"Suarau Oshunsanya"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"64054",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81223",title:"Metal-Contaminated Soil Remediation: Phytoremediation, Chemical Leaching and Electrochemical Remediation",slug:"metal-contaminated-soil-remediation-phytoremediation-chemical-leaching-and-electrochemical-remediati",totalDownloads:2007,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Soil contamination has led to serious land tenure problems, reduction in land usability for agricultural production; as a consequence, food insecurity is nowadays a global challenge. Indeed, with rapid population growth across the world, the food demand for consumption has drastically increased and traditional ways of producing food cannot meet with the actual demand. Industrialization has been acknowledged as a way out to sustain humanity with food. Unfortunately, the later has further turn into a threat to the environment. In effect, several potentially toxic elements (PTE) are being released in the environment and soil systems; and arable or agricultural lands are getting restraint, limited and scarce. Nowadays, there is a consensus on remediating contaminated lands with PTE, mainly inorganic contaminants, metals. The state at which a metal is found in the soil greatly influences its bioavailability, interaction with plants and the level at which it will threaten (toxicity) the environment and thus human. It even defines the remediation approaches to be applied for the soil restoration. This chapter will provide an insight on the occurrence of PTE in the soil, bioavailability and remediation approaches namely phytoremediation, chemical leaching and electrochemical remediation; and finally highlight the future research direction on this topic.",book:{id:"8123",slug:"metals-in-soil-contamination-and-remediation",title:"Metals in Soil",fullTitle:"Metals in Soil - Contamination and Remediation"},signatures:"Binessi Edouard Ifon, Alexis Crépin Finagnon Togbé,\nLyde Arsène Sewedo Tometin, Fidèle Suanon and Arouna Yessoufou",authors:[{id:"257187",title:"Dr.",name:"Fidèle",middleName:null,surname:"Suanon",slug:"fidele-suanon",fullName:"Fidèle Suanon"},{id:"263966",title:"MSc.",name:"Binessi Edouard",middleName:null,surname:"Ifon",slug:"binessi-edouard-ifon",fullName:"Binessi Edouard Ifon"},{id:"263968",title:"Dr.",name:"Arouan",middleName:null,surname:"Yessoufou",slug:"arouan-yessoufou",fullName:"Arouan Yessoufou"},{id:"267945",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexis Finagnon Crepin",middleName:null,surname:"Togbe",slug:"alexis-finagnon-crepin-togbe",fullName:"Alexis Finagnon Crepin Togbe"},{id:"267946",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyde A.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Tomètin",slug:"lyde-a.s.-tometin",fullName:"Lyde A.S. Tomètin"}]},{id:"63832",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81348",title:"The Influence of Potentially Toxic Elements on Soil Biological and Chemical Properties",slug:"the-influence-of-potentially-toxic-elements-on-soil-biological-and-chemical-properties",totalDownloads:1309,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Soil has been a source of wealth for humans for infinite years and it continues so at present. Both mineral and organic amendments have been applied to soil to slow down its progressive impoverishment. Biological activity, mainly microbial activity, plays a key role in the stability and fertility as well as in biogeochemical cycles. Effect of potentially toxic elements on soil microbial activity, the composition of soil microbial community, soil enzyme activities, and soil physiochemical properties have been reviewed in this work.",book:{id:"8123",slug:"metals-in-soil-contamination-and-remediation",title:"Metals in Soil",fullTitle:"Metals in Soil - Contamination and Remediation"},signatures:"Om Prakash Bansal",authors:[{id:"176180",title:"Dr.",name:"Om",middleName:null,surname:"Bansal",slug:"om-bansal",fullName:"Om Bansal"}]},{id:"64810",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82551",title:"Introductory Chapter: Relevance of Soil pH to Agriculture",slug:"introductory-chapter-relevance-of-soil-ph-to-agriculture",totalDownloads:2009,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"6076",slug:"soil-ph-for-nutrient-availability-and-crop-performance",title:"Soil pH for Nutrient Availability and Crop Performance",fullTitle:"Soil pH for Nutrient Availability and Crop Performance"},signatures:"Suarau Odutola Oshunsanya",authors:[{id:"175778",title:"Dr.",name:"Suarau",middleName:null,surname:"Oshunsanya",slug:"suarau-oshunsanya",fullName:"Suarau Oshunsanya"}]},{id:"74460",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94593",title:"Excessive and Disproportionate Use of Chemicals Cause Soil Contamination and Nutritional Stress",slug:"excessive-and-disproportionate-use-of-chemicals-cause-soil-contamination-and-nutritional-stress",totalDownloads:671,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Incredible achievements have been made in agricultural production worldwide, but many daunting challenges remain unresolved to ensure food security and environmental sustainability. Chemical fertilisers are used in excessive and disproportionate quantities to raise crop yields in order to combat certain circumstances. However, apart from being processed in crop plants, chemical fertilisers above the threshold level pollute the atmosphere. As the availability of nutrients becomes a constraint of plant growth and production, sustained crop productivity relies on constant renewal. To increase agriculture production and maintain soil fertility, the application of chemical fertilisers is indispensable. However, insufficient or unnecessary application of fertiliser does not guarantee consistently growing yields, which can result in low efficiency of nutrient usage. Today, the key goals are the study of the effective use of chemicals, the reduction of production costs and the efficient use of fertilisation.",book:{id:"9843",slug:"soil-contamination-threats-and-sustainable-solutions",title:"Soil Contamination",fullTitle:"Soil Contamination - Threats and Sustainable Solutions"},signatures:"Nikita Bisht and Puneet Singh Chauhan",authors:[{id:"322545",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nikita",middleName:null,surname:"Bisht",slug:"nikita-bisht",fullName:"Nikita Bisht"},{id:"322843",title:"Dr.",name:"Puneet Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Chauhan",slug:"puneet-singh-chauhan",fullName:"Puneet Singh Chauhan"}]},{id:"72968",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93412",title:"Heavy Metal Contamination",slug:"heavy-metal-contamination",totalDownloads:445,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"In the era of industrialization, pollution has totally deteriorated the quality and diversity of life. Heavy metal contaminations are the major causes of environment deteriorations. The basic reasons are natural as well as anthropogenic. Chief sources of heavy metal contamination are air pollution, river sediments, sewage sludge, town waste composts, agricultural chemicals like fertilizers and pesticides, and industrial waste like factories releasing chemicals, anthropogenic activities, etc. Agricultural soils in many parts of the world are generally contaminated by heavy metal toxicity such as Cd, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, Pb, Hg, As, etc. These are due to the long-term use of phosphate fertilizers, sewage sludge, dust from smelters, industrial waste, etc. Heavy metals in soils are detected with some specific instruments like atomic absorption spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma, inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy, and X-ray fluorescence and spectroscopy. Among all these instruments, atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is the best because it gives the precise quantitative determination. AAS is a method applied for measuring the quantity of the trace elements present in the soil or any other samples.",book:{id:"9843",slug:"soil-contamination-threats-and-sustainable-solutions",title:"Soil Contamination",fullTitle:"Soil Contamination - Threats and Sustainable Solutions"},signatures:"Soni Kumari and Amarnath Mishra",authors:[{id:"259941",title:"Dr.",name:"Amarnath",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"amarnath-mishra",fullName:"Amarnath Mishra"},{id:"327070",title:"MSc.",name:"Soni",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"soni-kumari",fullName:"Soni Kumari"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64810",title:"Introductory Chapter: Relevance of Soil pH to Agriculture",slug:"introductory-chapter-relevance-of-soil-ph-to-agriculture",totalDownloads:2009,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"6076",slug:"soil-ph-for-nutrient-availability-and-crop-performance",title:"Soil pH for Nutrient Availability and Crop Performance",fullTitle:"Soil pH for Nutrient Availability and Crop Performance"},signatures:"Suarau Odutola Oshunsanya",authors:[{id:"175778",title:"Dr.",name:"Suarau",middleName:null,surname:"Oshunsanya",slug:"suarau-oshunsanya",fullName:"Suarau Oshunsanya"}]},{id:"64054",title:"Metal-Contaminated Soil Remediation: Phytoremediation, Chemical Leaching and Electrochemical Remediation",slug:"metal-contaminated-soil-remediation-phytoremediation-chemical-leaching-and-electrochemical-remediati",totalDownloads:2005,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Soil contamination has led to serious land tenure problems, reduction in land usability for agricultural production; as a consequence, food insecurity is nowadays a global challenge. Indeed, with rapid population growth across the world, the food demand for consumption has drastically increased and traditional ways of producing food cannot meet with the actual demand. Industrialization has been acknowledged as a way out to sustain humanity with food. Unfortunately, the later has further turn into a threat to the environment. In effect, several potentially toxic elements (PTE) are being released in the environment and soil systems; and arable or agricultural lands are getting restraint, limited and scarce. Nowadays, there is a consensus on remediating contaminated lands with PTE, mainly inorganic contaminants, metals. The state at which a metal is found in the soil greatly influences its bioavailability, interaction with plants and the level at which it will threaten (toxicity) the environment and thus human. It even defines the remediation approaches to be applied for the soil restoration. This chapter will provide an insight on the occurrence of PTE in the soil, bioavailability and remediation approaches namely phytoremediation, chemical leaching and electrochemical remediation; and finally highlight the future research direction on this topic.",book:{id:"8123",slug:"metals-in-soil-contamination-and-remediation",title:"Metals in Soil",fullTitle:"Metals in Soil - Contamination and Remediation"},signatures:"Binessi Edouard Ifon, Alexis Crépin Finagnon Togbé,\nLyde Arsène Sewedo Tometin, Fidèle Suanon and Arouna Yessoufou",authors:[{id:"257187",title:"Dr.",name:"Fidèle",middleName:null,surname:"Suanon",slug:"fidele-suanon",fullName:"Fidèle Suanon"},{id:"263966",title:"MSc.",name:"Binessi Edouard",middleName:null,surname:"Ifon",slug:"binessi-edouard-ifon",fullName:"Binessi Edouard Ifon"},{id:"263968",title:"Dr.",name:"Arouan",middleName:null,surname:"Yessoufou",slug:"arouan-yessoufou",fullName:"Arouan Yessoufou"},{id:"267945",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexis Finagnon Crepin",middleName:null,surname:"Togbe",slug:"alexis-finagnon-crepin-togbe",fullName:"Alexis Finagnon Crepin Togbe"},{id:"267946",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyde A.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Tomètin",slug:"lyde-a.s.-tometin",fullName:"Lyde A.S. Tomètin"}]},{id:"76810",title:"Chemical Characteristics of Humic Substances in Nature",slug:"chemical-characteristics-of-humic-substances-in-nature",totalDownloads:384,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Humic substances are the main constituents of natural organic matter, found in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. Humic substances are a complex, dispersed, and heterogeneous mixture of various organic compounds synthesized from organic matter residues, decomposed by microorganisms. Most scientists indicate that humic substances are as a supramolecular association of small heterogeneous molecules stabilized by weak intermolecular bonds. When these substances are presented in water intended for drinking or industrial use, it can have a significant impact on the treatability of this water and on the success of chemical disinfection processes, due to possible formation of organic compounds harmful to human health. Moreover, the humic substances can be used of several ways such as fertilizer to help in the development of plants, to improve soil erosion and to removal of organic compounds and metals from soils and waters. In addition, humic substances suggest an important role in mitigating areas degraded by the phytoremediation technique. The purpose of chapter is to provide an overview of humic substances and to discuss their concepts, chemical characteristics, ecological effects and technological applications for soils and aquatic systems.",book:{id:"10590",slug:"humic-substances",title:"Humic Substances",fullTitle:"Humic Substances"},signatures:"Claudio Fernando Mahler, Nicoly Dal Santo Svierzoski and Cassiano Augusto Rolim Bernardino",authors:[{id:"278699",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Mahler",slug:"claudio-fernando-mahler",fullName:"Claudio Fernando Mahler"},{id:"417399",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoly Dal Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Svierzoski",slug:"nicoly-dal-santo-svierzoski",fullName:"Nicoly Dal Santo Svierzoski"},{id:"417400",title:"Dr.",name:"Cassiano Augusto Rolim",middleName:null,surname:"Bernardino",slug:"cassiano-augusto-rolim-bernardino",fullName:"Cassiano Augusto Rolim Bernardino"}]},{id:"65024",title:"Influence of Chemical Properties of Soil on the Corrosion Morphology of Carbon Steel Pipes",slug:"influence-of-chemical-properties-of-soil-on-the-corrosion-morphology-of-carbon-steel-pipes",totalDownloads:1567,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Corrosive soils are responsible for the deterioration of buried underground utilities such as buried steel pipes. Frequent pipe failures are reported due to corrosive soil globally. Although soil’s corrosion phenomenon has been understood and identified long time ago, pipe failures due to corrosive soil are uncontrollable and unavoidable despite the use of protective coatings and techniques such as cathodic protection. Therefore, it is essential to review the causes of soil’s corrosivity for the protection of steel pipes. This chapter demonstrates the influence of varying moisture and chloride contents of soils on the corrosion of coated and uncoated steel pipes. Carbon steel specimens (coated and uncoated) were buried in soils of 20, 40, 60, and 80 wt.% moisture content, respectively, while the chloride concentration introduced in soil was 0, 5, and 10 wt.%, respectively. Through the analysis of experiments, it is revealed that the corrosion rate of pipes buried in soil increases with increase in moisture content up to critical moisture and chloride values. The influence of soil’s moisture and chloride on the corrosion products formed on steel pipes was investigated and comprehensively explained in this chapter. Authors believe that the knowledge presented in this chapter can be applied to other structures or utilities buried in corrosive soils.",book:{id:"8123",slug:"metals-in-soil-contamination-and-remediation",title:"Metals in Soil",fullTitle:"Metals in Soil - Contamination and Remediation"},signatures:"Muhammad Wasim and Shahrukh Shoaib",authors:[{id:"257667",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Wasim",slug:"muhammad-wasim",fullName:"Muhammad Wasim"},{id:"271218",title:"Mr.",name:"Shahrukh",middleName:null,surname:"Shoaib",slug:"shahrukh-shoaib",fullName:"Shahrukh Shoaib"}]},{id:"74460",title:"Excessive and Disproportionate Use of Chemicals Cause Soil Contamination and Nutritional Stress",slug:"excessive-and-disproportionate-use-of-chemicals-cause-soil-contamination-and-nutritional-stress",totalDownloads:669,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Incredible achievements have been made in agricultural production worldwide, but many daunting challenges remain unresolved to ensure food security and environmental sustainability. Chemical fertilisers are used in excessive and disproportionate quantities to raise crop yields in order to combat certain circumstances. However, apart from being processed in crop plants, chemical fertilisers above the threshold level pollute the atmosphere. As the availability of nutrients becomes a constraint of plant growth and production, sustained crop productivity relies on constant renewal. To increase agriculture production and maintain soil fertility, the application of chemical fertilisers is indispensable. However, insufficient or unnecessary application of fertiliser does not guarantee consistently growing yields, which can result in low efficiency of nutrient usage. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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