Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1297",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research - At the Midst of Plate Convergence",title:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research",subtitle:"At the Midst of Plate Convergence",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Ocean closure involves a variety of converging tectonic processes that reshape shrinking basins, their adjacent margins and the entire earth underneath. Following continental breakup, margin formation and sediment accumulation, tectonics normally relaxes and the margins become passive for millions of years. However, when final convergence is at the gate, the passive days of any ocean and its margins are over or soon will be. The fate of the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf is seemingly known beforehand, as they are nestled in the midst of Africa-Arabia plate convergence with Eurasia. Over millions of years through the Cenozoic era they progressively shriveled, leaving only a glimpse of the Tethys Ocean. Eventually, the basins will adhere to the Alpine-Himalaya orogen and dissipate. This book focuses on a unique stage in the ocean closure process, when significant convergence already induced major deformations, yet the inter-plate basins and margins still record the geological history.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-594-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4460-1",doi:"10.5772/1766",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"new-frontiers-in-tectonic-research-at-the-midst-of-plate-convergence",numberOfPages:366,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"e57ebe99b80f6be3b2d5dd264c7fbec3",bookSignature:"Uri Schattner",publishedDate:"August 9th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1297.jpg",numberOfDownloads:60192,numberOfWosCitations:192,numberOfCrossrefCitations:70,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:179,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:441,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 21st 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 18th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 25th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 24th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 23rd 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"37496",title:"Dr.",name:"Uri",middleName:null,surname:"Schattner",slug:"uri-schattner",fullName:"Uri Schattner",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/37496/images/2501_n.jpg",biography:"Uri Schattner is a lecturer, co-founder and now chair of the Dept. of Marine Geosciences at the University of Haifa, Israel. He has a BSc in Geology and Biology from the Hebrew University (Jerusalem), both MSc (applied geodesy) and PhD (tectonophysics) in Geophysics from Tel Aviv University, and two post-docs at Geological survey of Israel and the University of Leeds (UK). His research focuses on the tectonic development of the eastern Mediterranean and surrounding plates through geological history. Uri is an expert in marine geology and geophysics, mainly through seismic reflection perspective. He planned and participated in eight scientific cruises. He teaches and tutors these topics to MSc and PhD students. He believes that the joy of discovery belongs to every person. To implement this view he spent two years as a desert field guide making the joy of science fun and accessible to children.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Haifa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"645",title:"Geodynamics",slug:"geodynamics"}],chapters:[{id:"17658",title:'Tectonic Evolution of the Active "Chelif" Basin (Northern Algeria) from Paleomagnetic and Magnetic Fabric Investigations',doi:"10.5772/19493",slug:"tectonic-evolution-of-the-active-chelif-basin-northern-algeria-from-paleomagnetic-and-magnetic-fabri",totalDownloads:3555,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Derder M.E.M., Henry B., Amenna M., Bayou B., 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1. Introduction
The Potato was originated in the hills of Andes and Bolivia in South America, subsequently it was introduced into Europe by Spaniards in the second half of the 16th century, from there it spread throughout Europe and rest of the world in the mid 17th to mid of 18th century. In Asia, particularly in India, it was introduced by Portuguese in 17th century [1]. The late blight fungus co-evolved with potato in Central and South America and subsequently spread to other parts of the world mainly through infected seed tubers. The late blight disease caused by oomycete, which was initially reported as Botrytis infestans in 1845 by C. Montagne, later on German scientist Anton de Bary renamed as Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary [2]. The entire potato crop across Europe, especially in Ireland, was killed prematurely during 1844–45; leading to worst ever famine the ‘Irish Potato Famine’ [3]. One million people died of starvation due to that famine and another million migrated to the USA and other parts of the world.
The late blight disease was recorded in India for the first time between 1870 and 1880 in the Nilgiri hills [4]. Under subtropical plains particularly in eastern part of the India, it was first observed in 1898–1900 in Hooghly district of West Bengal [5]. In the northern part, it appeared for the first time in 1883 in Darjeeling and subsequently spread rapidly to other adjoining hills [6]. The late blight disease was observed in Khasi hills (North-eastern Region) in 1885, Kumaon hills in 1897 and in Shimla hills (North-western Region) in 1902 [5, 7]. During 1913, it appeared at several places in Assam and Bihar [6, 8, 9, 10, 11]. In plains of Uttar Pradesh, it was reported for the first time in 1943 in Dehradun and Meerut [10]. Severe attack of the late blight was observed in Meerut district in 1949, 1950 and 1951 and subsequently in many other districts of Uttar Pradesh [12]. In Punjab, the disease was occurred annually from 1958 to 1963 except during 1961 [13]. Potatoes had been grown in Mahabaleshwar hills and other parts of Maharashtra but late blight was observed there only in 1973 [14]. In Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, the disease was observed in traces in 1968 and in Rajasthan in 1958 [12]. Afterwards, appearance of late blight disease is regular feature with high disease severity in hill areas while in plains disease severity is moderate to high level.
2. Crop losses
Phytophthora infestans causes late blight diseases in potato and tomato crops worldwide. It is not cause only economic losses of yield but also the quality and quantity of the crop. It is a highly researchable pathogen in plant diseases. The worldwide late blight disease is re-emerging, therefore this disease is constantly observed by the late blight researchers [15]. The late blight disease is considered emerging disease, it is not only having important in global crop production, but also pose severe risks on a local level, especially on small farms in developing countries [16]. The losses caused by late blight disease, it varied countries to countries, as per their adopted plant protections measures and grown cultivars. The yield losses due to late blight of potato were reported up to 50–70% during the 2007 under favorable environmental condition in Pakistan [17]; however recently Ahmed et al. [18] reported that late blight can induce 100% yield loss under epidemic condition in Pakistan. As far as Indian scenario is concerned, reduction in potato production due to late blight ranged between 5 and 90% depending upon climatic conditions, with an average of 15% across the country [19]. However, recently yield loss was reported, overall basis a range of 10–20% due to late blight in the year 2013–2014 major potato growing sites of the India viz., Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Karnataka and Uttarakhand [20]. Whenever, disease appeared in epiphytotic form at early stage of the crop yield loss would be more. Tuber yield decline was significantly higher in unmanaged crop, which could go as high as 90% of total productivity in hilly regions. The changing climate pattern is being influenced appearance of late blight as it is occurring every year in plain region with moderate to high disease severity. Variations in disease severity are mainly due to climatic factors i.e. rainfall, relative humidity, temperature and pathogen virulence. In Punjab (main potato growing belt), severe epidemics of late blight disease have appeared during 1985–1986, 1989–1990, 1992–1993 and 2006–2007 [21]. In 2006–07, average crop loss of 22% in productivity resulting in a net loss of around 0.16 mt of potato in the state of Punjab alone. The increase in disease severity could be due to a change in the pathogen population [22]. The varying degree of crop losses was also reported due to late blight from Punjab, Haryana, UP, Maharashtra Karnataka, Bihar and West Bengal [23]. The decline in productivity and yield of potato was in between 25 and 85% due to late blight, depending mainly on degree of susceptibility of the host plant [24]. The economic costs associated with late blight to be somewhere around US $3–5 billion per year was estimated by several authors [25, 26]. A method had been used to conservative estimate costs of late blight and it was observed that lowest yields mainly in developing countries and previous eastern block countries which suffered over €10 billion per annum at least, whereas in developed countries with high yields (7.5% of global potato production) suffered damage of about €1 billion per year [27].
3. Symptomatology
The late blight disease affects all plant parts especially leaves, stem and tubers.
3.1. Leaves
Pale green water soaked spots (2–10 mm) appear mostly on the margin and tips. In moist weather, spots may appear anywhere on the leaves, enlarge rapidly and turn necrotic and black killing the entire leaf instantly. On the corresponding lower side, whitish cottony growth containing millions of sporangia forms around the dead area in a ring pattern (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Whitish cottony growth on the lower surface of leaf.
3.2. Stem and petiole
Light brown lesions develop which elongates and encircles the stem and petioles breaking them and killing the plant/leaves instantly. Stem infection is more severe under high temperature and relative humidity conditions (Figure 2). Symptoms of stem blight are observed more in last ten years.
Figure 2.
Late blight symptom on potato stem.
3.3. Tubers
Rusty brown discoloration of the flesh is the typical symptom of late blight (Figure 3). On outside tuber surface, hard depressions with purplish tinge on the sides are a common feature. Normally, late blight infected tubers are hard but associated secondary pathogens may set in soft rot symptoms.
Figure 3.
Late blight symptom on potato tubers.
3.4. Field infection
Generally, late blight appears on lower most leaves of the plant which goes unnoticed from a distance. Slowly, the disease spreads to the middle and then upper leaves. Subsequently it spreads whole plants and near of the plants. The disease spreads faster and the entire crop gets killed as if burnt by fire (Figure 4). The heavily infected field gives fetid odor which can be felt from a distance.
Figure 4.
Late blight affected potato field.
4. Disease epidemiology
The late blight infected tubers are the major sources to cause the infection. Moreover, refuse piles and volunteer plants also serve as primary source of disease particularly in the hilly region. Wherever, both mating type is existed oospore formation take place and oospore also has the potential to cause and initiate the disease. The spores germinate and infect the exposed tubers. Although, some of the infected tubers get completely rotted by the time, crop is harvested but, still lot of tubers carry incipient infection, and escape in the cold store/country store where they remain dormant but alive. These tubers if used as seed, becomes the source of infection of the disease in the next crop season [28]. Sporangia are formed wide range of temperature (3 to 26°C) and optimum is 18–22°C. The sporangia are germinated by two ways process i.e. indirect and direct germination. It depends mainly on temperature. Indirect germination generally occurs at temperatures of 6 to 15°C (optimum 12°C) by means of sporangia produces zoospores. Direct germination takes place under warm temperature and a range of 4 to 30°C (optimum 25°C). High relative humidity (>90%) is required for spore formation, germination and infection; whereas >80% is essential for lesions expansion. Extreme light is harmful for P. infestans and sometimes sporangia may be killed due to extreme light. Cloudy weather is favorable for late blight. The cool (12–15°C) and high humidity (>90%) weather with heavy dews or rains alternating with warm (18–20°C) moist period favor for rapid development of disease. Infection and disease development is observed a range of 7.2–26.6°C [29].
5. Management
Several management strategies have been developed for late blight of potato and adopted by the farmers/potato growers as per availability of the resources. Amongst them chemicals, host resistant, biological control, cultural control are discussed below:
5.1. Chemical management
Chemical management is very popular strategy for the management of late blight. Since the discovery of Bordeaux mixture in 1885 and it was first important landmark in the history of chemical disease control. Bordeaux mixture belongs to first generation of fungicides along with other inorganic chemicals. After more than 130 years, the introduction of Bordeaux mixture (Copper sulfate, hydrated lime and water), large numbers of fungicides (first generation Bordeaux mixture to fourth generation Mandipropamid & Azoxystrobin) were evaluated at worldwide against late blight of potato/tomato. In practice, the traditional management of late blight depends highly on preventative fungicides, application on a regular calendar basis (e.g. weekly) during the growing season [30]. The population diversity and disease incidence of P. infestans has been increased through the development of systemic fungicide resistance (insensitivity) and the transcontinental shipment of the late blight infected potato tubers and tomato plantlets [31]. Metalaxyl fungicide which comes under Phenylamide group with FARC 4, was introduced against oomycetes, very effective for late blight management and highly adopted worldwide. However, after introduction within three years metalaxyl resistant isolates were detected on field grown potatoes in Ireland, The Netherlands and Switzerland [32]. The site-specific systemic fungicide, mefenoxam (the active isomer in metalaxyl), inhibits sporulation and mycelial growth inside host tissues by specifically inhibiting RNA polymerase-1, a mutation that changes the affinity of target sites could easily lead to fungicide resistance [33]. In Indian scenario, metalaxyl based fungicides were introduced on experimental basis for management of late blight during late 1980’s however, their commercial use started only during 1994–1995 [34]. In India, 200–400 ppm tolerance level was observed with metalaxyl. After 12 years, its introduction during 2006, the metalaxyl based fungicides failed to protect the potato crop from the late blight in temperate highlands leading to 40–70% crop losses. Systemic fungicide metalaxyl is cause of concern for management of late blight disease due to quickly developed resistance. Pathogen had developed.
Tolerance up to 400 ppm and genetic studies crosses indicated that a semi dominant major locus determines resistance to metalaxyl, since insensitive and sensitive parents usually yielded progeny with those phenotypes at a 1:1 ratio [35, 36]. The heterothallic single mating type isolates of P. infestans was exposed to 9 of the 11 commercial fungicide formulations for assess their effect on formation of oospores. The highest numbers of oospores were observed on media amended with Ridomil 2E (metalaxyl) and Ridomil Gold EC (mefenoxam) at 0.1 to 10 μg a.i./ml, when averaging it was found that 471 and 450 oospores/petri dish, respectively. The remaining fungicides viz., Maneb, Manzate (Mancozeb), Curzate (cymoxanil +mancozeb), and Acrobat MZ (dimethomorph + mancozeb) also induced oospore formation, which ranged from 0 to 200 oospores/petri at fungicide concentrations from 0.1 to 10 μg a.i./ml. No oospores were formed on media amended with Bravo (chlorothalonil) or Tattoo C (chlorothalonil + propamocarb HCl), moreover both the compounds completely suppressed growth of the isolates at 0.1 and 1 μg a.i./ml. The metalaxyl resistant isolates formed oospores in response to the fungicides more often than the metalaxyl sensitive isolates [37]. Metalaxyl + mancozeb (Ridomil MZ) and ofurace (Orafce 50WP) were reported to provide highly effective control of late blight [38]. The fenamidone is a novel fungicide, which acts on cytochrome bc1 in mitochondrial complex III of P. infestans at a number of points in its life cycle [39]. Cymoxanil based fungicides possess a novel mode of action by preventing electron transfer between cytochrome b and c1 in mitochondrial complex III and provide good scope for the control of late blight of potato and tomato [40, 41]. Efficacy of seven fungicides was tested under in vitro conditions and the fungicides, which showed promising results, were further evaluated under field conditions and fenamidone based fungicide was found most effective in controlling late blight followed by cymoxanil based while mancozeb was found least effective; similarly the systemic fungicides viz., fenamidone and dimethomorph were reported most effective in vitro for management of late blight [42, 43]. Various studies showed that a reduced use of fungicides lowers the selection pressure for mefenaxam-resistant strains and mixture with a contact fungicide improves efficacy and may slow the development of resistance to mefenoxam [44, 45]. The systemic fungicides have better persistence on the host surface and are being used as mixture with contact fungicides against late blight so as to avoid development of resistance in pathogen [46]. The fungicide mixtures, containing two or more fungicides with different modes of action, have been developed with the twin objectives of broadening the activity spectrum against diverse plant diseases and to check the development of resistance in the target pathogens [47]. In commercial production of potato is not viable without fungicides for management of late blight. Fungicide mixtures and targeted application based on late blight forecasting model are very important for managing late blight. However, due to delisting of many fungicides products under the EU Pesticide Directive and environmental concerns, provides impetus for potato breeding and more effective fungicide application [48]. It has been reported from European country that the same fungicide should not applied more than two sequential applications [49]. The severe late blight can be effectively managed with prophylactic spray of mancozeb at 0.25% followed by cymoxanil+mancozeb or dimethomorph+mancozeb at 0.3% at the onset of disease and one more spray of mancozeb at 0.25% seven days after application of systemic fungicides in West Bengal [50]. Similarly, one spray of mancozeb followed by three spray of cymoxanil + mancozeb was effective on cv. Kufri Bahar under western UP [34]. Due to development of resistance to fungicides, a new fungicide, Victory 72 WP was first used in controlling late blight of potato and tomato in West Shoa of Ethiopia [51]. The late blight specific spray scheduling method and a method of scheduling sprays for both diseases (early and late blight) suppressed early and late blight as well as did weekly sprays (conventional methods) and with the same average number of applications as with weekly sprays [52]. The customarily, spray schedules were one prophylactic spray using contact fungicides followed by systemic fungicides and one more spray of either same contact or same systemic fungicides. A unique combination of treatments was developed keeping in view the sensitivity of P. infestans to develop fungicide resistance. The post spray (curative spray) of same mode of action fungicide was not taken. Prophylactic sprays of chlorothalonil/mancozeb followed by systemic/trans laminar fungicides were found effective than post symptom sprays. This will be useful to minimize the yield losses due to late blight and assist in reducing development of resistance against fungicides in pathogen [53]. The spray schedule of mancozeb 75% WP (0.2%- before appearance) followed by two more spray with mancozeb 75% WP (0.2%) + dimethomorph 50% WP (0.2%) at 7–10 days intervals showed less terminal disease severity (24.55%) with highest disease controlled (74.45%), which was at statistically par with treatment mancozeb 75% WP (0.2%, before appearance) followed by cymoxanil 8% + mancozeb 64% WP (0.3%) with two more spray at 7–10 days intervals, with 27.56% terminal disease severity along with disease controlled 71.29%. One spray of mancozeb (contact fungicides: before appearance) and latter two more sprays of translaminar/systemic + contact fungicides at 7–10 days interval give better results for managing late blight of potato [54]. The highest marginal benefit was achieved by applying first Ridomil then Dithane M-45 at 14–21 days interval. The lowest marginal benefit was with alone application of Ridomil at 21 day spray interval. At 7 days sprays was more economical to apply Dithane M-45 than Ridomil first followed by Dithane M-45 subsequently [55]. Twelve fungicides were evaluated on isolates of three identified clonal lineages (US-22, US-23, and US-24) of P. infestans using a detached tomato leaf assay in preventative and post-infection methods. The results revealed that these fungicides were suitable in conventional and organic systems, which can effectively control late blight caused by new clonal lineages of P. infestans when applied preventatively and late blight caused by the US-24 clonal lineage may require less fungicide than US-22 or US-23 to manage the disease [56]. The efficacy of Ametoctradin 27% + dimethomorph 20.27% (w/w) as a new molecule for management of late blight of potato was reported in India [57]. Initium (ametoctradin) is a new fungicide for management of Phytophthora infestans. It affects mitochondrial respiration inhibitor interfering with the complex III (complex bc1) in the electron transport chain of the pathogen, thus ATP synthesis in the fungal cells is inhibited. It is a non-systemic fungicide that remains primarily on the leaf surface where it is adsorbed with high affinity to the epicuticular wax layer of the epidermis [58]. Many oomycete-specific fungicides such as QoI compounds, dimethomorph, propamocarb, etc. [59] were commercialized, but currently, we are unaware of any fungicide that could effectively halt epidemics caused by metalaxyl-resistant strains under conditions favorable to P. infestans growth and development [60]. Isolates of Phytophthora infestans showed 10-fold or more variation in baseline sensitivity to many fungicides including cymoxanil, dithiocarbamates, mandipropamid, and strobilurins [61, 62, 63]. Various substances other than fungicides also were tested for management of late blight of potato. Ammonium molybdate, cupric sulfate and potassium metabisulfate at 1 mM partially inhibited the growth and spore germination of P. infestans, whereas ferric chloride, ferrous ammonium sulfate and ZnSO4 at 10 mM completely inhibited growth and spore germination [64]. The foliar spray of ZnSO4 and CuSO4 (0.2%) micronutrients, 12 days delayed the onset of late blight when used with host resistance, subsequently reduced disease severity with higher yield [65]. Sub-phytotoixc dose of boron with reduced rate of propineb + iprovalidicarb has been found more effective than treated with fungicides alone [66]. β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) has been known as an inducer of disease-resistance. However, only the R but not the S enantiomer of BABA primes for resistance. Unfortunately, BABA can also impose growth stress in some treated plants therefore BABA analogs with reduced stress effects are highly desirable for agricultural field [67]. Plant activator viz., BABA and phosphoric acid was evaluated against late blight by various researchers with combination of fungicides or alone [68, 69, 70, 71]. A 20–25% reduction of the fungicide dose in combination with BABA gave on average the same result on late blight development as full dose Shirlan alone in field condition, while reduced dose of Shirlan alone sometimes resulted in less effective protection. However, in vitro results indicated that the efficacy was lasted for only 4–5 days after BABA treatment and subsequently efficacy was lowered. The partially resistant cultivars Ovatio and Superb reacted to lower concentrations of BABA where no effect was found in susceptible cv. Bintje [72]. Two SAR activators (BABA and phosphorous acid) were found effective against late blight of potato with significantly reduced disease severity (40–60%). The expression of the defense related genes and P. infestans effecter proteins β-1,3 glucanase, PR-1 protein, phytophthora inhibitor, protease inhibitor, xyloglucanase, thaumatin protein, steroid binding proteins, proline, endochitinase and cyclophilin genes were up regulated with the SAR activator treatment compared to unsprayed [73]. Since last one and half decades, various fungicides have been developed for management of late blight. Isolates of P. infestans might develop resistant over the period. Fungicides resistance with currently used fungicides, including dimethomorph, has been reported [74, 75]. There are three key phases in the development of fungicide resistance (i) emergence, (ii) selection, and (iii) adjustment. In emergence, the resistant strain has to arise through mutation and invasion whereas in selection, the resistant strain is present in the pathogen population and a small portion of the pathogen population carrying the resistance increases due to the selective pressure imposed by the fungicides. In case of adjustment phase, the resistant fraction of the pathogen population has become large, crop managers have to adjust fungicide programs, by changing the dose or active substance(s) used, in order to maintain control [76].
5.2. Biological control/eco-friendly management
Generally, management of late blight by eco-friendly means is a difficult task particularly when the level of disease pressure is high along with prevailing congenial environmental condition. However, due to negative impact of chemicals on environment as well as human health, nowaday’s eco-friendly management is gaining more importance. Management of late blight through eco-friendly way, using botanicals has been initiated in European and American countries during the last years of 20th century [77, 78]. Out of 100 species in 54 plant families tested against P. infestans, the leaf extracts from onions, garlic, Malustoringo, Reynoutria japonica and Rheum coreanum revealed positive inhibition of mycelial growth of P. infestans. M. toringo extracts strongly inhibited P. infestans and was effective in managing late blight also [79]. The effectiveness of some antifungal compound was reported against late blight from botanicals [80]. The antagonist Bacillus subtilis B5 was found effective in inhibiting the growth of P. infestans [81]. The efficacy of bacterial and fungal antagonist found effective as lowest average disease severity (27.89%) was recorded in treatment when Bacillus subtilis (B5–0.25%) + Trichoderma viride (TV-0.7%) was applied before disease appearance followed by cymoxanil 8% + mancozeb 64%WP (0.3%) at onset of late blight and one more spray of B5 + TV after 7 days [82]. The different isolates of Trichoderma were evaluated against P. infestans and found that Trichoderma isolates HNA 14 was most effective under both laboratory and field conditions and showed mycoparasitism against P. infestans when observed under scanning electron microscope [83], whereas T. koningiopsis and T. asperellum were effective against P. infestans under both laboratory and field conditions [84]. Rhamnolipid bacterial based formulation (0.25%) was tested under field trials at three different locations for managing late blight of potato. It was observed that the terminal disease severity in rhamnolipid formulation sprayed plot was 45% (against control plot 100%), 47.5% (against control plot 92.5%) and 59.2% (against control plot 76.64%) at Modipuram, Lawar (Meerut) and Jalandhar, respectively [85]. The some phyllospheric microorganisms viz., yeasts Sporobolomyces spp., Acetenobacter spp., isolates of Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. were reported antagonistic to P. infestans [86, 87]. The Bacillus sp. inhibited mycelial growth of 7 plant pathogenic fungi in vitro and in vivo and the same bacterium protected tomato plants against P. infestans [88]. A bacterium (Serratia sp.), and 4 fungi (Trichoderma sp., Fusarium sp. and 2 Penicillium spp.) were tested against P. infestans on tomatoes under field conditions and found that Penicillium reduced the lesion area/plant between 8 and 40% [89]. One hundred twenty two microorganisms isolated from the phyllosphere of potatoes on the development of P. infestans, 23 effective microorganisms (spore-forming and non-spore-forming bacteria, yeasts and fungi) were tested in dual cultures and different patterns of inhibition of P. infestans were observed [90]. Various naturally occurring microorganisms, i.e., Trichoderma viride, Penicillium virdicatum, P. aurantiogiseum, Chetomium brasilense [91], Acremonium strictum [92], Myrothecium varrucaria and Penicillium aurantiogriseum [93] showed antagonistic effect against P. infestans. The antagonistic activities of Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas sp., Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Penicillium sp., T. virens and T. harzianum were tested in vitro conditions against P. infestans, Fusarium sp. and Rhizoctonia solani. All bio-agents inhibited the mycelial growth of the pathogens in comparison to control [94]. The defense enzymes viz., chitinase and β.1, 3-glucanase activities of B. subtilis and T. harzianum were well reported against late blight of potato and early and late blight of tomato [95, 96]. Forty-three bacteria were isolated from the phylloplane and rhizosphere of potato and canola plants, evaluated against P. infestans causing late blight on potato. It was reported that more than one system (in vitro culture media, detached leaves, and whole plants) should be used for selecting and identifying potential of bioagents [97]. A well-known group of microorganism used is the fluorescent Pseudomonas which excretes secondary metabolites including antibiotics and biosurfactants that are inhibitory to plant pathogens [98]. Naturally occurring surface active compounds derived from micro-organisms are called biosurfactants. These are amphiphilic biological compounds produced extra-cellularly as part of the cell membrane by a variety of bacteria, yeast and fungi [99]. Biosurfactants can be used as alternatives to chemical surfactants as their capability of reducing surface and interfacial tension with low toxicity, high specificity and biodegradability make them important for inhibiting pathogens. The best antagonistic activity against P. infestans is observed in the genera of Pseudomonas and Bacillus as they produce wide range of antibiotics and biosurfactants and can be used as alternatives to chemical surfactants [100]. The metabolite of biosurfactant producing bacterium, P. aeruginosa has shown high efficacy against P. infestans under in vitro conditions [101]. Ninety five isolates of bacteria were evaluated for their biosurfactant as well as biocontrol activity against P. infestans. It is observed that only 15.8% isolates showed biosurfactant activity and only five isolates were found effective against P. infestans for biocontrol properties [102].
5.3. Cultural practices
The cultural practices, includes inoculum free seeds and planting materials, crop and field sanitation and adjustment of crop cultures. Cultural practices classified into three categories: i. Practices, which are usually applied for agriculture purposes not directly connected with crop protection, such as fertilization and irrigation. They may or may not have a positive or a negative side effect on disease incidence or severity, ii. Practices that are used completely for disease control, such as sanitation and flooding and iii. Practices, which are used for both agricultural purposes and for disease control, such as crop rotation, grafting and composting [103]. Late blight of potato can be managed up to some extent using cultural practices. The infected potato tubers are the primary source of inoculums for causing initial infection of late blight. Besides, areas wherever both mating type (A1 & A2) are co-existed, oospore formation takes place and a possibility to survive longer period in the soil and cause the infection from soil sources also. The oospores as soil-borne inoculums and its significant are determined by formation of oospore in plant tissue and their survival in soil. There is a clear cut correlation between crop rotation and early infections of late blight disease. Generally, infection starts early in fields which are not used for crop rotations. The decline in early infection was most pronounced in fields subjected to crop rotations for three or more years between the potato crops [104, 105]. It might be a reason that inoculums are less survived in non-crop rotation field than the crop rotated fields. It is clearly indicated that practices of crop rotation is an important aspects for reducing the risk of soil-borne infections of P. infestans. The date of potato planting is also useful to avoid the late blight of potato, especially by changing in planting dates. On average, planting in the last 10 days of September resulted in less severe late blight epidemics [106]. Mixed cropping, barrier crops and strip cropping are also helpful for reducing disease severity of potato late blight. Concept of mixed cropping and barrier crops were investigated for managing/delaying the spread and build up of late blight in western Uttar Pradesh at Meerut. Results revealed that spreads of the disease were delayed by 7 days by planting resistant cultivars in alternation with susceptible one whereas barrier crop (oat) delayed the spread of disease by 4 days [107]. Strip cropping of potatoes significantly reduced late blight severity in organic production when the crop was planted perpendicular to the wind neighbored by grass clover [108]. Control of contaminated sources such as infected tubers, volunteer plants, waste heaps, disease in neighboring fields and re-growth after haulms destruction can help in management of the disease [109]. It has been assessed that onset of epidemic can be delayed by 3 to 6 weeks if all primary infection from early potato can be eliminated. It has been shown that during most years late blight epidemics start from infected plants on dumps [110]. Covering of dumps with black plastic sheet throughout the season and preventing seed tubers from becoming infected is an important step to reduce the primary inoculum [111]. Avoiding use of excess nitrogen and use of moderate nitrogen fertilization is often recommended as cultural practices to delay the development of late blight [112]. Higher dose of phosphorus and potassium has been found to give a higher yield in a late blight year [113]. The selection of suitable cultivars with late blight resistant, well aerated fields, pre-sprouting of tubers and early planting are some of the measures for foliar blight while planting potatoes on large steep ridges, right time of mechanical weeding and harvesting, avoiding rapid shift of harvested tubers or long transports could minimize tuber blight [114].
5.4. Host resistance
Host resistance is the best option for management of late blight of potato and it is eco-friendly in nature. Generally, after a decade, resistant level of the cultivars is being defeated, due to matching of new virulence genes. To find out the source(s) of resistance to late blight in potato was serious concern after Irish famine, during late 19th century. The fact that P. infestans originated in Mexico where lots of wild Solanum species also grow and co-exist with late blight led to the belief that wild Solanum species would possess a fair degree of resistance to balance the Phytophthora attack. In India, selection of late blight resistant genotypes dates back to 1936 when potato germplasm was screened in the field. In subsequent selections, clones of S. demissum and S. antipoveizii were found immune and later used as parents for late blight resistance breeding. Development of resistant cultivars and exploitation of screening methodology has played an important role in the management of late blight [115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120]. CPRI has released varieties having moderate to high degree of resistance to late blight for cultivation both for plains and hills. Some of them are Kufri Giriraj, K. Shailja, K. Himalini and K. Himsona (for hills) and K. Pukhraj, K. Anand, K. Sutlej, K. Badshah, K. Arun, K. Jawahar, K. Garima, K. Chipsona-1, K. Chipsona-2, K. Chipsona-3 and K. Frysona (for plains). Advanced hybrid MS/99–1871 derived from cross PH/F-1045 X MS/82–638 has been released for commercial cultivation under the name Kufri Garima. Foliage resistance of advanced hybrids tested under laboratory and field conditions did not establish close relationship. The expression of late blight resistance in foliage and tuber were not related [121]. K. Mohan is a new variety with field resistance to late blight reported [122]. Recently, Payette Russet: a dual-purpose potato cultivar with late blight resistance (both tuber and foliage) and high resistance to potato virus Y released in USA [123]. Somatic hybrids having high degree of resistance to late blight can be used as one of the parent for potato breeding [124]. The somatic hybrids P4, P8 and P10 reported for the introgression of important characters such as high tuber dry matter concentration, resistance to late blight into the cultivated potato via conventional breeding methods for cultivar development in the sub-tropical plains of India [125].
5.5. Forecasting models
The late blight pathogen is highly dependent on the environmental factors like temperature, relative humidity and leaf wetness etc. for causing late blight disease. Therefore, various forecasting model had been developed for forecasting late blight disease. Initially, Van Everdingen [126] evolved ‘Dutch rules’ for predicting the initial occurrence of late blight and for scheduling fungicide applications under Holland condition. Subsequently, Beaumont’s period [127]; Irish rules, moving day concept [128]; severity value accumulation [129]; negative prognosis [130] and mathematical based models were developed worldwide. Large number of forecasting systems like BLITECAST, SIMCAST, ProPhy, PROGEB, PhytoPre, NegFry, Web-Blight, Plant Plus, PhytoPRE + 2000, China Blight, Bio-PhytoPre etc. have been developed for different regions of the world [112]. International Potato Centre has linked two disease forecasting models, Blitecast and Simcast to climate database in a Geographical Information System (GIS) to estimate global severity of potato late blight. Using GIS database, they suggested that an increased access to host resistance and fungicides in developing countries could have a strong economic impact on potato production [131]. A web-based Decision Support System (DSS) was developed for management of potato and tomato late blight [132] which links various models into a system that enables prediction of disease dynamics based on weather conditions, crop information, and management strategies. Growers identify the location of their production unit of interest and the system automatically obtains observed weather data from the nearest available weather station, and location-specific forecast weather data from the National Weather Service – National Digital Forecast Database [133]. Recently a new forecasting model BLITE-SVR developed for prediction of first appearance of late blight of potato. A total of 13 kinds of weather data had been utilized for development of this model and performance of BLITE-SVR compared with the conventional moving-average method as well as through pace regression and linear regression. The accuracy of prediction was 64.3% by BLITE-SVR, with 42.9% by the conventional moving-average method, 42.9% by pace regression and 35.7% by linear regression for first appearance of late blight of potato [134].
In Indian scenarios, a forecasting model has been developed for Darjeeling hills utilizing 12 years rainfall data on the concept of Cook’s moving graph and Hyre’s [135]. Another forecasting model had been developed using daily weather data (temperature, rainfall and RH) for actual appearance of late blight for Shimla, Shillong and Ootacamund [136]. The computerized forecasting model ‘JHULSACAST’ developed for western UP for both the rainy and non-rainy conditions and it is being utilized for forecasting of first appearance of late blight in the regions and large scale of farmers are benefited by timely adopting control measures [137]. The wireless sensor network was used for validation of ‘JHULSACAST’ with other forecasting late blight models in western Uttar Pradesh using human participatory sensing approach. It was observed that the ‘JHULSACAST’ has been found to be significantly accurate than the Ullrich, Fry, Winsteland Wallin models for the Hapur region of Uttar Pradesh, India [138]. JHULSACAST model template was used for calibration for development of forecasting models for Punjab [139], Tarai region of Uttarakhand [140] and plains of West Bengal [141]. A decision support system also developed for assisting in management of late blight by ICAR-CPRI, which includes three modules i.e. i) decision rules for forecasting first appearance of late blight in plains during rainy and non-rainy years based on temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall data, ii) decision rules for need based application of fungicides, and iii) regression models for yield loss assessment. All these modules have been combined and a web based decision support system for western Uttar Pradesh has been developed and hosted on ICAR-CPRI server. The yield loss assessment model was developed using two parameters i.e. per cent yield loss as a dependent variable and AUDPC as an independent variable. Twenty five linear and non-linear regression lines were fitted with three years data and amongst best non-linear reciprocal hyperbola regression line, which has R2 = 0.84 was selected. Further, this model was validated and results revealed that the deviation from 0.5 to 13.70% in 2010–2011, 1.16 to 9.69% in 2011–2012 and −3.01 to 9.23% in 2012–13 between actual and predicted yield loss [142]. Recently, INDO-BLIGHTCAST- a web based Pan-India model for forecasting potato late blight which is an improvement over JHULSACAST has been developed. It predicts late blight appearance using daily mean temperature and relative humidity data available with meteorological stations and does not require hourly weather data, not region/location specific and can be used across the country without any calibration [143]. An algorithm to determine the severity of potato late blight was developed using image processing techniques and neural network. The proposed system takes images of a group of potato leaves with complex background as input which are captured under uncontrolled environment [144]. It could further modified for spray of fungicides based on disease severity. Thus, the disease forecasting model is not only forecast for initial appearance of late blight but also assist in managing the late blight with proper spray schedules.
6. Conclusion
Late blight disease could be managed by taking in account all available resources i.e. chemical, host resistant, cultural or biological in the form of integrated disease management. Although the chemical and varietal management are being used widely all over the world, biological control could be used especially in organic potato cultivation or reducing the number of fungicides sprays/objectives to less use of fungicides. It is cause of concern wherever, oospores are survived and emergence of new strain/re-emerging the late blight. It will in future line of action that how disease is re-emerging and how to manage at short span after its re-emerging.
\n',keywords:"potato, late blight, disease, management, fungicides, Phytophthora",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/58251.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/58251.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58251",totalDownloads:2925,totalViews:1660,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,totalAltmetricsMentions:2,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:85,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"May 11th 2017",dateReviewed:"November 14th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 6th 2018",dateFinished:"December 16th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the most important crop and Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary is the oomycete, which was responsible for infamous Irish potato famine during 1843–45 and it continues to cause worldwide devastation of the potato. Moreover, this disease is re-emerging in the forms of different genotypes and causes huge yield loss in the potato crop. The factors which are responsible for huge yield loss of potato are applied improper management strategies and pathogen behavior. Management strategies includes; forecasting, cultural, biological, varietal and chemical management. Forecasting is the better option for management of late blight, if accurately forecasted and promptly information reaches to the end users. As infected potato tubers cause the primary sources of infection in next season. The cultural practices will also helpful in reducing inoculum load and managing the disease. The host resistance is best option for management of this disease. However, due to very divers’ virulence nature of P. infestans; the resistance of the varieties is wiped out within a decade. Several fungicides including contact, systemic and translaminar have been evaluated from time to time; however, the pathogen has shown a remarkable capacity for change with respect to host genotype and fungicides. Nowadays biological control is gaining importance due to its eco-friendly in nature.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/58251",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/58251",book:{id:"6219",slug:"potato-from-incas-to-all-over-the-world"},signatures:"Mehi Lal, Sanjeev Sharma, Saurabh Yadav and Santosh Kumar",authors:[{id:"186150",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehi",middleName:null,surname:"Lal",fullName:"Mehi Lal",slug:"mehi-lal",email:"mehilalonline@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"194201",title:"Mr.",name:"Saurabh",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",fullName:"Saurabh Yadav",slug:"saurabh-yadav",email:"saurabhyadav.2505@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"210908",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjeev",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",fullName:"Sanjeev Sharma",slug:"sanjeev-sharma",email:"sanjeevsharma.cpri@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"210909",title:"Dr.",name:"Santosh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Santosh Kumar",slug:"santosh-kumar",email:"santosh35433@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Crop losses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Symptomatology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Leaves",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Stem and petiole",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Tubers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4. Field infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Disease epidemiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.1. Chemical management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.2. Biological control/eco-friendly management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.3. Cultural practices",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.4. Host resistance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.5. Forecasting models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mehi L, Yadav S, Singh V, Nagesh M. The use of bio-agents for management of potato diseases. In: Rigobelo EC, editor. Plant Growth. 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Screening for antagonistic plants for control of Phytophthora spp in soil. Korean Journal of Mycology. 1989;17:39-47'},{id:"B80",body:'Khan MA, Singh BP, Kaushik SK, Lal M. Evaluation of antifungal potential extracts against potato pathogens. National Seminar on emerging problems of potato, 1-2 November 2014, CPRI Shimla. 143p'},{id:"B81",body:'Ajay S, Sunaina V. Direct inhibition of Phytophthora infestans, the causal organism of late blight of potato by Bacillus antagonist. Potato Journal. 2005;32:179-180'},{id:"B82",body:'Lal M, Yadav S, Sharma S, Singh BP, Kaushik SK. Integrated management of late blight of potato. Journal of Applied and Natural Science. 2017;9(3):1821-1824'},{id:"B83",body:'Yao Y, Yan L, Chen Z, Zheng B, Zhang L, Niu B, Meng J, Li A, Zhang J, Qi W. Biological control of potato late blight using isolates of Trichoderma. American Journal of Potato Research. 2016;93:33-42'},{id:"B84",body:'Yuan-Hang QU, Qi W, Yan-Po Y, Zhen-Lin H, Yan L. 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Potential commercial application of microbial surfactants. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2000;53:495-508'},{id:"B101",body:'Tomar S, Singh BP, Khan MA, Kumar S, Sharma S, Lal M. Identification of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain producing biosurfactant with antifungal activity against Phytophthora infestans. Potato Journal. 2013;40:155-163'},{id:"B102",body:'Tomar S, Singh BP, Lal M, Khan MA, Hussain T, Sharma S, Kaushik SK, Kumar S. Screening of novel microorganisms for biosurfactant and biocontrol activity against Phytophthora infestans. Journal of Environmental Biology. 2014;35:893-899'},{id:"B103",body:'Katan J. Cultural practices and soil borne disease management. In: Utkhde RS, Gupta VK, editors. Management of Soil Borne Diseases. India: Kalyani Publishers; 1996. p. 100'},{id:"B104",body:'Bodker L, Pedersen H, Kristensen K, Moller L, Lehtinen A, Hannukkala A. Influence of crop history of potato on early occurrence and disease severity of potato late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans. In: Westerdijk CE, Schepers HTAM, editors. Proceedings of the 9th workshop of an European network for development of an integrated control strategy of potato late blight. 2006; PPO Special Report No. 11. 53-56p'},{id:"B105",body:'Hannukkala AO, Kaukoranta T, Lehtinen A, Rahkonen A. Late blight epidemics on potato in Finland 1933-2002; increased and earlier occurrence of epidemics associated with climate change and lack of rotation. Plant Pathology. 2007;56:167-176'},{id:"B106",body:'Sekhon PS, Sokhi SS. Effect of date of planting on late blight development in Punjab. Indian Phytopathological Society. 1999;52:267-269'},{id:"B107",body:'CPRI. 2004-2005. Annual Progress Report. Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, India'},{id:"B108",body:'Bounes H, Finckh MR. Effects of strip intercropping of potatoes with non-hosts on late blight severity and tuber yield in organic production. Plant Pathology. 2008;57:916-927'},{id:"B109",body:'Turkensteen LJ, Mulder A. The potato disease Phytophthora infestans. Gewasbescherming. 1999;30:106-112'},{id:"B110",body:'Zwankhuizen MJ, Govers F, Zadoks JC. Inoculum sources and genotypic diversity of Phytophthora infestans in southern Flevoland, the Netherlands. European Journal of Plant Pathology. 2000;106:667-680'},{id:"B111",body:'Cooke LR, Schepers HTAM, Hermansen A, Bain RA, Bradshaw NJ, Ritchie F, Shaw DS, Evenhuis A, Kessel GJT, Wander JGN, Anderson B, Hansen JG, Hannukkala A, Naerstad R, Nielsen BJ. Epidemiology and integrated control of potato late blight in Europe. Potato Research. 2011;54:183-122'},{id:"B112",body:'Arora RK, Shrama S, Singh BP. Late blight disease of potato and its management. Potato Journal. 2014;41:16-40'},{id:"B113",body:'Roy SK, Sharma RC, Trehan SP. Integrated nutrient management by using farmyard manure and fertilizers in potato-sunflower-paddy rice rotation in the Punjab. The Journal of Agricultural Science. 2001;137:271-278'},{id:"B114",body:'Meinck S, Kolbe H. Control of leaf and tuber blight in ecological potato cultivation. Kartoffelbau. 1999;50:172-175'},{id:"B115",body:'Bhardwaj V, Kaushik SK, Singh PH, Singh BP. Tuber and foliage resistance to late blight in advanced potato hybrids. Potato Journal. 2005;32:131-132'},{id:"B116",body:'Bhardwaj V, Kaushik SK, Chakrabarti SK, Pandey SK, Singh PH, Manivel P, Singh BP. Combining resistance to late blight and PVY in potato. Potato Journal. 2007;34:41-42'},{id:"B117",body:'Kaushik SK, Bhardwaj V, Singh PH, Singh BP. Evaluation of potato germplasm for adaptability and resistance to late blight. Potato Journal. 2007;34:43-44'},{id:"B118",body:'Joseph TA, Kaushik SK, Singh BP, Bhardwaj V, Pandey SK, Singh SV, Singh PH, Gupta VK. 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Potato Journal. 2017;44:65-73'},{id:"B123",body:'Novy RG, Whitworth JL, Stark JC, Schneder BL, Knowles NR, Pavek MJ, Knowles LO, Charlton BA, Sathuvalli V, Yilma S, Brown CR, Thornton M, Brandt TL, Olsen N. Payette russet: A dual-purpose potato cultivar with cold sweetening resistance, low acrylamide formation and resistance to late blight and potato virus Y. American Journal of Potato Research. 2017;94:38-53'},{id:"B124",body:'Tiwari JK. Poonam, Kumar V, Singh BP, Sharma S, Luthra SK and Bhardwaj V. Evaluation of potato somatic hybrids of dihaploid S. tuberosum (+) S. pinnatisectum for late blight resistance. Potato Journal. 2013;40:176-179'},{id:"B125",body:'Luthra SK, Tiwari JK, Lal M, Chandel P, Kumar V. Breeding potential of potato somatic hybrids: Evaluations for adaptability, tuber traits, late blight resistance, keeping quality and backcross (BC1) progenies. Potato Research. 2016;59:375-391'},{id:"B126",body:'Van Everdingen E. The relation between weather conditions and potato blight, Phytophthora infestans (in Dutch). Tijdschr. Pfantenziekten. 1962;32:129-140'},{id:"B127",body:'Beaumont A. The dependence of weather on the dates of outbreak of potato blight epidemics. Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 1947;31:45-53'},{id:"B128",body:'Hyre BA. Progress of forecasting late blight of potato and tomato. Plant Disease Report. 1954;38:245-253'},{id:"B129",body:'Wallins JR. Summary of recent progress in predicting late blight epidemics in United States and Canada. American Journal of Potato Research. 1962;39:306-312'},{id:"B130",body:'Ullrich J, Schrodter H. Das problem der vorhersage des aufretens der kartoffelkrautfaule (Phytophthora infestans) und die moglichkeit seiner losung durcheins negaturprognose. Nachrichtenblatt Dt. Pflanzenschnezdienst. 1966;18:33-40'},{id:"B131",body:'Hijmans RJ, Forbes GA, Walker TS. Estimating the global severity of potato late blight with GIS-linked disease forecast models. Plant Pathology. 2000;49:697-705'},{id:"B132",body:'Small IM, Joseph L, Fry WE. Evaluation of the blight decision support system for the integrated management of potato and tomato late blight. Phytopathology. 2013;103:134-135'},{id:"B133",body:'Small IM, Joseph L, Fry WE. Development and implementation of the BlightPro decision support system for potato and tomato late blight management. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2015;115:57-65'},{id:"B134",body:'YH G, Yoo SJ, Park CJ, Kim YH, Park SK, Kim JS, Lim JH. BLITE-SVR: New forecasting model for late blight on potato using support-vector regression. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2016;130:169-176'},{id:"B135",body:'Chaudhury SD, Pal SC. Forecasting late blight of potatoes in the hills of West Bengal. American Journal of Potato Research. 1959;36:284-287'},{id:"B136",body:'Bhattacharyya SK, Raj S, Singh DS, Khanna RN, Ram S. Forecasting late blight of potato in Indian hills. In: Nagaich BB et al., editors. Potato in Developing Countries. CPRI, Shimla: Indian Potato Association; 1982. pp. 414-424'},{id:"B137",body:'Singh BP, Ahmed I, Sharma VC, Shekhawat GS. JHULSACAST: A computerized forecast of potato late blight in western Uttar Pradesh. Potato Journal. 2000;27:25-34'},{id:"B138",body:'Jagyasi B, Kumar V, Pande A, Singh BP, Lal M, Ahmad I, Lohia P. Validation of Jhulsacast model using human participatory sensing and wireless sensor networks. Potato Journal. 2015;42:44-49'},{id:"B139",body:'Arora RK, Ahmed I, Singh BP. Forecasting late blight of potato in Punjab using JHUSLACAST model. Potato Journal. 2012;39:173-176'},{id:"B140",body:'Pundhir VS, Singh BP, Ahmad I, Sharma S, Kushwaha HS, Singh VK, Joshi V. Forecasting late blight of potato in Tarai region of Uttarakhand using JHULSACAST model. Potato Journal. 2015;41:95-104'},{id:"B141",body:'Chakraborty A, Singh BP, Ahmad I, Sharma S. Forecasting late blight of potato in the plains of West Bengal using JHULSACAST model. Potato Journal. 2015;42:50-57'},{id:"B142",body:'Lal M, Sharma S, Ahmad I, Singh BP, Yadav S. Development of yield loss assessment model for potato late blight disease in indo-gangetic plains. Potato Journal. 2014;41:130-136'},{id:"B143",body:'Singh BP, Govindakrishnan PM, Ahmad I, Rawat S, Sharma S, Sreekumar J. INDO-BLIGHTCAST–a model for forecasting late blight across agroecologies. International Journal of Pest Management. 2016;62(4):360-367. DOI: 10.1080/09670874.2016.1210839'},{id:"B144",body:'Biswas S, Bhushan J, Singh BP, Lal M. Severity identification of potato late blight disease from crop images captured under uncontrolled environment. IEEE Canada International Humanitarian Technology Conference (IHTC) 2014, Montreal QC, 1-4 June, 2014. DOI:10.1109/IHTC.2014.7147519'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mehi Lal",address:"mehilalonline@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
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Organic agriculture is a holistic production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems, and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity, and cycles adapted to local conditions rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation, and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved [1]. Holistic means near-closed nutrient and energy cycle system considering the whole farm as one organism [2]. Organic agriculture relies on a number of farming practices based on ecological cycles and aims at minimizing the environmental impact of the food industry, preserving the long-term sustainability of soil and reducing to a minimum use of nonrenewable resources [3]. Organic agriculture is both a philosophy and a system of farming aiming to produce food that is nutritious and uncontaminated with substances that could harm human health [4]. Organic farming benefits to the ecosystem include conservation of soil fertility, carbon dioxide storage, fossil fuel reduction, preserving landscape, and preservation of biodiversity [3].
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Pest management in organic farming is achieved by using appropriate cropping techniques, biological control, and natural pesticides (mainly extracted from plant or animal origins). Weed control, the main problem for organic growers, can be managed through cultural practices including mechanic cultivation, mulching, and flaming. Organic farming is characterized by higher diversity of arthropod fauna and conservation of natural enemies than conventional agriculture [3, 5].
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According to the IFOAM [1], organic agriculture is guided by four principles: health (soil, plant, animal, and human), ecology (living ecological systems and cycles), fairness (environment and life opportunities), and care (protect the health and well-being of current and future generations as well as the environment). The US Congress passed the organic food product act in 1990, while the European Union (EU) set up the first regulations on organic farming in 1991, and in the same year, the Codex Alimentarius Commission officially recognized organic agriculture. Gomiero et al. [3] gave more details on history of organic farming, total global areas, organic standards, and impact on the environment. The chapter deals with pest management in organic farming system with an example of organic date production as case study.
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2. Principles and strategies of crop protection in organic farming system
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Pest management in organic farming is a holistic (whole-farm) approach that largely depends on the ecological processes and biodiversity in the agroecosystem. Accordingly, most IPM tactics, principles, and components match with organic farming systems [6]. The goal of this strategy is to prevent pests from reaching economically damaging levels without causing risk to the environment. Successful IPM programs in organic farming may have the following components: (1) monitoring crops for pests, (2) accurately identifying pests, (3) developing economic thresholds, (4) implementing integrated pest control tactics, and (5) record keeping and evaluation.
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The factors that render crop habitat unsuitable for pests and diseases include limitation of resources, competition, parasitism, and predation [7]. These factors play an important role in maintaining equilibrium of the agroecosystem and suppression of harmful pests. Faunal and floral diversities play a substantial role in pest and disease management in organic farming system [8, 9]. The four principles of pest management in organic farming system, namely, prevention, avoidance, monitoring, and suppression, will be discussed in this chapter with special reference to date palm as case study.
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3. Differences between organic and conventional farming with respect to plant protection
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Few options of plant protection substances are available for certified organic growers compared to conventional ones. Thus, they should capitalize on the natural processes and management of the ecosystem to control harmful organisms. Organic farms had a more diverse arthropod fauna, on average, than conventional farms. The average for five 30-second vacuum samples per farm was approximately 40 arthropod species in conventional tomato compared to 66 species in organic tomato fields. Additionally, natural enemies (parasitoids plus predators) were more abundant on organic farms [10]. Arthropod biodiversity, as measured by species richness, was, on average, one-third greater on organic farms than on conventional farms [10].
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Under organic farming systems, the fundamental components and natural processes of ecosystems, such as soil organism activities, nutrient cycling, and species distribution and competition, are used directly and indirectly as farm management tools to prevent pest populations from reaching economically damaging levels. Soil fertility and crop nutrients are managed through tillage and cultivation practices, crop rotations, and cover crops and supplemented with manure, composts, crop waste material, and other allowed substances.
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Soil-borne and root pathogens are usually found in low levels in organic farming as compared to conventional farming [11]. Pathogens such as Pythium spp., Sclerotium rolfsii, Phytophthora spp., and some Fusarium can survive on organic matter of the soil, in the absence of their hosts for long periods, and are thus difficult to be controlled with crop rotation. Additionally, airborne pathogens cannot be controlled with cultural practice such as crop rotation [12]. Powdery mildew and rust diseases (airborne) and insect pests such as aphids and whiteflies (sucking insects) are less serious in organic farming than in conventional farming due to lower nitrogen concentrations in foliar tissues or phloem of plants in the former compared with the latter [11]. Almost all pesticides available for organic farming have short residual effects and work through direct contact mode of action as compared to the persistent systemic pesticides used in conventional farming. Table 1 gives the main differences between organic and conventional farming with respect to soil fertility, biodiversity, and other criteria.
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Organic farming (OF)
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Conventional farming (CF)
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Synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides are not permitted
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Synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides are allowed
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Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are not allowed
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GMOs can be used
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Soils have higher water holding capacity than CF
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Soils have less water holding capacity than OF
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OF has larger floral and faunal biodiversity than CF (complex crop pattern)
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CF has smaller biodiversity than OF (simple crop pattern)
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The agricultural landscape is characterized by heterogeneity (multicultural system)
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The agricultural landscape is characterized by homogeneity (monocultural system)
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Minimizing the use of nonrenewable resources by recycling plant and animal waste into the soils (on-farm inputs)
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Depends largely on nonrenewable resources (off-farm inputs)
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OF is more sustainable than CF
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CF is less sustainable compared to OF
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Strictly regulated by international and national institutional bodies such as Codex Alimentarius and IFOAM
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Not strictly regulated
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Crop protection depends mainly on natural processes such as soil fertility, crop cycle, and biodiversity (more preventive)
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Crop protection relies mainly on human intervention with synthetic chemicals (more curative)
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Table 1.
Fundamental differences between organic and conventional farming.
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4. Crop protection practices in organic farming
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Practices and tactics used in organic farming are based on the three management strategies, which include prevention, monitoring, and suppression. These practices will be intensively discussed in the following paragraphs:
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4.1 Identification and monitoring of crop pests
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Crop pests include insects, weed, plant pathogens, invertebrate, and vertebrate animals. Identification of insect pests and their natural enemies is an important step in any pest management program. Insect pests and natural enemies could be identified using keys and field guides or otherwise consulting an official identification bodies. Unlike insect pests, plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria, virus, and nematodes are difficult to identify in the field and may need laboratory diagnosis. However, signs of insect damage and symptoms of plant diseases may be easily distinguished in the field. Weeds could be easily identified using key and field guides.
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Monitoring is the regular inspection or scouting of field crops for pests, including insects, pathogens, nematodes, and weeds, to determine their abundance and level of damage. It serves as an early warning system for the presence of pests and diseases providing information for decision-making regarding management action and evaluation of control methods. Insect pests can be monitored through visual observation, pheromone and light traps, sticky traps, water traps, yellow traps, sweep nets, beating trays, and pitfall traps. Scouting data are used to develop economic thresholds, a useful decision-making tool to start control action when a pest population reaches or exceeds the specified economic threshold.
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4.2 Tactics used for pest prevention and suppression in organic farming
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A successful integrated pest management (IPM) program in organic farming incorporates a variety of pest management tactics such as cultural, mechanical/physical, biological, and biopesticide (allowed for organic use) tactics individually or in combination. Each control tactic, discussed below, employs a different set of mechanisms for preventing and suppressing pest populations.
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4.2.1 Cultural pest control
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The goal of cultural control is to alter the environment, the condition of the host, or the behavior of the pest to prevent or suppress an infestation. It disrupts the normal relationship between the pest and the host and makes the pest less likely to survive, grow, or reproduce [13]. In agricultural crops, crop rotation, selection of crop plant varieties, timing of planting and harvesting, irrigation management, crop rotation, and use of trap crops help reduce populations of weeds, microorganisms, insects, mites, and other pests. These cultural practices are more preventive than curative and thus may require planning in advance [13–15]. The diversified habitat provides these parasites and predators with alternative food sources, shelter, and breeding sites [16]. Tillage can cause destruction of the insect or its overwintering chamber, removal of the protective cover, elimination of food plants, and disruption of the insect life cycle generally killing many of the insects through direct contact, starvation or exposure to predators, and weather [13]. The use of trap strip crops can control insect damage at the field edges and at the same time avail refuge and food for beneficial insects. Insect resistance is an important component of pest and disease management. Quality-based resistance can be induced in plants through management of nutrients and irrigation. Intercropping and biodiversity play an important role in pest management in organic farming [13].
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4.2.2 Mechanical and physical pest control
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One of the simplest methods of physical or mechanical pest control is handpicking insects or hand-pulling weeds. This method works best in those situations where the pests are visible and easily accessible [17]. Physical or mechanical disruption of pests also includes such methods as mowing, hoeing, flaming, soil solarization, tilling or cultivation, and washing [17]. Animals such as kangaroos cause damage by eating yellow dates; hence, fruit bunches are covered to protect them from such damage [18].
\n
Devices that can be used to exclude insect pests from reaching crops in organic farming include, but not limited to, row covers, protective nets with varying mesh size according to the pest in question, and sticky paper collars that prevent crawling insects from climbing the trunks of trees. Water pressure sprays can be employed to dislodge insect pests such as aphids and mites from the plant surface. Insect vacuums, on the other hand, could be used to remove insects from plant surface and collect them into a collection box.
\n
\n
\n
4.2.3 Biological pest control
\n
Biological methods are the use of beneficial organisms that can be used in the field to reduce insect pest populations. Biological control is grouped into three categories: importation or classical biological control, which introduces pest’s natural enemies to the locations where they do not occur naturally, augmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies, boosting the naturally occurring population, and conservation, which involves the conservation of existing natural enemies in the environment [19]. The role of beneficial species on pests is of relatively greater importance in organic agriculture than in conventional agriculture, because organic growers do not have recourse to highly potent insecticides (such as synthetic pyrethroids) with which to tackle major pest problems [13].
\n
\n
\n
4.2.4 Biopesticide control
\n
Biopesticides are characterized by having minimal or no risk to the environment, natural enemies, and nontarget organisms due to their mode of action, rapid degradation, and the small amounts applied to control pests. They are slow acting, have a relatively critical application times, and suppress rather than eliminate a pest population [20]. Biopesticides have limited field persistence and shorter shelf life and present no residue problems. Thus, they are approved for pest management in organic crops.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Plant protection products (PPPs) authorized in organic farming
\n
The crop protection in organic farming is holistic, and, hence, it is extremely difficult to separate inputs as plant nutrients (fertilizers) and plant protectants (pesticides) [6]. Plant protection products authorized for use in organic farming differ among countries depending on the differences in crops, pests, and cropping systems, as well as regulations and standards adopted by these countries [21]. Organically approved pesticides fall into the following groups: biorational, inorganics, botanicals, microbial, oils, and soaps. The most widely used as insecticides are microorganisms, natural pyrethrins, rapeseed oil, and paraffin; the most widely used as fungicides are copper compounds, sulfur, and microorganisms. The rules of organic agriculture allow the use of unregistered products such as nettle slurry, which is used against aphids. It can be prepared on the farm or shared among farmers [21, 22].
\n
The basic substance concept was introduced by the EU regulation 1107 in 2009. It was defined as substance not intendedly used for plant protection purposes; however, it can still be used in protection of plants either directly or as a diluent. According to this definition, substances used as foodstuff such as vinegar and sunflower oil can be used as plant protection [23]. The basic substances of plant and animal origin, which are used as foodstuff, can be legally used in crop protection in organic farming with the exception of being used as herbicides. These basic substances include chitosan hydrochloride, fructose, sucrose, Salix spp. cortex, and Equisetum arvense L. (field horsetail) which are used as elicitors of the plant self-defense mechanism. Sunflower oil, whey, and lecithins are used as fungicides, while vinegar is used as fungicide and bactericide, and Urtica sp. is used as insecticide, fungicide, and acaricide [21]. In organic farming, only active substances listed in the Commission Regulation (EC) No. 889/2008 (Table 2) can be used. New update is frequently being made by the EC to add or remove PPPs from the list.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Name of product
\n
Purpose and specifications of use
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Azadirachtin from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica)
\n
\n
\n
\n
Beeswax
\n
Used as protectant for treatment of cuts and wounds after pruning or in grafting
\n
\n
\n
Plant oils
\n
Used for control of small-bodied insects such as thrips, aphids, and whiteflies
\n
\n
\n
Laminarin (from Laminaria digitata) or kelp or brown algae seaweed
\n
A polysaccharide from the group of the glucans, used to protect plants against fungi and bacteria. Kelp should be grown according to the organic standards
\n
\n
\n
Pheromones
\n
Used only in traps and dispensers
\n
\n
\n
Pyrethrins from the leaves of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium\n
\n
Used as insecticide
\n
\n
\n
Pyrethroids (only deltamethrin or lambdacyhalothrin)
\n
Used only in traps with attractants or pheromones
\n
\n
\n
Quassia from the plant Quassia amara\n
\n
Only insecticide and repellent
\n
\n
\n
Microorganisms, e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana, and Metarhizium anisopliae\n
\n
Origin should not be GMOs
\n
\n
\n
Spinosad from the soil bacterium Saccharopolyspora spinosa\n
\n
Used as insecticide
\n
\n
\n
Ethylene
\n
Insecticidal fumigant against fruit flies
\n
\n
\n
Paraffin oil
\n
Used as insecticide against small-bodied insects
\n
\n
\n
Fatty acids (soft soaps)
\n
Insecticide against mite, thrips, and aphids
\n
\n
\n
Lime sulfur (mixture of calcium hydroxide and sulfur)
\n
Used as fungicide
\n
\n
\n
Kieselgur (diatomaceous earth) from the hard-shelled diatom protist (chrysophytes)
\n
Used as mechanical insecticide
\n
\n
\n
Naturally occurring aluminum silicate (kaolin)
\n
As insect repellent against a wide range of insects at a rate of 50 kg/ha
\n
\n
\n
Calcium hydroxide
\n
Used as fungicide
\n
\n
\n
Sodium hypochlorite (bleach or as javel water). It is a disinfectant with numerous uses, and its effect is due to the chlorine
\n
Used in seed treatment as viricide and bactericide
\n
\n
\n
Sulfur
\n
Used as broad-spectrum inorganic contact fungicide and acaricide
\n
\n
\n
Copper compounds such as: copper hydroxide, copper oxychloride, copper oxide, tribasic copper sulfate, and Bordeaux mixture (copper sulfate and calcium hydroxide)
\n
Used as fungicide and bactericide maximum of 6 kg copper per ha annually
\n
\n
\n
Sheep fat (obtained from fatty sheep tissues by heat extraction and mixed with water to obtain an oily water emulsion)
\n
A triglyceride consisting predominantly of glycerine esters of palmitic acid, stearic acid, and oleic acid. A repellent by smell against vertebrate pests such as deer and other game animals. It should not be applied to the edible parts of the crop
\n
\n
\n
Quartz sand
\n
Used as repellent against vertebrate pests
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Plant protection products approved by the European Union (EU) for use in organic farming [24].
\n
\n
\n
6. A case study of organic date palms
\n
There are about 100 million date palms in the world mostly distributed in Asia and North Africa, producing 7.78 million ton of dates annually [25]. The international famous date palm cultivars include Medjool, Deglet Noor, Barhee, Halawy, Khalas, and Khadrawy. Organic dates are now produced in many countries around the world including Tunisia, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Sudan, Iran, Algeria, and the USA. Date palm, whether grown conventionally or organically, has numerous pests and diseases including 132 species of arthropod (insects and mites), 52 vertebrate pests (birds, rodents, bats), and 28 non-arthropod pests (slugs and snails, parasitic nematode) [26, 27]. Additionally, more than 16 important fungal, phytoplasma, and unidentified diseases attack the date palm. The major ones include Bayoud, black scorch, Diplodia, Khamedj inflorescence rot, Belaat, graphiola leaf spot, Al-Wijam disease, brittle leaf disease, and Faroun disease [28]. These pests and diseases may cause substantial losses in date palm groves if left unmanaged. Therefore, a well-planned and supervised pest management program is important to maintain a sustainable date palm production in organic farming system. Some examples of injuries inflicted by pests on date palm and dates are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
\n
Figure 1.
Symptoms of damage on the fruit bunch stalk (left) due to Oryctes elegans and on the trunk (right) due to Jebusaea hammerschmidti.
\n
Figure 2.
Fatal damage caused by the larvae of the longhorn beetle Jebusaea hammerschmidti on the apical meristem (Goumara) of a date palm.
\n
Date palm pests of economic important in organic farming could be prevented through an IPM program comprising the following components: selection of planning materials, pest monitoring, cultural management, and conservation of natural enemies of pests.
\n
\n
6.1 Selection of planning materials
\n
To a healthy vigorous palm that yield good quality date fruits, one should start with good planting materials whether tissue culture seedlings, offshoots, or mature palms. Planting materials should be adapted to the area where to be grown, in addition of being healthy and free from pests and diseases. Such planting materials should be obtained from nurseries certified for organic date palm production, where strict quarantine measures and protocols are applied. Many serious pests and diseases of date palm including the invasive red palm weevil spread rapidly through movement of infested planting materials [29]. Dubas bug, scale insects, longhorn beetle, and rhinoceros beetle also invade new areas through transportation of infested offshoots and mature palms (Figure 3). Thus, application of preventive and protective controls through strict implementation of agricultural quarantine controls, as well as non-trading of any offshoots or infected palms, are essential for the establishment of new date palm plantation.
\n
Figure 3.
Many important pests and diseases of date palm can be introduced into new areas through transporting unhealthy planting materials.
\n
\n
6.1.1 Characteristics of a good date palm offshoot
\n
\n
Make sure that the offshoot belongs to the cultivar that is intended to be grown. Selection should be made during harvesting time of the mother palm, because it is easy to identify the date palm cultivar from the characteristics of its fruit.
The offshoot should be 3–4 years old, with length of approximately 1–1.5 m and diameter of 25–35 cm with an average weight of 20–30 kg.
The offshoot should contain numerous undamaged roots.
The offshoot should be free of insect pests and diseases.
The offshoot should be mature and hence will have a better chance of survival after transplanting. Bearing fruits and having daughter offshoots indicate the maturity of the offshoot.
Care must be taken not to wound the offshoot during detachment from the mother palm, as the wounds would predispose the offshoot for bacterial and fungal diseases, as well as for opportunistic insect pests such as the dynastic beetles, termites, and red palm weevil.
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
6.2 Pest monitoring and mass trapping
\n
Monitoring of major date palm pests is essential for decision-making such as determination of economic threshold that largely help in starting control actions and avoidance of routine preventive treatments. Pheromone trapping could be used to determine population cycles and prediction of pest outbreaks. Pheromones can also be employed in mating disruption, attack and kill, and male inhalation techniques to reduce pest populations [30]. The same devices of pheromone and light traps can also be used for mass trapping of adult insect pests, particularly gravid females that lead to drastic reduction in pest population (Figure 4) [31].
\n
Figure 4.
Solar light trap (top left), pheromone-baited trap (top right), adult borers collected by the light trap (bottom right), and adult of red palm weevils mass trapped through pheromone trap (bottom right).
\n
\n
\n
6.3 Cultural management
\n
Services of date palm that are important in the management of pests and diseases include irrigation management, field sanitation, removal of weeds, organic fertilization, old frond pruning, frond base cutting, offshoots removal, pollination, fruit thinning, spines removal, fruit bagging, and harvesting. Each one of the abovementioned operations is carried out at specific time of the year with specific purpose; however, each operation can control palm pests and diseases in one way or another. Thus, adoption of date palm calendar for each locality will provide control of date palm pests and diseases.
\n
\n
6.3.1 Organic fertilization and irrigation (soil condition)
\n
Management of irrigation to avoid conditions that are congenial to the development of pests and diseases (e.g., red palm weevil) is an important soil conditioning practice in organic farming. Another important practice is maintaining soil health and nutrients to increase palm immunity against pests’ attack, such as the longhorn beetle, which is known to inflict serious damage on weak unattended undernourished date palms. Healthy palms with balanced nutrients and irrigation withstand attack by this opportunistic insect pest. High humidity, which is conducive to the buildup of Dubas, is expected to prevail in densely planted orchards. High soil moisture (flood irrigation and basin irrigation) increases the infestation by the red palm weevil in date palm groves [32]. Care has to be taken when applying organic manure to newly transplanted date palm offshoots, because it may contain eggs and different stages of the rhinoceros beetles, which are considered serious pests of date palm. However, the organic manure can be disinfested from these grubs and other insect pests using physical methods or chemicals permitted in organic farming system. In this respect, the farm wastes including eradicated palms can be pulverized and used for production of compost (Figure 5). Organic fertilizers are added to date palm during the end of October–December. This is to promote date palm growth and increase its immunity against pests and diseases. About 5–50 kg of organic fertilizer is required per palm, depending on age.
\n
Figure 5.
Shredding machine for pulverizing date palms severely infested by the red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus.
\n
\n
\n
6.3.2 Palm spacing
\n
Well-spaced date palms (8 × 8 m) have no problem of dub bug insect which represents a real problem in narrowly spaced plantations [33]. Densely spaced palms facilitate the spread of crawling mites and scale insects from one palm to another. Sallam et al. [32] reported high incidence of red palm weevil infestation in closely spaced date palms. He attributed the high infestation to the high in-grove humidity caused by densely planted farms.
\n
\n
\n
6.3.3 Pruning of date palm
\n
Pruning is the most important practice that contributes significantly in management of pests and diseases, and it includes the removal of old dry fronds (leaves), offshoots, aerial offshoots, fibers, and spines (Figure 6). Frond removal has two parts: cutting of fronds from the lower whorls of the canopy (Tagleem) and cutting the rachis base (petioles) 1–2 years after frond cutting (Takreeb) [34, 35]. The advantages of frond pruning are listed below:
Facilitates climbing of the date palm by the farmers.
Reduces fire hazards in date palm plantations, particularly during dry seasons.
Improves aeration around the palm trunk and thus reduces humidity and discourage hiding and oviposition by trunk borers.
Reduces transpiration rate of newly transplanted palms and hence increases the chance of palm survival.
Reduces hiding places for unwanted arthropods such as cockroaches, scorpions and non-arthropods such as snail, slugs, as well as vertebrate pests (birds and rats)
Facilitates handpicking of large-sized grubs and adults of trunk borers.
\n\n
Figure 6.
Pruned palm trunk showing cut frond (A), fibers (B), and cut frond base or petiole pruning (C).
\n
The following precautions are recommended to be taken during pruning process:
Prune only fronds after 3–7 years (old dry fronds) on only palms that are 7 years old or above.
Curry out pruning during December–January, when temperatures are low to avoid infestation by the red palm weevil where activity of the weevils is at the lowest level.
Treatment of wounds and pruned surfaces immediately with bee wax or any other substance allowed in organic farming to obscure the kairomones (odor emitted by the palm) which attract the red palm weevil and other palm pests.
Avoidance of palm overpruning as fronds protects the palm’s heart from excessive heat as well as from cold during winter.
Cutting frond base should be inclined outward with downsloping 45° to avoid accumulation of rainwater in the area between the base of the frond and trunk.
Disinfection of pruning equipment such as saws, sheers, and sickles to avoid the spread of fungal diseases such as black scorch and Fusarium wilts.
\n\n
It has been stated that tillage practices and leaf pruning had the greatest effect in reducing termite, long antennae, and horned beetles, respectively. On the other hand, sucker removal operations had the greatest effect in reducing the severity of injuries of horned and long antennae beetles in date palm trees [15]. In addition, larvae of long antennae beetles can complete overwintering in the petioles of damaged leaves. Therefore, pruning the dry, damaged, and old leaves can reduce the severity of injuries of borer pests. Termites attack the dry and damaged parts of date palm tree, so pruning the petiole is very effective in reducing nutrient availability, population growth, and severity of injury [15].
\n
\n
\n
6.3.4 Pollination, fruit, and bunch thinning
\n
For good quality date fruits, pollen grain should be obtained from certified bodies to be sure that they are free of pests and diseases such as the inflorescence beetle Macrocoma sp. and the fungal pathogen Mauginiella scaettae and Thielaviopsis paradoxa, which cause Khamedj inflorescence rot and black scorch diseases, respectively [36]. In this respect, the author stated that extracting pollen and mixing with talc/flour or with water for mechanical pollination proved to be cost-effective and more efficient in prevention of inflorescence pests and disease than traditional pollination methods.
\n
Fruit thinning has two types: strand thinning either made by cutting the end of the strands or removal 30% of the strands from the center of the spathes [35]. It is carried out in February–March 2–3 days after female spathes opening and before pollination. Bunch thinning, on the other hand, involves the removal of the whole bunch and is usually done after pollination. It is carried out in a way that 6–8 bunches are left in each mature date palm. The number of bunches per palm should corresponds to the number of green functioning fronds, i.e., 9–12 green fronds per bunch to ensure high yield of date fruits with high quality [35]. The bunch thinning should be made even on all sides of the palm taking into account the distribution of bunch loads. This is essential to avoid curving of palm head as the case with the cultivar Barhi. Weak infested or infected bunches with undersized fruits and incomplete pollination should be removed first during thinning process. Latifian [37] reported that bunch pruning helped in decreasing the lesser moth, Batrachedra amydraula infestation.
\n
\n
\n
6.3.5 Fruit bunch bagging, harvesting, and sorting
\n
The use of insect-proof fruit bunch covers, made of woven monofilament polyethylene yarn (40 mesh), excludes all insect pests including beetles, ants, flies, rats, and birds (Figure 7). These bags are more expensive than the loose net bags. Bunch covering and bunch-remained pruning had suitable effects in decreasing the date spider mite, Oligonychus afrasiaticus, raisin moth Cadra figulilella, and the lesser date moth, Batrachedra amydraula infestation [38, 39]. Early harvesting of cultivars such as Barhee, Deglet Noor, and Medjool provides satisfactory control against ripening dates including date moth, raisin moth, carob moth, greater date moth, and sap beetles [40, 41]. Fruit bagging and early harvesting provide effective control against fruit depredation by frugivorous birds [42]. Culling of infected/infested date fruit during harvesting and field drying is considered as an important step in the management of pests and diseases during transit and storage [36].
\n
Figure 7.
The white-eared bulbul Pycnonotus leucotis (top), damage on dates due to bulbul (bottom left), and bunch covering to control birds (bottom right).
\n
\n
\n
6.3.6 Phytosanitation in date palm groves
\n
Both field and palm sanitation can have a profound effect in reducing the population of pests and diseases of date palm. The removal of fallen date fruits on the basin of the palm and in the leaf axil of unpruned palms helps provide control for the nitidulid beetles, lesser date moth, and other insect pests [40]. The fallen fruits provide suitable breeding site for these insect pests as well as for rats and birds. Thus, all dried litter around palms should be carefully removed. In organic farms, grazing animals such as goats, horses, and donkeys may be used to clean weeds, fallen fruits, and other farm wastes [40]. Neglected date palm farms represent suitable breeding sites for serious date palm pests including the red palm weevils, longhorn beetle, and rhinoceros beetle [29, 35]; thus, infested old neglected palms should be eradicated.
\n
\n
\n
\n
6.4 Conservation and enhancement of natural enemies of pests
\n
The date palm agroecosystem comprises diverse groups of natural enemies including insect predators, parasitoids, spiders, predatory mites, birds, entomopathogenic nematodes, and microorganisms. In this respect, El-Shafie et al. [26] listed 90 species of predators and parasitoids from 9 orders and 23 families. Out of the listed species, the most important are the general predator Chrysoperla carnea and the braconid wasp Bracon spp. that is highly associated with the date moth Cadra cautella. Predatory mites from the family Phytoseiidae such as Phytoseiulus persimilis and Neoseiulus sp. and Trichogramma parasitoids are common. Al-Khatri [43] reported more than 70% parasitism of Dubas bug in Oman by the specialist egg parasitoid, Pseudoligosita babylonica. He also mentioned other species of Dubas natural enemies including the hymenopterous Bocchus hyalinus, Aprostocetus sp., and Aphanogmus sp. as well as the coccinellid Cheliomenes sexmaculata.
\n
Several measures taken in date palm plantation can enhance survival and biodiversity of natural enemies. For example, the exclusion of synthetic pesticides by rules of organic farming is the cornerstone in conservation of natural enemies of pests. Intercropping of date palm with annual plants may avail new habitats for predators of pest such as the lacewing. Soils with high population of diversified beneficial organisms such as ground beetles (carabids) and earwigs, which are commonly to be encountered in the date palm agroecosystem (El-Shafie, unpublished data), are expected to maintain low levels of harmful pests. On the other hand, cultural control techniques create a balance between pests and their natural enemies, and they are more effective in the prevention of outbreaks of date palm borer pests [15]. The growing of hedgerows, strip crops, and windbreaks provides suitable habitats and source of pollen and nectar for beneficial organisms [3, 16]. Provision of nesting boxes for owls in date palm groves has a noticeable reduction in the population of field rats [27]. In addition to the abovementioned measures to conserve natural enemies, repeated release of purchased predators and parasitoids can maintain their numbers, which cause substantial reduction in pest populations. In this context, Ali and Hama [33] reported that the release of Trichogramma sp. twice a year at a rate of 300–500 individuals/palm contributed significantly in the integrated management of the lesser date moth, C. cautella.
\n
\n
\n
6.5 Synopsis
\n
The major date palm pests and diseases prevailing in organic date palm plantation, which cause economic damage, are listed in Table 3, with possible measures to control them.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Pest
\n
Time of appearance
\n
Possible control measures
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus\n
\n
All the year round with adult peaks in March–May and October–November
\n
Pheromone trapping of adults, removal and destruction of infested palm, strict quarantine measures to prevent entry of the weevil in date grooves, application of azadirachtin, the Beauveria bassiana, and other biological control agents
Keeping palm healthy palms, removal of dry fronds and litters from around palm basin, application of azadirachtin as curative measures
\n
\n
\n
Green pit scale insect (Palmaspis phoenicis) and white scale (Parlatoria blanchardi)
\n
All the year round
\n
Pruning and removal of infested fronds, adequate fertilization and irrigation, application of mineral oils (96%) at a rate of 10/1000 liters of water, application of azadirachtin
\n
\n
\n
Weeds
\n
All the year round
\n
Mechanical weeding, grazing by farm animals, use of covers to smother weeds
\n
\n
\n
Rodents
\n
All the year round
\n
Use of mechanical traps, provision of nesting sites for predatory birds, such as owls, that can effectively control rodents in date palm grooves
Use of uninfested pollen, dusting with microfine sulfur at a rate of 50 g/ palm
\n
\n
\n
Bayoud disease, Fusarium wilt caused by F. oxysporum f. sp. albedinis\n
\n
All the year round
\n
Cultivation of resistant date palms, removal and incineration of infested palms, avoidance of the spread of the disease pathogen through irrigation, use of organic fertilizer rich in chitin to enhance the development of actinomycetes which antagonize the pathogen
\n
\n
\n
Inflorescence rot (Khamedj disease) caused by Mauginiella scaettae\n
\n
February–March
\n
Avoid the use of infected pollen, treatment of the palm with Bordeaux mixture (0.3–0.5%) after harvest and before inflorescence of the next year as preventive measures Treatment (dusting) with microfine sulfur at a rate of 50 g/palm
\n
\n
\n
Black scorch disease caused by Thielaviopsis paradoxa\n
\n
All the year round
\n
Avoid making wound on the palm, sanitation measures such as removal and destruction of badly infected palms, application of Bordeaux mixture, and use of microfine sulfur (80%) at a rate of 2.5 g/1000 liters of water after harvest
\n
\n
\n
\nDiplodia disease (basal leaf rot) caused by the fungus Diplodia phoenicum\n
\n
All the year round
\n
Use of healthy uninfected offshoots, avoidance of making wounds in palms, disinfection of pruning equipment, application of copper sulfate or copper carbonate
\n
\n
\n
Lesser date moth (Humeira) (Batrachedra amydraula Meyer)
\n
February–March
\n
Field sanitation including removal of fallen fruits, use of pheromone or light traps, use of Bacillus thuringiensis, biological control using egg parasitoid Trichogramma and the larval parasitoid Bracon sp.
\n
\n
\n
The old world dust mite (Oligonychus afrasiaticus)
\n
April–July
\n
Removal of weeds around palms, which may act as alternative host for the mite, use of windbreak to reduce dust storms, spraying, bunches with a strong stream of water to dislodge mites and destroy webbing; use of predatory mites and coccinellids, dusting bunches with sulfur
\n
\n
\n
The longhorn beetle (Jebusaea hammerschmidti), the bunch borers (Oryctes agamemnon arabicus, Oryctes elegans), and the frond borer (Phonopate frontalis)
\n
April–July Larvae of the longhorn beetle are found inside the palm all year round
\n
Pruning of old dry fronds, avoid using uncured farm manure as organic fertilizer, handpicking of larvae during frond base cutting, light trapping of adult beetles, maintaining healthy palms, application of the fungi Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, and the entomopathogenic nematode Rhabditis blumi\n
\n
\n
\n
Date palm Dubas bug (Ommatissus lybicus)
\n
March–April September–October
\n
Pruning of infested lower fronds to remove Dubas eggs, spraying with azadirachtin (2–3 ml/per liter of water), application of agricultural soaps, biological control with fungi such as Beauveria and the egg parasitoid Oligosita sp.
\n
\n
\n
Fruit rots
\n
June–July
\n
Bunch covering and avoidance of fruit injuries by insects and birds
\n
\n
\n
Birds
\n
July–October
\n
Covering of bunches during Khalal stage with bird-proof nets
\n
\n
\n
Pests of stored dates
\n
September–November
\n
Bunch bagging to exclude pests that start infestation in the field, sanitation and disinfestation storehouses before use, freezing dates at −18°C
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Calendar of major pests and diseases in organically grown date palms and their management in the Gulf region.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Impact of pest management in organic farming on the environment
\n
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, pest management in organic farming depends mainly on crop husbandry and biological control. The prohibition of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides leads to conservation of natural enemies including predators and parasitoids. The absence of harmful pesticides also increases diversity of pollinators of crops and minimizes pesticide residues in food products [13, 16, 19]. The community of microorganisms flourishes well in organically managed farms leading to increased organic matter decomposition, soil fertility, and sustainability of the ecosystem. Organic farming enhances the biodiversity of the ecosystem through multicropping and growing of hedges and refuges for beneficial insects as well as wildlife [3]. Preserving biodiversity contributes much in reducing the initial invasion and subsequent establishment of organic farms by pests and diseases [3, 8, 9, 44].
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusions
\n
Crop protection in organic farming is more preventive than curative. Thus, husbandry practices such as crop rotation, fertilization, cultivation, use of resistant varieties, and preservation of natural enemies play an essential role in pest management. Plant protection products (PPPs) permitted in organic farming should only be used when cultural and biological controls fail to suppress pest populations below economic damage levels. Floral and faunal diversities represent the cornerstone in the strategy of managing pests and diseases under organic production system. Crop protection program in organic farming needs to be documented to allow inspectors to file their reports, which are essential for the certification process. The documents needed are a well-written plan, copies of scouting records and protocols used in monitoring of different pests, and provision of pest management guidelines, according to the organic standards, if available. For optimizing pest management tactics in organic farming, future research priorities and recommendations would include:
Long-term ecological studies on ecosystem biodiversity to elucidate its potential role in pest management
Testing more plant protection products including plant extracts and microbial preparations for use in pest population suppression
Exploitation of inherited resistance in different crops against plant herbivores
Strengthening participatory research approach with organic farmers and encouraging citizen science to optimize existing practices and develop new techniques
\n\n
\n\n',keywords:"organic farming, holistic approach, biopesticides, pest management",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65591.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65591.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65591",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65591",totalDownloads:2600,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"September 20th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 17th 2019",datePrePublished:"March 15th 2019",datePublished:"July 22nd 2020",dateFinished:"February 11th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Due to the regulations of organic farming, few options remain for organic farmers to manage pests and diseases in their crops compared to conventional farming. However, major pests could still be managed through manipulation of the agroecosystem processes in advantage of the crops and disadvantage of pests. The limited number of active plant protection substances authorized for use in organic farming can provide support to natural and biological control agents in suppression of pests and diseases. This chapter highlights the principles and strategies of crop protection in organic farming, the cultural practices adopted, the active substances allowed for use to suppress pests, and the impacts on faunal and floral biodiversity. A case study of organic date palm cultivation is discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65591",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65591",signatures:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",book:{id:"6988",type:"book",title:"Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture",slug:"multifunctionality-and-impacts-of-organic-and-conventional-agriculture",publishedDate:"July 22nd 2020",bookSignature:"Jan Moudrý, Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Jaroslav Bernas, Rafael da Silva Teixeira and Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6988.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-932-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-931-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-073-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"170254",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Moudrý",slug:"jan-moudry",fullName:"Jan Moudrý"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-el-shafie",email:"elshafie62@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192142/images/system/192142.jpg",institution:{name:"King Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Principles and strategies of crop protection in organic farming system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Differences between organic and conventional farming with respect to plant protection",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Crop protection practices in organic farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Identification and monitoring of crop pests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Tactics used for pest prevention and suppression in organic farming",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"4.2.1 Cultural pest control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.2.2 Mechanical and physical pest control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.2.3 Biological pest control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.2.4 Biopesticide control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Plant protection products (PPPs) authorized in organic farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. A case study of organic date palms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.1 Selection of planning materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"6.1.1 Characteristics of a good date palm offshoot",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.2 Pest monitoring and mass trapping",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.3 Cultural management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"6.3.1 Organic fertilization and irrigation (soil condition)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"6.3.2 Palm spacing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"6.3.3 Pruning of date palm",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"6.3.4 Pollination, fruit, and bunch thinning",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"6.3.5 Fruit bunch bagging, harvesting, and sorting",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"6.3.6 Phytosanitation in date palm groves",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"6.4 Conservation and enhancement of natural enemies of pests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"6.5 Synopsis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25",title:"7. Impact of pest management in organic farming on the environment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nIFOAM (International Movement of Organic Agriculture Movements), 2018. Definition of Organic Agriculture. Available from: https://www.ifoam.bio/en/organic-landmarks/definition-organic-agriculture [Accessed: 20 October 2018]\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nHole DG, Perkins AJ, Wilson JD, Alexander IH, Grice PV, Evan AD. Does organic farming benefit biodiversity? Biological Conservation. 2005;122:113-130\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nGomiero T, Pimentel D, Paoletti MG. Environmental impact of different agricultural management practices: Conventional vs. organic agriculture. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 2011;30:95-124\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nHenning J, Baker L, Thomassin PJ. Economics issues in organic agriculture. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics. 1991;39:877-889\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nHonek A. The effect of plant cover and weather on the activity density of ground surface arthropods in fallow field. Entomological Research in Organic Agriculture. 1997;15:203-210\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nEdwards-Jones G, Howells O. The origin and hazard of inputs to crop protection in organic farming systems: Are they sustainable? Agricultural Systems. 2001;67:31-47\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nDrinkwater LE, Letourneau DK, Workneh F, van Bruggen AHC, Shennan C. Fundamental differences between conventional and organic tomato agroecosystem in California. Ecological Applications. 1995;5:1098-1112\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nWesterman PS, Wes JS, Kropff MJ, van der Werf W. Annual losses of weed seeds due to predation in organic cereal fields. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2003;40:824-836\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nHajjar R, Jarvis DI, Gemmill-Herren B. The utility of crop genetic diversity in maintaining ecosystem services. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 2008;123:261-270\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nLetourneau DK, Goldstein B. Pest damage and arthropod community structure in organic vs. conventional tomato production in California. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2001;38:557-570\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nVan Bruggen AHC. Plant disease severity in high-input compared to reduced input and organic farming systems. Plant Disease. 1995;79:976-984\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nTheunissen J. Application of intercropping in organic agriculture. Entomological Research in Organic Agriculture. 1997;12:251-259\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nMatyjaszczyk E. Prevention methods for pest control and their use in Poland. Pest Management Science. 2015;71:485-491\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nNicholas JM. Biological and cultural controls. Non-pesticide alternatives can suppress crop pests. California Agriculture. 2005;59:23-28\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nLatifian M, Rad B. Efficacy of cultural control for date palm borer management. Indian Journal of Plant Protection. 2017;45(1):7-11\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nJervis MA, Kidd NAC. Host-feeding strategies in hymenopteran parasitoids. Biological Reviews. 1986;61:395-434\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nHill DS. Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and their Control. The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media, B. V; 2008. p. 704\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nReilly D, Reilly A. Cultivation, chronicle of a new date palm grower. Development of a date industry in Australia. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture. 2014;26(11):1000-1013\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nStern VM, Smith RF, van den Bosch R, Hagen KS. The integrated control concept. Hilgardia. 1959;29:81-101\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nOlson S. An analysis of the biopesticides market now and where it is going. Outlooks on Pest Management. 2015;26(5):203-206\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nMatyjaszczyk E. Plant protection means used in organic farming throughout the European Union. Pest Management Science. 2018;74:505-510\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nBozsik A. Studies on aphicidal efficiency of different stinging nettle extracts. Anzeiger für Schädlingskunde Pflanzenschutz Umweltschutz. 1996;69:21-22\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nMarchand PA. Basic substances: An opportunity for approval of low-concern substances under EU pesticide regulation. Pest Management Science. 2015;71:1197-1200\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nCommission Regulation (EC) No 889/2008 of 5 September 2008 laying down detailed rules for the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 on organic production and labelling of organic products with regard to organic production, labelling and control Official Journal of European Union L 250; 2008. 51. 1-84\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nFAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). Crop production and trade data, food and agriculture organization of the United Nations; 2015. Available from: http://faostat3.fao.org [Accessed: 21 November 2018]\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF, Abdel-Banat BMA, Al-Hajhoj MR. Arthropod pests of date palm and their management. CAB Reviews. 2017;12:049. DOI: 10.10.1079/PAVSNNR201712049\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF, Abdel-Banat BMA. Non-arthropod pests of date palm and their management. CAB Reviews. 2018:13, 020\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nSedra MYH. Management of diseases of date palm. In: El-Bouhssini M, Faleiro JR, editors. Date Palm Pests and Diseases Integrated Management Guide. Beirut, Lebanon: International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA); 2018. pp. 105-159\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nFaleiro JR. A review of the issues and management of the red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Rhynchophoridae) in coconut and date palm during the last one hundred years. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science. 2006;26:135-150\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF, Faleiro JR. Semiochemicals and their potential use in pest management. In: VDC S, editor. Biological Control of Pest and Vector Insects. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech Publisher; 2017. pp. 3-22\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF, Faleiro JR. Optimizing components of Pheromone-baited trap for the management of Red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in date palm agro-ecosystem. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection. 2017;124(3):279-287\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nSallam AA, Elshafie HAF, Al-Abdan S. Influence of farming practices on infestation by red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) in date palm: A case study. International Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Soil Science. 2012;2(8):370-376\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nAli AAS, Hama NN. Integrated management for major date palm pests in Iraq. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture. 2016;28(1):24-33\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nNixon RW, Wedding RT. Age of date leaves in relation to efficiency of photosynthesis. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 1956;67:265-269\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nAl Mashhadani ASS. The calendar of the date palm care in Abu Dhabi Emirate. In: Fifth International Date Palm Conference. Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; 2014, 2014. pp. 1-14\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nBen SM. Field observations in date palm and their importance for reducing pest infestation. In: El-Bouhssini M, Faleiro JR, editors. Date Palm Pests and Diseases Integrated Management Guide. Beirut, Lebanon: International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA); 2018. pp. 161-171\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nLatifian M. The effects of cultural management on the lesser date moth (Batrachedra amydraula Myer) infestation. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture. 2012;24:224-229\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nKehat M, Blumberg D, Greenberg S. Experiments on the control of the raisin moth, Cadra figulilella Gregs. (Phycitidae, Pyralidae), on dates in Israel. Israel Journal of Agricultural Research. 1969;19:121-128\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nLatifian M, Rahnama AA, Amani M. The effects of cultural management on the Date spider mite (Oligonychus afrasiaticus McG) infestation. International Journal of Farming and Allied Sciences. 2014;3:1009-1014\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nBlumberg D. Review: Date palm arthropod pests and their management in Israel. Phytoparasitica. 2008;36:411-448\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF. Alternatives to methyl bromide for disinfesting date moth, Cadra cautella, in stored dates. Outlooks on Pest Management. 2017;28(1):17-20\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF, Abdel-Banat BMA. The frugivorous white-eared bulbul bird, Pycnonotus leucotis depredating date fruits: Biology, feeding ecology and management. Outlooks on Pest Management. 2018;29(4):153-157\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nAl-Khatri SAH. IPM of dubas bug. In: El-Bouhssini M, Faleiro JR, editors. Date Palm Pests and Diseases Integrated Management Guide. Beirut, Lebanon: International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA); 2018. pp. 68-75\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nPeterson G, Allen CR, Holling CS. Ecological resilience, biodiversity, and scale. Ecosystems. 1998;1:6-18\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",address:"elshafie62@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia
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The first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
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The applications can be divided into the following two main categories: applications in the network performance and those in the energy efficiency. The game theory is widely used to regulate the behavior of the users; therefore, the cooperation among the nodes can be achieved and the network performance can be improved when the game theory is utilized. On the other hand, the game theory is also adopted to control the media access control protocol or routing protocol; therefore, the energy exhaust owing to the data collision and long route can be reduced and the energy efficiency can be improved greatly. In this chapter, the applications in the network performance and the energy efficiency are reviewed. The state of the art in the applications of the game theory in wireless networks is pointed out. Finally, the future research direction of the game theory in the energy harvesting wireless sensor network is presented.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Deyu Lin, Quan Wang and Pengfei Yang",authors:[{id:"258432",title:"Dr.",name:"Deyu",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"deyu-lin",fullName:"Deyu Lin"},{id:"259049",title:"Prof.",name:"Quan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"quan-wang",fullName:"Quan Wang"},{id:"261098",title:"Dr.",name:"Pengfei",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"pengfei-yang",fullName:"Pengfei Yang"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"43920",title:"Models for Highway Cost Allocation",slug:"models-for-highway-cost-allocation",totalDownloads:3474,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"2169",slug:"game-theory-relaunched",title:"Game Theory Relaunched",fullTitle:"Game Theory Relaunched"},signatures:"Alberto Garcia-Diaz and Dong-Ju Lee",authors:[{id:"146465",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia-Diaz",slug:"alberto-garcia-diaz",fullName:"Alberto Garcia-Diaz"},{id:"147887",title:"Prof.",name:"DongJu",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"dongju-lee",fullName:"DongJu Lee"}]},{id:"60490",title:"Stochastic Leader-Follower Differential Game with Asymmetric Information",slug:"stochastic-leader-follower-differential-game-with-asymmetric-information",totalDownloads:869,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we discuss a leader-follower (also called Stackelberg) stochastic differential game with asymmetric information. Here the word “asymmetric” means that the available information of the follower is some sub-\n\nσ\n\n-algebra of that available to the leader, though they play as different roles in the classical literatures. Stackelberg equilibrium is represented by the stochastic versions of Pontryagin’s maximum principle and verification theorem with partial information. A linear-quadratic (LQ) leader-follower stochastic differential game with asymmetric information is studied as applications. If some system of Riccati equations is solvable, the Stackelberg equilibrium admits a state feedback representation.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Jingtao Shi",authors:[{id:"147959",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingtao",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",slug:"jingtao-shi",fullName:"Jingtao Shi"}]},{id:"62516",title:"The Game Theory: Applications in the Wireless Networks",slug:"the-game-theory-applications-in-the-wireless-networks",totalDownloads:1444,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Recent years have witnessed a lot of applications in the computer science, especially in the area of the wireless networks. The applications can be divided into the following two main categories: applications in the network performance and those in the energy efficiency. The game theory is widely used to regulate the behavior of the users; therefore, the cooperation among the nodes can be achieved and the network performance can be improved when the game theory is utilized. On the other hand, the game theory is also adopted to control the media access control protocol or routing protocol; therefore, the energy exhaust owing to the data collision and long route can be reduced and the energy efficiency can be improved greatly. In this chapter, the applications in the network performance and the energy efficiency are reviewed. The state of the art in the applications of the game theory in wireless networks is pointed out. Finally, the future research direction of the game theory in the energy harvesting wireless sensor network is presented.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Deyu Lin, Quan Wang and Pengfei Yang",authors:[{id:"258432",title:"Dr.",name:"Deyu",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"deyu-lin",fullName:"Deyu Lin"},{id:"259049",title:"Prof.",name:"Quan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"quan-wang",fullName:"Quan Wang"},{id:"261098",title:"Dr.",name:"Pengfei",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"pengfei-yang",fullName:"Pengfei Yang"}]},{id:"63373",title:"Infinite Supermodularity and Preferences",slug:"infinite-supermodularity-and-preferences",totalDownloads:967,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter studies the ordinal content of supermodularity on lattices. This chapter is a generalization of the famous study of binary relations over finite Boolean algebras obtained by Wong, Yao and Lingras. We study the implications of various types of supermodularity for preferences over finite lattices. We prove that preferences on a finite lattice merely respecting the lattice order cannot disentangle these usual economic assumptions of supermodularity and infinite supermodularity. More precisely, the existence of a supermodular representation is equivalent to the existence of an infinitely supermodular representation. In addition, the strict increasingness of a complete preorder on a finite lattice is equivalent to the existence of a strictly increasing and infinitely supermodular representation. For wide classes of binary relations, the ordinal contents of quasisupermodularity, supermodularity and infinite supermodularity are exactly the same. In the end, we extend our results from finite lattices to infinite lattices.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Alain Chateauneuf, Vassili Vergopoulos and Jianbo Zhang",authors:[{id:"248905",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianbo",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"jianbo-zhang",fullName:"Jianbo Zhang"},{id:"248908",title:"Prof.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Chateauneuf",slug:"alain-chateauneuf",fullName:"Alain Chateauneuf"},{id:"248910",title:"Dr.",name:"Vassili",middleName:null,surname:"Vergopoulos",slug:"vassili-vergopoulos",fullName:"Vassili Vergopoulos"}]},{id:"60809",title:"Game Theory Application in Smart Energy Logistics and Economy",slug:"game-theory-application-in-smart-energy-logistics-and-economy",totalDownloads:1012,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In many parts of the world, energy sectors are transformed from conventional to the smart deregulated market structures. In such smart deregulated market environment, cooperative game theory can play a vital role for analyzing various smart deregulated market problems. As an optimization tool, cooperative game theory is very useful in smart energy logistics and economy analysis problem. The economy associated with smart deregulated structure can be better optimized and allocated with the help of cooperative game theory. Initially, due to regulated structure, there is no cooperation between different entities of energy sector. But after new market structure, all the entities are free to take their own decisions as an independent entity. Transmission open access of energy logistics is also comes into the picture, as all the generators and demands have the same right to access the transmission system. In this market situation, multiple utilities are using the same energy logistic network. This situation can be formulated as a cooperative game in which generators and demands are represented by players. This chapter deals with energy logistic cost allocation problems for a smart deregulated energy market. It is cooperative in nature as all the agents are using the same energy logistic network.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Baseem Khan",authors:[{id:"240063",title:"Dr.",name:"Baseem",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"baseem-khan",fullName:"Baseem Khan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"468",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. 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She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. 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After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral health, Dental care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic imaging, Early diagnosis, Oral cancer, Conservative treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive dental care, Complementary therapies, Holistic health",scope:"
\r\n This topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
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Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). 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\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
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\r\n\tThe Business and Management series topic focuses on the most pressing issues confronting organizations today and in the future. Businesses are trying to figure out how to lead in a time of global uncertainty. In emerging markets, issues such as ill-defined or unstable policies, as well as corrupt practices, can be hugely problematic. Changes in governments can result in new policy, regulations, and interest rates, all of which can be detrimental to foreign businesses and investments. A growing trend towards economic nationalism also makes the current global political landscape potentially hostile towards international businesses.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe demographic shifts are creating interesting challenges. People are living longer, resulting to an aging demographic. We have a large population of older workers and retirees who are living longer lives, combined with a declining birthrate in most parts of the world. Businesses of all types are looking at how technology is affecting their operations. Several questions arise, such as: How is technology changing what we do? How is it transforming us internally, how is it influencing our clients and our business strategy? It is about leveraging technology to improve efficiency, connect with customers more effectively, and drive innovation. The majority of innovative companies are technology-driven businesses. Realizing digital transformation is today’s top issue and will remain so for the next five years. Improving organizational agility, expanding portfolios of products and services, creating, and maintaining a culture of innovation, and developing next -generation leaders were also identified as top challenges in terms of both current and future issues.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe most sustained profitable growth occurs when a company expands its core business into an adjacent space. This has significant implications for management because innovation in business ecosystems differs from traditional, vertically integrated firms. Every organization in the ecosystem must be aware of the bigger picture. Innovation in ecosystems necessitates collaborative action to invent and appraise, efficient, cross-organizational knowledge flows, modular architectures, and good stewardship of legacy systems. It is built on multiple, interconnected platforms. Environmental factors have already had a significant impact in the West and will continue to have an impact globally. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their daily operations. The advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy. Another significant challenge is preparing the next generation of leaders to elevate this to the number one priority within the next five years. There can be no culture of innovation unless there is diverse leadership or development of the next generation of leaders; and these diverse, next-generation leaders are the ones who will truly understand the digital strategies that will drive digital transformation.
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\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
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\r\n\tMarketing is an important aspect in the functioning of all types of organizations. The external environment is characterized by constant and dynamic changes, that pose risks to the company. It is associated with changes in macroeconomic, political, legal, and demographic, as well as new consumer trends. It is necessary to carefully plan marketing activities in order to provide the market with products that satisfy consumers' needs and desires, provide them with value, and bring satisfaction and contentment. Therefore, in this topic, we focus on overall marketing efforts, including marketing communications through traditional and social media, pricing strategies, distribution strategies, branding, innovation, and new product launches, as well as researching the current market and consumer trends. We also analyze the latest trends and tendencies in marketing, such as product placement and neuromarketing.
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