Known natural secondary metabolites with proven antioxidant activities.
\r\n\t
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Ltd., Atsugi, Japan, Researcher/Senior Researcher, Researches on Semiconductor Quantum Dots for Quantum Information, Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nApril, 2012 – March 2014: University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, Senior Researcher, Researches on Quantum Information Processing Devices. \nApril, 2014 – now: Southwest Institute of Technical Physics, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nJune, 2015 – now: University of Electronic Science and Technology, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Nanoscaled Semiconductors and Quantum Information Processing Devices.\n \nAchievements\nSystematically studied the property of porous silicon materials and verified their mechanism; found green and ultraviolet luminescence, and clarified the multiple luminescence mechanisms of nanocrystalline-silicon embedded in SiO2, which is valuable to silicon-based optoelectronic integration; realized enhanced hole mobility in amorphous silicon, verified the existence of deep trap states in amorphous selenium, providing ways to improve amorphous optoelectronic materials. \nDiscovered lateral coupling between self-assembled quantum dots (QDs) and their tuning effect to 2D electron gas; illustrated and deeply explained the metal-insulator transition in 2D ordered QD arrays, all of which are worth in optoelectronic application of semiconductor QDs. \nDeveloped Sb-free technique to double the InAs/GaAs QD density and suppress the atomic interdiffusion, helped producing 1.3 um QD lasers, which won Japanese national prizes and had been merchandized; developed 1.06 um quantum-well lasers, which have been used to produce pure-green lasers robust against high temperature. \nFound a way to access buried QDs by scanning tunneling microscope; achieved a way to prepare diluted QDs by post-annealing and clarified its mechanisms; invented a technique to control the size and site of QDs by atomic-force microscopy lithography, and an apparatus to detect single electron spin states by optically-detected magnetic resonance; designed a few types of micropillar cavities applicable to realize 1.55 um highly-efficient, even coherent (strongly coupled) InAs/InP QD single photon sources; produced fiber-integrated photon-entangled sources, all of which are very useful to the applications of QDs in quantum information processing. \nDeveloped focal-plane single-photon avalanche detectors, providing central devices for 3D laser detecting and ranging system; explored antimonide middle- and long-wavelength infrared detectors and the surface plasmon enhancement effect in such detectors; advanced the acetone-sensing function of Eu-doped SnO2 nano-belt; found Nickle Phosphide serving as a good catalyst in hydrogen-producing. 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Secondary metabolites differ depending on the plant species. Secondary metabolites are molecules produced by plants that remain unknown in their roles in growth, photosynthesis, reproduction, and other primary processes. Secondary compounds are widely employed in plants, primarily in Asia [1]. Secondary metabolites boost human immunity because pharmaceuticals are mainly based on plant components. Secondary compounds in plants can serve as medicinal for humans [2]. Several criteria have been considered to classify secondary metabolites, including chemical structure, composition, solubility, and biosynthetic pathway [3].
Plants’ most critical secondary metabolites and bioactive chemicals are flavonoids and phenolic acids [4]. They’re also a natural antioxidant capable of scavenging free superoxide radicals, slowing the aging process, and lowering cancer risk. Flavonoids have been shown to reduce blood glucose levels in people. Phenolic acids Flavonoids have been found in several investigations [5]. Phenolic acid is a well-known class of secondary metabolites with a wide range of pharmacological effects. Phenolics are reported for various biological functions. Some of the effects of phenolics include enhancing bile secretion, lowering blood cholesterol and lipid levels, and antibacterial activity against bacteria such as
The phrase “phenolic acids” refers to phenolic compounds that have only one carboxylic acid group [9]. They are found in a different plant-based diet, with the most significant amounts in seeds, fruit skins, and vegetable leaves [10]. Plant phenolic acids are an essential part of the human diet because of their high antioxidant capacity and other health advantages. According to epidemiological studies, a diet with high antioxidant vegetables and fruits lowers the incidence of several oxidative disorders like cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. They also induced protective enzymes that positively affect signaling pathways, indicating indirect antioxidant activity [11]. Phenolic acids influence the action of glucose and insulin receptors. They increase the GLUT2 glucose transporter levels in insulin-producing pancreatic cells and stimulate GLUT4 transportation
Flavonoids are a type of polyphenolic chemical that occurs naturally. It’s one of the most prevalent combinations found in vegetables, fruits, and beverages made from plants. Flavonoids are dietary supplements that promote health and prevent disease. It is now measured as an essential part of a wide range of nutraceutical, pharmacological, medical, and other products [19]. Aside from their antioxidant properties, flavonoids have a wide range of biological activities that contribute to human health [20]. Anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antiviral, anticancer, antidiabetic, and cytotoxic actions are only a few examples. Flavonoids have shown various dietary benefits on antioxidant activity in multiple studies. Flavonoids also protect cell membranes from lipid peroxidation-induced damage. As a result, flavonoids play an essential role as antioxidants in oxidative stress-related illnesses [21]. Inflammatory disorders such as leukemia, asthma, sepsis, atherosclerosis, sclerosis, allergic rhinitis, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ileitis/colitis, and others have been linked to flavonoids. To eradicate foreign pathogens and restore wounded tissues, recruitment of inflammatory cells and release of RNS, ROS, and proinflammatory cytokines. Inflammation is usually quick and self-limiting, but abnormal resolution and protracted inflammation can lead to various chronic diseases [22].
Flavonoids similarly inhibit phosphodiesterases involved in cell activation. According to a different study, flavonoid-rich extracts from plants have antibacterial properties [22]. According to numerous studies, natural flavonoids have been exceptional antiviral action since the 1940s. They aid in the blockage of several enzymes involved in the virus’s life cycle. According to many studies, flavonoids such as hesperetin, quercetin, and naringin have anti-dengue action [23]. Flavonoids have a prominent effect on the immunological implications that occur through the genesis and progression of cancer. They can affect various biological signals in cancer, including vascularization, apoptosis, cell proliferation, and cell differentiation. Flavonoids mainly increase carcinogenicity’s start and promotion stages and influence expansion and hormonal activity [19, 20].
Terpenes are a diverse group of secondary metabolites in plants, with over 40,000 distinct compounds [24]. Terpenes are categorized based on how many isoprene units they contain. Terpenes are combinations of volatile molecules with characteristic odors found in the flowers and fruits of many plants, including mint, lemon, ginger, eucalyptus, and great basil [25]. They have a variety of biological roles and are involved in plant’s metabolism. Terpenes are photosynthetic pigments, electron carriers, plant growth regulators, are part of cell membranes, and participate in protein glycosylation in the central metabolism [24, 26]. They combine as defense chemicals, poisonous substances, and food deterrents in the secondary metabolism of insects [1].
Saponins, glycosides extensively distributed in plants, are a varied group of molecules that includes a triterpenoid or steroidal aglycone with one or more sugar chains [27]. Because their immune-enhancing qualities have been utilized as adjuvants in vaccine formulations since the 1950s [28]. Ginseng dammarane sapogenins’ chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic properties have encouraged the creation of anticancer medicines at various stages of development [29]. Maturation inhibitors are novel HIV medicines researched using betulinic acid derivatives [30]. Inflammation, infection, alcoholism, pre- and postmenopausal symptoms, cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and coronary heart disease, prophylaxis, and dementia, ultraviolet damage including cataract, gastric ulcer, gastritis, and duodenal ulcer have all been treated with saponin-containing pharmaceutical compositions or plant extracts [27, 30, 31]. Saponins have also been patented for use as adjuvants to improve the absorption of bioactive chemicals and medications [32]. Plants that contain saponins, such as yucca, ginseng, chestnut, licorice, and sarsaparilla, have been utilized in traditional medicine for ages to prevent and treat various disorders by numerous cultures [31].
Tannins are phenolic chemicals that are found practically everywhere in plants. Fruit, the bark of trees, wood, and as well as in numerous wild plants and herbs, and forestry and agriculture [33], contain them. Chestnut tannin, is a renowned member of the commercial hydrolyzable tannins family, has been recommended as an antibacterial or a way to reduce mycotoxins [34]. Other uses for tannins, including ellagitannins and gallotannins, include treating bacterial infections, regulating cytotoxins production, antihistamine, antiasthma, and avoiding rhinitis, as well as blocking HIV propagation in human cells [33, 35]. There have also been reports on the usefulness of several tannin-derived chemicals in treating obesity, arteriosclerosis, and thrombosis, decreasing triglycerides, preventing Staphylococcus aureus and other gram-positive bacteria, and leukemia [33]. Patents have also been published on the non-commercial use of tannins to treat cognitive, neurological, and metabolic diseases, diabetes II and obesity, hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia [35].
The word “Lignan” refers to a class of dimeric phenylpropanoids containing two C6-C3 phenylpropanoids are linked by a C8 phenylpropanol. Lignans can be found in over 60 different types of vascular foliage. Lignans are a nonflavonoid polyphenol subclass [38]. They have high functional importance, and eating a diet rich in them can lower your risk of cardiovascular disease. Lignans can be found in barley, flaxseed, wheat bran, almonds, legumes, sesame seeds, fruits, and vegetables. A 12-year study published in 1889 found that those with elevated enterolactone levels had a decreased incidence of heart failure compared with low levels [39]. Clinical trials have demonstrated that adding diets with 30–50 grams of flaxseed per day for 4–12 weeks reduced LDL cholesterol by 8%–14% [40]. Another possible study looked at the influence of dietary lignan on breast cancer risk; women who consumed dietary lignan had a 17% minor risk of breast cancer than those in the lowest quartile [41]. According to the study report, women who consume many dietary lignans have a lower risk of endometrial cancer. Enterodiol and enterolactone have been shown to reduce the risk of hormone-related cancers [42]. Lignans are hypotensive, anticarcinogenic, cardiac-protective, lower cholesterol, and lengthen the food’s time in the stomach [43]. Because lignans have antioxidant properties, they can reduce oxidative stress and reduce the risk of diabetes-I. In type II diabetes, it can also block the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, which activates glucogenesis in the liver [44]. For decades, silymarin has been used to cure liver, spleen, and gallbladder illnesses. Hepatoprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antidiabetic activities are found in silymarin [45].
In the last ten years, at least three decades, hydroxybenzoic acids have been shown to have biological activity among the diversity of natural phenolic acids. Grapefruit, olive oil, and medlar fruit are all sources of 3-hydroxybenzoic acid [46]. It’s a glycosylating enzyme [47]. Carrots, oil palm, grapes, and various other plants have been shown to contain p-hydroxybenzoic acid, including satinwood, peroba, yellow-leaf tree, taheebo, southern catalpa, red sandalwood, chinese chaste tree, betel palm, cuban royal palm, and medlar [46]. Antifungal, antimutagenic, antisickling, estrogenic, and antibacterial properties have been discovered. The freshwater green alga responds to p-Hydroxybenzoic acid by growing faster [48, 49].
Khadem and Marles [46] have summarized the pharmaceutical activities of different hydroxybenzoic acids as mentioned in the following. Pyrocatechuic acid is a radical scavenger, a siderophore, and an antioxidant. Gentisic acid reduces LDL oxidation in humans and is an anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antiarthritic, antirheumatic, and cytostatic drug. Resorcylic acid is a nematicidal substance. For dandruff, ichthyosis, acne, psoriasis, and other skin disorders, salicylic acid has anti-inflammatory, keratolytic, antipyretic, antiseptic, analgesic, and antifungal characteristics. It acts as a hormonal modulator of plant tolerance to disease assaults and environmental stress. 6-Methylsalicylic acid is a toxin found in plants. It works as an antimicrobial and antifeeding agent. Thyroid peroxidase is inhibited by -resorcylic acid. Orsellinic acid has antibacterial properties. Antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antihepatotoxic, antioxidant, cytotoxic, free radical scavenger, apoptotic, chemopreventive, neuroprotective, platelet aggregation inhibitor, and LDL oxidation inhibitor are some of the bioactivities of protocatechuic acid. In addition to its antisickling and anthelmintic properties, vanillic acid has been shown to reduce hepatic fibrosis during liver injury. It’s also reported to be a 5′-nucleotidase inhibitor in snake venom. Antibacterial and antioxidant properties are found in isovanillic acid. Syringic acid possesses antibacterial and hepatoprotective properties in addition to being an antioxidant. Digallic acid is cytotoxic and anti-apoptotic. It has antigenotoxic and antioxidant properties as well. For lower plants, it has growth inhibitory and dormancy-inducing properties. Lunularic acid also exhibits antifungal, antialgicidal, and antihyaluronidase properties. Hydrangeic acid has anti-diabetic properties, lowering blood sugar, triglyceride, and free fatty acid levels. Anacardic acid is effective against the larvae of the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata).
Anti-Helicobacter pylori action has been discovered in an anacardic acid combination. Ginkgolic acid suppresses protein SUMOylation in addition to its anticancer and antitubercular properties. SUMO proteins (small ubiquitin-related modifier proteins) regulate various cellular activities linked to cancer and neurological illnesses. Turgorins are thought to be chemicals that regulate thigmotactic and nyctinastic leaf movement. Current research has discovered that plant hormones do not control nyctinastic leaf movement but rather compounds that differ depending on the plant species. Platensimycin is a gram-positive bacterium (MRSA) inhibitor that inhibits cellular lipid production. Cannabidiolic acid inhibits cyclooxygenase-2 selectively and has antiproliferative properties. Cajaninstilbene acid contains anti-triglyceride and anti-glycemic properties. Cajaninstilbene acid, in addition to being an antioxidant, may be helpful for postmenopausal osteoporosis. It also had impermeability, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic properties [46, 47, 48, 49].
Tallow-tree, the mangosteen related bridelia, garcinia densivenia, sappanwood, cinnabar ebony, elephant-apple, peroba, guava, water-berry, staghorn sumac, tamarisk, grape, witch-hazel, and red toon all contain gallic acid [46]. It’s been used as a styptic and astringent. Gallic acid has antineoplastic and bacteriostatic effects and is antimelanogenic and antioxidant [50]. Evening primrose phenolic fractions containing gallic acid demonstrated antitumor efficacy. It is reported for anticancer effects [51]. Gallic acid is also thought to have the anti-angiogenic properties of sweet leaf tea extract. In the mammalian intestine, gallic acid inhibits sucrase and some disaccharidases. As an anti-HSV-2 agent, Gallic acid showed promise [52]. It inhibits cell survival, invasion, proliferation, and angiogenesis of glioma cells, making it a potential treatment for brain tumors. On the other hand, Tannins have cytotoxic effects on cells other than tumor cells. Apoptosis and necrosis were used to kill Gallic acid-mediated cervical cancer cells [53]. Many gallic acid derivatives have antioxidant and antibacterial properties in nature [46].
Ellagic acid is a polyphenol extractive (tannin) present in various dicotyledons. Ellagic acid is mainly found as ester-linked with sugars in the composition of tannins, which are secondary metabolites in higher plants [54]. The authors note the principal active component for ellagic acid’s considerable antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and gastroprotective activities [55]. Furthermore, ellagic acid’s involvement in the GABAergic system, inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, aldose reductase, suppression of proinflammatory markers, protein tyrosine phosphatases, and interaction with the serotonergic and adrenergic systems offer a solid basis for potential advances in the treatment of a variety of medical complications [55, 56]. Recent research suggests that ellagic acid can operate as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, raising acetylcholine levels in the brain. As a result, there is the potential to partially mitigate or repair cognitive dysfunctions in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s [57]. Lastly, one of the ellagic acid’s most well-known effects, melanogenesis suppression, has been linked to the antioxidant properties of the compound [58]. Ellagic acid and its derivatives can be used in the supplement and functional food industries because of its anti-inflammatory properties in different cell systems. The development of medications necessitates additional investigation since delivery mechanisms will largely determine ellagic acid bioavailability [59].
Stilbenes are phenylpropanoids with a 1,2-diphenylethylene backbone belonging to a small phenylpropanoid category. Transresveratrol is the fundamental unit of most plant stilbenes [60]. Stilbenes are natural antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral; they have been demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory characteristics, estrogen receptor agonist properties, and impacts on cell proliferation, cell signaling pathways, and apoptosis [61, 62]. The majority of natural stilbenes are in the trans form. Resveratrol is the only stilbene that has been thoroughly researched and found to have potent anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Pterostilbene has been demonstrated to have anti-diabetic characteristics [63]. Antitubulin properties have been reported for combretastatin [64]. Rhapontigenin has strong inhibitory potential on histamine release, responsible for various allergic reactions. In vitro, resveratrol and rhaponticin can prevent platelet aggregation [65].
The most extensive family of hydroxycinnamic acids comprises phenylalanine and tyrosine and has three-carbon side chains, e.g., p-coumaric, ferulic, caffeic, and sinapic acids. Hydroxycinnamic acids can also be found as amides and esters. Although these forms have been described for industrial and biological potential, there is no evidence to support their use as cosmeceutical components [66]. They have various physiological effects, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-melanogenic, and anti-collagenase activity, which drive a surge in using hydroxycinnamic acids in skincare formulations. Antioxidant, antibacterial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet aggregation, and other intriguing health effects have been discovered on coumaric acid and its derivatives [24]. Caffeic acid is produced via coumaric acid’s hydroxylation and possesses anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antidiabetic effects [67]. Ferulic acid has shown antioxidant, anticancer, UV-absorbing, and anti-inflammatory effects, and it is now being used in cosmetic emulsions for topical application [9]. Antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial activities of rosmarinic acid have been discovered [68]. Numerous studies have shown anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antiviral, antioxidant, and anti-tyrosinase properties of chlorogenic acid [69]. Fruits and vegetables also contain sinapic acid [70].
Curcuminoids are phenolic chemicals used for spice, color, culinary additives, and medicinal agents. Curcuminoids have exhibited various pharmaceutical effects in preclinical cell culture and animal investigations, including antioxidant, neuroprotective, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-acidogenic, radioprotective, and arthritis [71]. Curcuminoids have also been shown to have a potential therapeutic effect in various chronic disorders, including colon, lung, breast cancer, and inflammatory bowel disease [72]. Ex vivo AChE assay revealed dose-dependent inhibition of curcuminoids and their components in the frontal brain and hippocampus. In scopolamine-induced amnesia, their effect on memory was prominent and was comparable in memory-enhancing impact [73].
Curcuminoids have shown significant antioxidant activity in several in vitro and in vivo studies. They can help individuals with b-thalassemia/Hb E disease reduce oxidative damage. Curcuminoids are antioxidative polyphenols with radiomodulatory characteristics, which allow them to protect non-cancerous cells while radiosensitizing tumor cells [74]. Human cancer cell lines were used to test the antiproliferative effects of curcuminoids and two turmerones substances derived from the rhizome of C. longa. Curcuminoids and turmerone both reduced cancer cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. Curcuminoids, turmerone, and Arturmerone’s immunomodulatory effects highlighted the potential for curcuminoids and turmerones to be used as chemopreventive agents [75]. Turmeric’s curcuminoids and other vital components inhibited the virulence features of Streptococcus mutants’ biofilms, for example, bacterial adhesion, acidogenicity, and aciduricity, without killing the target bacteria. These substances can be used to prevent the production of dental biofilms and, as a result, dental caries. Aqeel et al. [76] evaluated the antiacanthamoebic potential of resveratrol and curcuminoids utilizing adhesion and cytotoxicity experiments using primary human brain microvascular endothelial cells, which contribute to the blood-brain barrier. Amoeba binding was reduced by 57% and 73%, respectively, when organisms were pre-exposed to 100 mg resveratrol and DMC, whereas cytotoxicity of host cells was decreased by 86%. According to the findings, resveratrol and DMC have potent anti-acanthamoeba properties [71].
Secondary metabolites are organic compounds biosynthesized within an organism and not considered necessary for their growth, development, and reproduction. They are not involved in metabolic reactions and are considered neutral, especially in primary metabolic responses. However, they are generally regarded as the compounds of defense of an organism against environmental stresses and predators, signaling molecules, and involved in various molecular interactions like symbiosis, competition, and metal ions transport [77, 78]. They are engaged in improving health as many secondary metabolites act as antibiotics, anabolics, immunomodulators, and growth promoters. Some act as nutraceuticals, fighting against diseases (directly) and aiding the body to fight (indirectly). Some are pesticides, insecticides, and pheromones and displayed established health-promoting effects and significant roles as disease eradicators [79]. More than two million secondary metabolites are known to date, and they are generally classified into alkaloids, flavonoids, polyphenols, phytosterols, and terpenoids. However, McMurry [80] classified them into five main classes: terpenoids and steroids, fatty acid-derived substances and polyketides, alkaloids, nonribosomal polypeptides, and enzyme cofactors. Secondary metabolites are reported mainly from plants (80%). However, many bacterial, fungal, and aquatic organisms like corals, tunicates, snails, and sponges are also reported to contain these compounds [81].
The majority of the secondary metabolites are plant-based (especially tannins, terpenoids, alkaloids, and flavonoids) and represent many vital functions in medicines, culinary, cosmetics, tannery industry,
Secondary metabolite | Category |
---|---|
Chrysin | Flavones |
Apigenin | |
Naringin and Naringenin | Flavonones |
Taxifolin | |
Eriodictyol | |
Hesperidin | |
Isosakuranetin | |
Quercetin | Flavonols |
Kaempferol | |
Rutin | |
Astilbin | Flavononols |
Engeletin | |
Genistin | |
Taxifolin | |
Daidzin and Daidzein | Isoflavones |
Genistein | |
(+)-Catechin, (+)-Gallocatechin, (−)-Epicatechin and (−)-Epigallocatechin, | Flavanols |
(−)-Epicatechin gallate and (−)-Epigallocatechin gallate | |
Cyanidin | |
Epigenidin | Anthocyanidins |
Delphinium | |
Pelargonidin |
Known natural secondary metabolites with proven antioxidant activities.
Source: Adapted and modified from Naczk and Shahidi [82]
As a result of metabolism, many free radicals are also generated within the living organisms’ bodies and are regarded as reactive oxygen species (ROS). These ROS cause oxidative damage to the bodies of living organisms, and the antioxidant species mitigate them by reducing oxidative damage. Hence, they are considered as the first line of defense. Peroxidases and metal chelating proteins help reduce oxidative stress damage together with free radical scavengers like vitamins C and E [83, 84]. There are a few examples of synthetic antioxidants which are used in industry. However, they are not believed to be safe, so the requirement for the antioxidants from natural sources increases, e.g., plants [85].
Naturally biosynthesized secondary metabolites with enormous antioxidant activity of phenolic nature include flavonoids, terpenes, phenolic acids, lignans, stilbenes, tocopherols, tannins,
The food consumed containing phenolic compounds displays an antioxidant role due to these antioxidant compounds (Figure 1) [90]. Terpenoids are a broad category of secondary metabolites regarded as strong antioxidants and used mostly in perfumery [91]. Stilbenes are phytoalexins biosynthesized in plants to overcome stresses are reported for antioxidant properties and resveratrol; for example, they are an active constituent of many medications. Isoflavones are polyphenolic biomolecules, biosynthesized in the Fabaceae family, especially in soybean in the form of glycosides, and exhibit antioxidant activities. Tannins are complex derivatives of phenolic acids, are found in many plant species, and are enormously effective antioxidants with promising cytotoxic and antiparasitic properties [92, 93].
Phenolic antioxidants. Adapted from Shahidi and Ambigaipalan [
There are few antioxidants synthesized and allowed to be used in the food industry, including butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), octyl gallate (OG), propyl gallate (PG), dodecyl gallate (DG) and tertiary-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) [94] to delay lipid oxidation and as processing agent of oils and fats [95].
Secondary metabolites include alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other phenolic compounds; these molecules are linked to plant defense processes and protect against many diseases. Secondary metabolites are involved in antibacterial and antifungal activities [96].
Bacterial infections are considered a significant public health problem worldwide. Bacterial infection can also occur due to multi-drug resistance, which leads to mortality and morbidity [97]. For that reason, antibiotic resistance has become a global concern. The increase in the multi-drug resistance of bacteria threatens the therapeutic efficacy of several drugs. Using different solvent systems, numerous researchers have studied plants’ antibacterial activities of leaves, flowers, stems, roots, and fruits [98]. Therefore, new antibacterial drugs are needed to treat various diseases with low toxicity and less price. For that purpose, secondary metabolites from plants are currently considered to develop new drugs because they are rich in natural compounds.
Gallic acid and its derivatives are potential antibacterial agents that reduce bacterial diseases. Gallic acid and methyl gallate have shown significant antibacterial activity against
Resistance to antifungal drugs has been spread in recent years. Resistance to antifungal drugs has led to increased morbidity and mortality. Since the molecular mechanisms in humans and fungi are so similar, there is always the possibility that the fungal cytotoxic agent is toxic to host cells. As a result, patients with compromised immune systems, such as transplants, cancer patients, and diabetics, who do not respond effectively to current antifungal treatments, need new antifungal therapies. Antifungal drugs currently used to treat fungal infections have significant side effects such as itching, diarrhea, vomiting,
Cancer is the cause of death worldwide; experts are developing new therapies less likely to cause side effects. Cancer is one of the most severe health concerns, despite substantial advances in cancer therapy [125]. Several new secondary metabolites from plants are discovered each year, opening new avenues for research in the fight against cancer. Plant secondary metabolites have substantially contributed to this topic, which has been at the heart of herbal medicines. Plant’s secondary metabolites have been shown to have anticancer effects, such as the ability to reduce cancer cell growth and development, kill cancer cells, and fight against multi-drug resistance in certain malignancies [126]. Plant secondary metabolites are thought to be helpful in drug development. The secondary plant metabolites are presently used in clinical and undergoing clinical trials as anticancer therapies [127, 128].
For thousands of years, humans have used herbs to treat certain diseases. Researchers are particularly interested in generating anticancer drugs from the plant’s secondary metabolites. Plant secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, polyphenols, anthraquinones, triterpenoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, quinones, and others play an essential role in cancer prevention [129]. Flavonoids (6,7,30-trimethoxy-3,5,40-trihydroxy-flavone and 5,40-dihydroxy-3,6,30-trimethoxy-flavone 7-O- -d-glucoside) isolated from
Phenolic compounds are one of the most diverse and widespread groups of plant metabolites, and they have a wide range of biological roles in regulating carcinogenesis [143]. Polyphenols have several advantages as anticancer drugs, including high accessibility, minimal toxicity, and broad biological effects. The main advantage of polyphenols as anticancer drugs is cytotoxic effects on malignant cells growth [144, 145]. Many polyphenols have an anticancer effect in various cancer models, regardless of their different modes of action [146, 147]. Polyphenols of strawberries, including anthocyanins, Kaempferol, quercetin, coumaric acid esters, and ellagic acid esters, have been shown to inhibit the development of human oral and breast colon and prostate cancer cell lines [148]. The primary polyphenol of green tea, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), is anticancer in various cancer types [149]. Researchers suggested that EGCG regulation may stimulate the production of reactive oxygen species and inhibit angiogenesis in cancer cells by regulating different pathways, such as AMP-activated protein kinase, epidermal growth factor receptor, insulin-like growth factor receptor, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, cyclin D1, Akt, STAT3, Wnt, and mTOR signaling in cancer cells [150, 151, 152]. A key ingredient of
Isoquinoline alkaloid is a major alkaloid class with an anticancer effect in different cancer cells. Isoquinoline alkaloids are naturally isolated from the roots, and the bark of
Terpenes are a broad category of secondary metabolites that include low polarity fragrant scaffolds and isoprene derivatives with various pharmacological activities, including anticancer activity. Triterpenoids have previously been shown to have anticancer properties in both
This study shows that plant cells produce a variety of compounds, mainly secondary metabolites, for defense mechanisms against bacteria, fungi, antioxidants, and cancer. Secondary metabolites with antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and anticancer effects are sources of natural bioactive molecules, which control disease-causing pathogens in plants and humans. In addition, the different plant families have shown a unique combination of secondary metabolites; therefore, exhibiting different antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and anticancer activities. The emerging research on identifying secondary metabolites is ongoing, and further research is encouraged to advance our knowledge about these compounds. Secondary metabolites can help treat infectious diseases that have increased resistance to current antibiotics. They can offer alternative medical therapy to individuals, particularly in developing nations where people may not access health care.
The authors are thankful to the Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Medical Sciences, Rawalpindi, Pakistan, for supporting this study. We also apologize to the authors of many exciting studies omitted due to limited information.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology"},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions"},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",scope:"Plant Physiology explores fundamental processes in plants, and it includes subtopics such as plant nutrition, plant hormone, photosynthesis, respiration, and plant stress. In recent years, emerging technologies such as multi-omics, high-throughput technologies, and genome editing tools could assist plant physiologists in unraveling molecular mechanisms in specific critical pathways. The global picture of physiological processes in plants needs to be investigated continually to increase our knowledge, and the resulting technologies will benefit sustainable agriculture.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Physiology",id:"10"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 16th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"