Data for voltage harvesting for single pairs of electrodes.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1041",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Laparoscopy",title:"Advanced Laparoscopy",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The present book, published by InTech, has been written by a number of highly outstanding authors from all over the world. 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It has a great medicinal value, it is used for different kinds of diseases like dysentery, cholera, typhoid, kidney disease, etc. In the West Bengal, India there is no alternative about Pathor Kuchi leaf for folk medicine. People are using the leaf as a folk medicine. But, nowadays, it is using to generate electricity for low and medium power production [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Generally Zn and Cu metal is used as an electrode and the PKL extract is used as a source of the electricity [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. Clean energy sources, which are pollution free and environmentally friendly, are one of the key challenges of world’s future society.
The traditional sources of energy oil, gas and coal are diminishing day by day rapidly. Bangladesh is mainly dependent on gas based electricity. Conventional sources of energy will be finished within 2100 across the world. We have to depend on renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind energy, biogas energy, biomass energy, geothermal energy, wave energy, tidal energy, OTEC and hydropower, etc. PKL power from living PKL tree is the source of biomass energy. It is an innovative work around the world [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. The solar PV system is providing electricity in the remote areas. But during night time it is needed battery which is expensive. So that living PKL tree power can play an important role to provide electricity along the remote areas across the world.
Pathor Kuchi leaf is known as a medicinal leaf from ancient time. Because it has a great medicinal value, it is used for different kinds of diseases like dysentery, cholera, typhoid, kidney disease, etc. In the West Bengal, India there is no alternative about Pathor Kuchi leaf for folk medicine. People are using the leaf as a folk medicine. But now a days, it is using to generate electricity for low and medium power production [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Generally Zn and Cu metal is used as an electrode and the PKL extract is used as a source of the electricity [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. Sustainable energy sources, which are pollution free and environmentally friendly, are one of the key challenges of world’s future society. Researchers discovered that living plants are literally “green” power source, which may become one of future’s electricity supplies that perfectly integrates in natural environments and is accessible all over the world. The issues of the global warming are the responsible for the generation of electricity using conventional energy sources like oil, gas and coal. The climate change is distributed due to un-balanced eco-system around many part of the world. It is difficult to protect the world from global warming in an artificial way, although a numerous science and technologies are booming surrounding us. It was possible to produce 1.1 V using voltaic cell method. Some researchers were possible to get 1.221 V [45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60] using single Ag/Zn-Aloe Vera cell without using any kind of boost converter and conditioning circuit. If we can generate electricity from living plants or trees, everyone wants to be planting the trees in ones surroundings for getting electricity. Governments of many countries also suggested and motivated such a process of plantation of trees and plants to get electricity [61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75]. As a result, the number of plants and trees in the globe will also increase, which indirectly will save our planet from the serious issue of global warming by the process of plantation in near future. It may be said that living plant & tree power is improbable to replace the power sources for the most of applications after finishing the fossil fuels. Also this kind of living plants and trees electrical system could provide low cost, continuous, pollution free and sustainable power system around the globe.
The research methodology of the project is described as follows:
The electrons are living around PKL plant roots those are a waste product of bacteria. PKL tree excretes organic matter into the soil, which is broken down by bacteria. The electrons are released in the breakdown process and then it is possible to harvest electricity by using electrodes without affecting the plant’s and leaf’s growth of the PKL in any way.
Figure 1(a) and (b) shows the PKL tree in a tub and Figure 1(c) shows the cultivation of PKL in the open field for electricity generation.
Cultivation of PKL.
Figure 2(a) shows the cultivation of PKL electricity through PKL living tree’s leaf and (b) and (c) shows the cultivation of tree’s leaf electricity. Figure 2(d-m) also shows the cultivation of PKL electricity through PKL living tree’s leaf.
Cultivation of electricity from living PKL.
Finally the methodology of the project can be divided by the following:
Open circuit voltage Voc:
The voltage without load is called open circuit voltage [51, 52, 53, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85]. Generally, it is denoted by
Short circuit current Isc:
The current without load is called short circuit current. Generally, it is denoted by Isc.
Voltage Regulation VR:
It is defined by the following equation [54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60]:
where
Generally, VR ≈ 0 is desire, which is practically impossible [83, 84, 85, 86].
PKL power density (PD) [83, 84]:
It is defined as the power extraction per kg PKL (Pathor Kuchi leaf).
Energy density (ED) of PKL [85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94]:
It is defined as the energy (kWh) per liter:
Capacity of the PKL cell (AH)[95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]:
How much current you will get for long time.
Generally, it is denoted by
where
Energy efficiency of a PKL cell (ηc) [105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114]:
It is defined by the following equation:
where
where Pmax = maximum power, VOC = open circuit voltage, ISC = short circuit current.
Load power
It is defined by the following equation [120, 121, 122, 123]:
where
Fill factor:
It is defined as FF = (VmIm)/(VocIsc), where Vm = useful voltage, Im = useful current, Voc = open circuit voltage, and Isc = short circuit current [20, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 124, 125].
Total land = 55,000 sq. miles [24, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73]
Total land (TL) in hector
Therefore, the nonagricultural land (NAL)
= 5,580,000 hectors.
The 2% of NAL
From 1 Bigha PKL, we can get 100 kW electricity.
From 837,000 Bigha PKL, we can get 83,700,000 kW electricity = 83,700 MW.
The AL (agricultural land) is needed to cultivated foods and crops [81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89]. The NAL is needed for housing, roads and other multipurpose use. So that the NAL of coastal areas, hilly areas and both sides of the road can be used for cultivation of PKL to generate electricity in Bangladesh, which would be approximately 2% of NAL [90, 91, 92, 93, 94].
The cultivation of PKL is so much easy [126, 127]. This plants grow whether its leaf is kept on the ground and hence can be cultivated in a vested land, roof top of the house, courtyard and tubs what so ever [115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123]. Its leaves can be used for producing electricity within a month after cultivation of the plants [65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 124, 125, 128, 129].
The significance of the work is given by the following:
It is renewable energy sources
It is biomass energy
It is environment friendly
It is echo friendly
It is cost effective
It can be cultivated by anybody
Even a handicapped person can cultivate this energy
Unused land can be used for this purposes
The two sides of the road across the country can be used to cultivate electricity
The PKL tree grows everywhere even in the sand
The people of the remote areas can be used this power
This technology is developed locally
This technology is innovated in Bangladesh
It can compare with solar PV electricity
It will not need any extra battery during night time
It will work same during day and night time
It will also work same during rainy season whereas solar PV works less during rainy season.
It is shown in Table 1, the collected voltage has been tabulated using different electrodes of Cu/Zn, Cu/Fe, Al/Zn and Cu/Al.
Date | Local time | Time duration (h) | Voltage (Cu/Zn) in volt | Voltage (Cu/Fe) in volt | Voltage (Al/Zn) in volt | Voltage (Cu/Al) in volt | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
05/10/18 | 08 AM | 00 | 0.95 | 0.61 | 0.42 | 0.5 | Single pair |
Do | 09 AM | 1 | 0.95 | 0.61 | 0.41 | 0.50 | Do |
Do | 10 AM | 2 | 0.95 | 0.60 | 0.40 | 0.51 | Do |
Do | 11 AM | 3 | 0.95 | 0.60 | 0.39 | 0.50 | Do |
Do | 12 PM | 4 | 0.95 | 0.61 | 0.40 | 0.49 | Do |
Do | 13 PM | 5 | 0.95 | 0.60 | 0.39 | 0.48 | Do |
Do | 14 PM | 6 | 0.95 | 0.61 | 0.38 | 0.48 | Do |
Do | 15 PM | 7 | 0.95 | 0.61 | 0.38 | 0.48 | Do |
Do | 16 PM | 8 | 0.95 | 0.60 | 0.37 | 0.48 | Do |
Do | 17 PM | 9 | 0.95 | 0.61 | 0.36 | 0.48 |
Data for voltage harvesting for single pairs of electrodes.
It is shown from Figure 3, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Cu/Zn single electrodes is 0.95 V and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 0.95 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is zero volt.
Voltage-time duration profile for Cu/Zn single electrodes.
It is shown from Figure 4, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Cu/Fe single electrode is 0.61 V and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 0.60 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is 0.01 V.
Voltage-time duration profile for Cu/Fe single pair electrodes.
It is shown from Figure 5, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Al/Zn single electrodes is 0.42 V and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 0.36 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is 0.06 V.
Voltage-time duration profile for Al/Zn single pair electrodes.
It is shown from Figure 6, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Cu/Al single electrodes is 0.51 V and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 0.48 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is 0.03 V.
Voltage-time duration profile for Cu/Al single pair electrodes.
Finally, it is concluded that, Figures 3
It is shown in Table 2, the harvested voltage has been tabulated using different two pair electrodes of Cu/Zn, Cu/Fe, Al/Zn and Cu/Al with series combination.
Date | Local time | Time duration (h) | Voltage (Cu/Zn) in volt | Voltage (Cu/Fe) in volt | Voltage (Al/Zn) in volt | Voltage (Cu/Al) in volt | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
05/10/18 | 08 AM | 00 | 1.85 | 1.19 | 0.80 | 1.0 | Two pairs |
Do | 09AM | 1 | 1.84 | 1.20 | 0.81 | 1.0 | Do |
Do | 10 AM | 2 | 1.82 | 1.18 | 0.80 | 1.0 | Do |
Do | 11AM | 3 | 1.83 | 1.18 | 0.79 | 1.0 | Do |
Do | 12PM | 4 | 1.82 | 1.17 | 0.80 | 0.98 | Do |
Do | 13PM | 5 | 1.80 | 1.17 | 0.79 | 0.95 | Do |
Do | 14 PM | 6 | 1.80 | 1.16 | 0.78 | 0.94 | Do |
Do | 15 PM | 7 | 1.80 | 1.17 | 0.78 | 0.94 | Do |
Do | 16 PM | 8 | 1.80 | 1.17 | 0.77 | 0.94 | Do |
Do | 17 PM | 9 | 1.78 | 1.16 | 0.76 | 0.93 |
Data for voltage harvesting for double pairs of electrodes (connected in series with each other).
It is shown from Figure 7, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Cu/Zn double electrodes is 1.85 V and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 1.78 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is 0.07 V. Whereas it was zero (0) for Cu/Zn single pair electrodes. The reason behind it is that due to the connection of the electrodes by the wires, because it grows resistance for long wires due to the connections.
Voltage-time duration profile for Cu/Zn double pair electrodes.
It is shown from Figure 8, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Cu/Fe double electrodes is 1.20 V and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 1.16 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is 0.04 V. Whereas it was 0.01 V for Cu/Fe single pair electrodes. The reason behind it is that due to the connection of the electrodes by the wires, because it grows resistance for long wires due to the connections.
Voltage-time duration profile for Cu/Fe double pair electrodes.
It is shown from Figure 9, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Al/Zn double electrodes is 0.81 V and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 0.76 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is 0.05 V. Whereas it was 0.04 V for Al/Zn single pair electrodes. The reason behind it is that due to the connection of the electrodes by the wires, because it grows resistance for long wires due to the connections.
Voltage-time duration profile for Al/Zn double pair electrodes.
It is shown from Figure 10, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Cu/Al double electrodes is 1.0 V and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 0.93 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is 0.07 V. Whereas it was 0.03 V for Cu/Al single pair electrodes. The reason behind it is that due to the connection of the electrodes by the wires, because it grows resistance for long wires due to the connections. From the above results it is shown that the difference between the highest and lowest voltage output increases for Cu/Zn, Cu/Fe, Al/Zn and Cu/Al double pair electrodes than the Cu/Zn, Cu/Fe, Al/Zn and Cu/Al single pair electrodes.
Voltage-time duration profile for Cu/Al double pair electrodes.
It is shown in Table 3, the harvested voltage has been tabulated using different three pair electrodes of Cu/Zn, Cu/Fe, Al/Zn and Cu/Al with series combination.
Date | Local time | Time duration (h) | Voltage (Cu/Zn) in volt | Voltage (Cu/Fe) in volt | Voltage (Al/Zn) in volt | Voltage (Cu/Al) in volt | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
05/10/18 | 08 AM | 00 | 2.70 | 1.77 | 1.20 | 0.99 | Three pairs |
Do | 09 AM | 1 | 2.71 | 1.77 | 1.20 | 0.98 | Do |
Do | 10 AM | 2 | 2.70 | 1.76 | 1.19 | 0.98 | Do |
Do | 11 AM | 3 | 2.69 | 1.76 | 1.19 | 0.98 | Do |
Do | 12 PM | 4 | 2.68 | 1.76 | 1.19 | 0.98 | Do |
Do | 13 PM | 5 | 2.68 | 1.75 | 1.19 | 0.97 | Do |
Do | 14 PM | 6 | 2.68 | 1.75 | 1.18 | 0.97 | Do |
Do | 15 PM | 7 | 2.68 | 1.75 | 1.18 | 0.97 | Do |
Do | 16 PM | 8 | 2.68 | 1.75 | 1.18 | 0.97 | Do |
Do | 17 PM | 9 | 2.68 | 1.75 | 1.18 | 0.97 |
Data for voltage harvesting for double pairs of electrodes (connected in series with each other).
It is shown from Figure 11, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Cu/Zn 3-electrodes is 2.70 V and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 2.68 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is 0.02 V. Whereas it was zero (0) for Cu/Zn single pair electrodes and 0.07 V for double electrodes respectively. The same reason behind it is that due to the connection of the electrodes by the wires, because it grows resistance for long wires due to the connections.
Voltage-time duration profile for Cu/Zn three pair electrodes.
It is shown from Figure 12, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Cu/Fe three electrodes pair is 1.77 V and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 1.75 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is 0.02 V. Whereas it was zero (0) for Cu/Fe single pair electrodes, 0.04 V for double electrodes respectively. The same reason behind it is that due to the connection of the electrodes by the wires, because it grows resistance for long wires due to the connections.
Voltage-time duration profile for Cu/Fe three pair electrodes.
It is shown from Figure 13, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Al/Zn 3-electrodes pair is volt and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 1.65 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is 0.02 V. Whereas it was zero(0) for Cu/Fe single pair electrodes and 0.04 V for double electrodes respectively. The same reason behind it is that due to the connection of the electrodes by the wires, because it grows resistance for long wires due to the connections.
Voltage-time duration profile for Al/Zn three pair electrodes.
It is shown from Figure 14, the highest open circuit voltage (Voc) for Cu/Al three electrodes pair is volt and the lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is also 1.65 V. So that the difference between the highest and lowest open circuit voltage (Voc) is 0.02 V. Whereas it was zero (0) for Cu/Al single pair electrodes, 0.04 V for double electrodes and 0.02 V, respectively. The same reason behind it is that due to the connection of the electrodes by the wires, because it grows resistance for long wires due to the connections.
Voltage-time duration profile for Cu/Al three pair electrodes.
It is shown in Table 4, the voltage difference for Cu/Zn, Cu/Fe, Al/Zn and Cu/Al single, double and triple electrodes in volt.
Number of pairs | Voltage difference for Cu/Zn in volt | Voltage difference for Cu/Fe in volt | Voltage difference for Al/Zn in volt | Voltage difference for Cu/Al in volt |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 0 | 0.01 | 0.60 | 0.02 |
2 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.07 |
3 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.03 |
Table for voltage difference for Cu/Zn, Cu/Fe, Al/Zn and Cu/Al in volt.
Description of the cathode
The length of the copper electrode is: 3 cm
The breadth of the copper electrode is: 1 cm
The area of the copper electrode is: (3 cm) (1 cm) = 3 cm2
Description of the anode
The length of the zinc electrode is: 3 cm
The breadth of the zinc electrode is: 1 cm
The area of the zinc electrode is: (3 cm) (1 cm) = 3 cm2
It was taken two living PKL plants (Tree-1 and Tree-2) for making an electrochemical cell. One leaf was selected from each tree. Each leaf was embedded by two electrodes. The voltage was collected from each leaf separately by a sophisticated multi meter. Then it was connected two living PKL plants in series connection. Then after the voltage was also collected for series connection.
It is shown in Figure 15 the variation of open circuit voltage with the variation of time duration(hr) for a single leaf in tree-1. Similarly, Figure 16 the variation of open circuit voltage with the variation of time duration(hr) for a single leaf in tree-2. Finally, it is shown in Figure 17 the variation of open circuit voltage with the variation of time duration (h) for both a single leaf in tree-1and tree-2. Comparing above three figures, it can be concluded that living PKL tree can generate an electrochemical cell, since it follows the law of the series combination of voltaic cell.
Voc1-time duration curve for tree-1.
Voc2-time duration curve for tree-2.
Voc-time duration for both tree-1 and tree-2 in series connection.
The multi meters which were used are not calibrated properly. So that may be some errors during collection of the readings. In spite of that the authors tried to take readings very carefully. At present it is needed renewable, sustainable, pollution free and an efficient energy sources all over the world. To keep it in mind, it has been introduced some fundamental investigations are presented for producing electricity from living PKL plants. The power is produced by embedding the different electrodes like (silver and zinc, copper and zinc, etc.) and cells into the PKL living plant’s leaf to allow flow of ions using redox reaction. Different experiments have been conducted using different types of the electrodes to determine the characteristics of the producing device. The research activities in this field are in infancy, in spite of that it was possible to get voltage difference around 1.10 V using single pair of electrodes and cell. Such hypothesis has been tested at different times of the different month of the year. A comparative research works have also been done and used in combination to get better results for the development of such a green power. This green power may be the guide line to get low and medium power electrical and electronic appliances in near future.
Sustainable energy sources, which are pollution free and environmentally friendly, are one of the key challenges of world’s future society. The interdisciplinary team of PKL energy foundation discovered that living plants are literally “green” power source, which may become one of future’s electricity supplies that perfectly integrates in natural environments and is accessible all over the world. Researchers discovered that living plants can generate, by a single leaf, required Volts, enough to simultaneously power LED light bulbs. Researchers also showed that natural leaves can act as an innovative “green” electrical generator converting into electricity. Finally, the outcome of this research work is the reactant and product ions have been identified. The generated voltage can be considered with the Nernst equation. The generated voltage can be connected in series to run the load with LED bulb and DC fan. Using an inverter can be converted AC from DC for AC appliances.
The authors are grateful to the PKL electricity research group named Farhana Yesmin, Dr. M.A. Latif, Dr. Md. Sajjad Hossain, Dr. Md. Fakrul Islam, Dr. Bapy Guha, Md. Mehdi Hassan and Dr. M. Hazrat Ali for their valuable suggestions and whole hearted cooperation during research work.
Biochar (biomass-derived char) is a versatile renewable source and is gaining popularity due to its diverse raw material sources, high porosity, large surface area, surface functional groups, and high treatment efficacy for a variety of contaminants [1]. Biochar is produced from three types of materials (plant residue, sewage sludge, and animal litter) that are pyrolyzed with little or no oxygen (typically below 1000°C) [2]. Biochar production not only deals with waste, but also benefit from waste, for example, pyrolysis of sewage sludge can reduce pollutants and turn it into a valuable resource [3]. Therefore, it is a great way to make biochar out of solid waste. Because of its unique properties, biochar has sparked widespread concern about its potential for use in the environment [4]. As indicated by the increase in the number of published publications regarding biochar in the last 10 years, it has gotten a lot of attention (Figure 1). Biochar\'s main technique for removing contaminants and remediating the environment is sorption. And, biochar\'s sorption capacity is directly related to its physiochemical features, such as surface area, pore size distribution, functional groups, and cation exchange capacity, which vary depending on the preparation conditions [4]. Like, biochar produced at high temperatures has a larger surface area and carbon content than biochar produced at lower temperatures, due to the rising micro-pore volume caused by the elimination of volatile organic molecules at high temperatures [4]. The yields of biochar, on the other hand, decreases as the temperature goes up [6]. Therefore, in terms of biochar yields and adsorption capacity, an ideal synthesis method is required. To increase its physiochemical characteristics, biochar can further be modified with different chemicals like acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents, and ions for various environmental processes [7]. Due to its own properties such as large surface area, recalcitrance, and catalysis, biochar has been widely used in environmental applications such as soil remediation, carbon sequestration, water treatment, and wastewater treatment. In addition, biochar\'s application for energy and as an agricultural amendment is not a new concept. Biochar has also found its application in climate change mitigation and as a renewable energy source [8]. Biochar\'s use in engineering applications has received far less attention, despite the fact that economic estimates for biochar production for direct agricultural use have been poor for some time [9]. To that aim, a summary of our current understanding of biochar\'s potential for use in a variety of environmental remediation applications, as well as emerging obstacles and prospects for biochar usage in environmental remediation, is discussed below.
The number of articles published in recent 10 years. (Source: [
Biochar\'s function mostly refers to its ability to uptake (e.g., sorption) other substances. The sorption of biochar can be divided into two categories, chemical sorption and physical sorption. Moreover, in term of biochar’s interaction with other substances, there are three types of interactions: sorption, catalysis, and redox as shown in Figure 2. Sorption is a major environmental process that has a major impact on pollutant biogeochemistry. In sorption, the surface properties of biochar, which includes surface functional groups (carboxyl, carbonyl, phenolic–OH, ester, aliphatic, aromatic, hydroxyl, amino, and azyl groups), surface charges, and free radicals, are important for the behaviour of the interface between biochar and organic and inorganic pollutants, as it provides important sites for sorption and catalytic degradation of pollutants. These functional groups can form hydrogen bonds with other substances, As a result, Biochar can adsorb a variety of pollutants, including organic compounds, metals, nutrients, gases, and microbes [11, 12]. Moreover, the removal of some contaminants are also achieved by partitioning, electrostatic interaction, and pore-filling between biochar and pollutants and depends largely on biochar and pollutant characteristics [5]. Biochar also aids in the transformation of abiotic contaminants through various methods such as free radicals mediated transformation. Free radicals on the surface of biochar can react with chemicals like hydrogen peroxide and persulfate and promote the breakdown of organic pollutants [13]. Apart from that, biochar surfaces contain a variety of catalytic sites, such as quinone and phenolic functional groups, as well as persistent free radicals (PFRs), they enable biochar-mediated pollutants transformation [14]. For example, surface functional groups like quinones, convert sulphide into polysulfides, which accelerates the breakdown of azo dyes by increasing electron transport [14]. PFRs on the surface of biochar have a high reactivity and act as a catalyst in pollutant breakdown [13]. Also, the dissolved fractions in biochar, which are primarily composed of aliphatic and aromatic with quinone-like structures, has been tested and found to enhance the photochemical transformation of many organic pollutants by generating reactive intermediates or reactive oxygen species (ROS) [15]. Surface redox active moieties are the main contributors to the redox of biochar even though there are only a handful of relevant reports in publication so far. The surface redox-active moieties in biochar can directly react with pollutants via non-radical pathways, as well as activate some oxidants to form reactive radicals like OH and SO4. For example, OH generated from the activation of H2O2 in biochar reduces about 20% of
Biochar remediation mechanisms. (Source: [
Biochar can be used to clean up soil pollution caused by organic contaminants and heavy metals. Soil remediation using biochar is mostly accomplished by sorption and the mechanisms involved are surface complexation, hydrogen binding, electrostatic attractions, acid-base interactions, and
Biochar mechanisms in soil for contaminants removal. (Source: [
Reference | Organic pollutants | Removal efficiency | Feedstock |
---|---|---|---|
[19] | Dibutyl phthalate | 87.5% | Bamboo |
[20] | Phenanthrene | 100% | Conifer |
[21] | Imidacloprid | — | Rice-straw |
[3] | Diethyl phthalate | 90% | Bamboo |
[22] | Carbaryl | 71.8% | Pig manure |
[23] | Tylosin | 66% | Hardwood |
[24] | Acetamiprid | 52.3% | |
[25] | Atrazine | >66% | Dairy Manure 450 |
[26] | Pentachlorophenol | 96.2% | Rice-straw |
[27] | Chlorpyrifos | 34% | |
[28] | Terbuthylazine | >88% | Sawdust |
Adsorption of organic pollutants in soil by biochar.
Reference | Heavy metal | Removal efficiency | Feedstock |
---|---|---|---|
[33] | Cd2+ | 80% | Eucalyptus wood |
Pb2+ | 93.7% | ||
Zn2+ | 97.1% | ||
Cu2+ | 99.8% | ||
Cd2+ | 90% | Poultry litter | |
Pb2+ | 99.8% | ||
Zn2+ | 99.3% | ||
Cu2+ | 99.9% | ||
[34] | Pb2+ | 55.9% | Sewage sludge |
Zn2+ | 51.2% | ||
[35] | Cd2+ | 56% | Bamboo |
[36] | Pb2+ | — | Pine cone |
[37] | Cd2+ | 97.1% | Rice straw |
[38] | Cd2+ | >99% | Tree bark |
[39] | Cu2+ | >99% | Pine bark |
[40] | Ni2+ | 93% | Woody biomass, Gliricidia sepium |
[41] | Zn2+ | 54% | Sugar cane straw |
[42] | Ni2+ | 99.5% | Deinking paper sludge |
[43] | Pb2+ | 90% | Soybean stover |
[44] | Pb2+ | 93.5% | Chicken manure |
[45] | Cd2+ | 93.6% | Wheat straw |
Heavy metal stabilization in soil by biochar.
The process of storing carbon in soil organic matter and thereby removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration. As part of attempts to establish climate resilient agriculture practices, the idea of using biochar to trap carbon in the soil has gotten a lot of attention in recent years. Biochar (biological charcoal) is a carbon sink that absorbs carbon from the atmosphere and stores it on agricultural grounds. Biochar is biologically inert, allowing it to retain fixed carbon in the soil for years to millennia while also absorbing net carbon from the atmosphere [20]. In addition, agriculture fixes 30 gigatons of carbon per year, but 30 gigatons of carbon return to the atmosphere as the plants die, resulting in no net change. When Biochar is combined with compost, soil, and plants, it recovers and stores a significant amount of carbon in the ground, resulting in a continuous and significant reduction in atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) levels. In recent years, climate change has sparked an increased interest in lowering carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. Soil, being a major carbon sink, plays a critical role in the global carbon cycle, which has a direct impact on climate change. Carbon sequestration has offered as a strategy to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Biochar has a great resistance to biodegradation due to its extremely condensed aromatic structure. As a result, biochar is thought to have a positive impact on soil carbon sequestration. Many investigations have been carried out to determine the impact of biochar on soil for carbon sequestration. However, due to the variability in carbon dioxide emissions, no consistent result can be presented. For example, adding carbon from fire to soil increased soil organic carbon turnover. However, adding biochar made of wood sawdust to soil inhibited carbon mineralization, resulting in more carbon sequestration. The mineralization of soil organic matter after the addition of biochar is shown to be higher in low-fertility soils than in high-fertility soils [21]. Carbon mineralization is also higher in soils with low organic carbon concentration than in soils with high organic carbon content. Also, the application of biochar to soil has found an increase in the rate of organic matter decomposition. This so-called "priming effect" affects carbon sequestration efforts since increased microbial activity might lead to breakdown rates exceeding carbon input rates. While the exact mechanism causing this impact has yet to be determined, it could be due to the increase of microbial activity as bacteria consume the carbon and nitrogen in biochar. However, the carbon in biochar can be separated into two types: liable and recalcitrant carbon. When biochar is introduced to the soil, soil microbes may quickly consume available carbon, resulting in an increase in carbon mineralization at first. This explains why adding biochar to soil accelerates carbon mineralization. Moreover, recalcitrant carbon content in biochar is significantly higher than labile carbon concentration. In soil, recalcitrant carbon can persist for a long time. As a result, the carbon input generated by biochar is more than the carbon outflow induced by relevant carbon mineralization. And, shorter pyrolysis times and higher pyrolysis temperatures, according to recent research [4], result in more recalcitrant biochar (i.e., it persists for longer periods in the soil). However, these pyrolysis conditions yields less biochar per unit feedstock, there are trade-offs. The effect of biochar addition on carbon sequestration is largely unknown in general. The priming impact varies depending on the feedstock and pyrolysis conditions, suggesting that the relationship between biochar\'s effect and feedstock type must be investigated further. The inherent properties of biochar, as determined by feedstock and pyrolysis conditions, interact with environmental factors like precipitation and temperature to determine how long biochar carbon is held in the soil. Soil texture, as is typically the case, plays an important influence in the stability of biochar carbon. Biochar interacts with soil particles to stabilize itself in the soil.
However, numerous uncertainties remain about the efficiency of biochar in carbon sequestration. It is also crucial to investigate the link between pyrolysis conditions and biochar\'s carbon sequestration ability. While biochar contains a lot of carbon, it is unclear how long that carbon will stay in the soil after it has been applied. In terms of boosting soil carbon reserves and combating climate change, biochar remains a hot topic. Many uncertainties remain, however, before definitive conclusions can be drawn about what conditions allow biochar to contribute positively to soil carbon sequestration.
The constant increase in solid waste seems to have a negative impact on human society\'s long-term development, which has raised numerous concerns. Organic waste accounts for around half of all solid waste generated. The ability to effectively treat organic solid waste is critical for successful solid waste disposal. Composting has received a lot of attention as a waste treatment method because of its benefits, such as low cost. Composting is a biological process that takes place. Organic matter from raw materials is exposed to biological breakdown during the process. Biochar has a direct influence on microbes, which has an impact on composting. Many researches have been carried out to see how biochar affects the composting of organic waste. The following are the effects of biochar on microorganisms during the composition of organic solid waste: (1) providing a habitat for microorganisms; (2) providing ideal growing conditions for microorganisms; (3) enriching the microbial diversity. It is documented that biochar addition accelerated the decomposition of organic solid waste due to the favorable effect of biochar addition on composting. Table 3 shows the impact of adding biochar to the composting process. In general, adding biochar to compost has a good impact on the process. The priming effect, on the other hand, can be overlooked in low-fertility, alkaline, temperate soil. The type of soil affects the performance of biochar in compositing [22]. Furthermore, the types and doses of biochar, as well as the soil types, have a significant impact on the composting of organic solid waste. As a result, a biochar application strategy should be developed depending on the characteristics of organic solid waste composting and soil. Furthermore, it was discovered that bacterial consortiums combined with biochar can stimulate microbial activity to accelerate degradation, increase bacterial community richness, and change the specific selection of bacteria, providing a method for effectively improving microbial activity and enhancing organic solid waste degradation.
Reference | Feedstock | Applied dose | Performance |
---|---|---|---|
[48] | Peanut shell | 0.75% biochar and 0.75% compost (w %) | Increase the growth of sesbania, seashore mallow, and overall biomass. |
[49] | Rice husk | 24 g compost + 16 g biochar in 400 g soil | Reduce the availability of Cd and Zn and enhance the availability of Cu by increasing total organic carbon and water-extract organic carbon. |
[50] | Acacia | 2 t ha−1 biochar, 10 t ha−1 compost and 92 kg N ha−1 | Improve the grain yields and N uptake |
[51] | Acacia green waste | 47 t ha−1 biochar and 10 t ha−1 compost | Enhance macroporosity and bioturbation; increase microbial abundance; modify microbial structure |
[52] | Logs | 2.5 t ha−1 biochar and 25 t ha−1 compost | Increase soil organic carbon, nutritional status, and water content, as well as maize output. |
[53] | Hardwood, coniferous wood | 8 t ha−1 biochar and 55 t ha−1 compost | Vine growing on low-fertility, alkaline, temperate soil has no immediate commercial value. |
[54] | Wood | 0.3 kg compost and 0.27 kg biochar | Increase the oxygen intake by accelerating the humification of sludge organics. |
[55] | Beech wood | 100 mg/kg biochar and 100 mg/kg compost | Increase plant height, total organic carbon, and total nitrogen content; decrease ammonium content |
[56] | Quercus serrate | 10% biochar and 90% compost | Change the microbial community structure Increase |
[57] | Hardwood coniferous wood | 8 t ha−1 biochar and 63 t ha−1 compost | Increase microbial number and activity while having no influence on the amount of copper available. |
Impact of adding biochar to the composting process.
Many studies have demonstrated that biochar may adsorb contaminants from water and wastewater, including both organic and inorganic pollutants. Antibiotics, for example, are becoming common organic contaminants in the environment. Sludge-derived biochar has been shown to be a cost-effective and reusable adsorbent for the elimination of antibacterial drugs. Table 4 shows how biochar can remove organic pollutants from water via adsorption [68, 69].
Reference | Feedstock | Removal efficiency | Organic pollutant |
---|---|---|---|
[58] | Chicken manure | 100% | Microcystin-LR |
[59] | Sewage sludge | 26%-60% | Tetracycline |
[60] | Corn stalks | 97.62% | Norfloxacin |
[61] | Pinus radiata sawdust | 100% | Sulfamethoxazole |
[58] | Mangosteen peel | 80% | Methylene blue |
[3] | Cool Planet LLC | <6% | Ibuprofen |
Organic Farms LLC | <10% | Sulfamethoxazole | |
Corncob | — | Bisphenol A | |
[62] | Waste Douglas fir | 100% | salicylic acid |
[63] | Corn straw | 100% | Atrazine |
[64] | Wood | 20%-30% | Sulfamethoxazole |
[65] | Rice-husk | ~90% | Tetracycline |
[66] | Buffalo-weed | 88.47% | Trichloroethylene |
[67] | Soybean Stalk | 99.5% | Phenanthrene |
Organic pollutant removal by biochar in waste.
The adsorption of pollutants by biochar in water depends on the physiochemical characteristics of targeted pollutants and the types of biochar. For example, the sawdust-derived biochar can remove entirely 20.3 mg/l of sulfamethoxazole while wood-derived biochar demonstrates substantially lower removal effectiveness of sulfamethoxazole (20–30%). For biochar obtained from organic farm, it demonstrates the lowest removal effectiveness of sulfamethoxazole (<6%) [23]. Varying pyrolysis temperatures led in different tetracycline removal efficiencies for biochar generated with rice husk [24]. The removal efficiency of tetracycline ranged from 26% to 60% when the pyrolysis temperature was 800°C and the initial concentration of tetracycline was 200 mg/l. When the pyrolysis temperature was 500°C and the initial tetracycline concentration was 5 mg/l, the removal efficiency was around 90%. It is therefore, established that pyrolysis temperature had important effect on the adsorption capacity of biochar. Other parameters such as pyrolysis time, in addition to pyrolysis temperature, can influence the physiochemical characteristics of biochar, which in turn affects the adsorption capacity of biochar. Heavy metal contamination is a major problem that requires immediate attention. Heavy metals can be removed from the aquatic environment using adsorption as well. Biochar\'s ability to remove heavy metal ions is listed in Table 5 [80]. The removal of heavy metals by biochar is dependent on the types of heavy metals and the types of feedstock, similar to the removal of organic pollutants by biochar. Biochar has a lower removal capacity for Cd2+ and As5+ than other heavy metals like Pb2+ and Zn2+ among the major heavy metals [25]. Biochar produced from corn straw, for example, had a different Cu2+ adsorption capability like 0.1 g/l of biochar can remove 1 mM of Cu2+ when the pyrolysis temperature is set at 800°C. And, when the pyrolysis temperature is set to 400°C, 20 g/l biochar can remove 20 mg/l Cu2+ [26]. Similarly, biochar produced from water hyacinths shows different adsorption capacities for Cd2+ and Pb2+, demonstrating that biochar adsorption capability varies depending on the targeted heavy metals. Zhang et al. [27] discovered that biochar prepared at high temperatures was effective in removing Cr (VI). A recent study found that sludge-derived biochar may successfully remove ammonium by monolayer chemical adsorption [59], implying that competition adsorption occurred when biochar was utilised as adsorbents for the removal of heavy metals and organic pollutants in the presence of ammonium. It should be highlighted that the adsorption capacity of the functional groups-modified biochar is clearly improved by the functional groups. The amino-modified biochar, for example, significantly increases the adsorption of Cu (II) due to strong complexation [60]. Moreover, biochar can enrich microorganisms, which can aid in the removal of organic matter, in addition to adsorption. [48] discovered that the proportion of Archaea was significantly greater in the presence of fruitwood-derived biochar, which relieved the stress of ammonia and acids on the microbes, raising microbial activity even more. Lu et al. [35] discovered a similar phenomenon as well. When using biochar for water and wastewater treatment, it\'s important to keep in mind that it can be recycled and reused. Based on the foregoing findings, biochar performs well in batch experiments in removing the contaminants of concern. However, various contaminants coexist in water and wastewater. Competitive adsorption may occur, resulting in results that differ from those obtained in the laboratory. In addition, the adsorption of contaminants by biochar may be affected by actual flow conditions. As a result, more research should be done in the lab to imitate the real-world condition and study the efficacy of biochar in the removal of contaminants.
Reference | Feedstock | Removal efficiency | Heavy metal |
---|---|---|---|
[70] | Corn straws | 97.7% | Cu2+ |
[33] | Rape straw | 100% | Cd2+ |
[49] | Sawdust and swine manure | 100% | Pb2+ |
[71] | Mangosteen peel | 80% | Cd2+ |
[72] | Corn straw | 99.24% | Cd2+ |
[73] | Celery | 97.7% | Pb2+ |
[74] | Scots pine | ~23% | Cd2+ |
[75] | Water hyacinths | ~60% | Cd2+ |
[75] | Sugar cane bagasse | ~80% | Pb2+ |
[76] | Macroalga | ~80% | Cu2+ |
[77] | Wheat straw | 100% | Cd2+ |
[78] | Hickory wood | 95.9% | Cd2+ |
[79] | Pinewood | ~35% | As5+ |
[3] | Rice husk | ~100% | Cr6+ |
[3] | Anaerobic digested sludge | 26% | Ni2+ |
Heavy metal uptake by biochar in water.
Biochar is a good building material for insulating buildings and managing humidity because of its low thermal conductivity and capacity to absorb water. Biochar, together with cement mortar clay and lime, can be used with sand in a 1: 1 ratio. As a result, the plaster made using this technology has excellent insulation and breathing capabilities, allowing it to sustain humidity levels of 45–70% in both summer and winter. This prevents dry air, which can cause respiratory problems and allergies, as well as moisture caused by air condensing on the outer walls, which can lead to mould growth [27].
The capacity to carefully adjust the structure and chemistry of biochar at nanoscale (nm) scales allows certain aspects of the biochar to be altered to target certain environmental engineering solutions, comparable to the proposed "designer biochar" for agricultural uses. It is crucial to remember, however, that once in the field; biochar characteristics do not remain constant over time. Even at ambient temperatures, ageing, oxidation, and microbial degradation can modify surface functional groups and chemistry, affecting sorption characteristics. The list of biochar\'s potential engineering applications is continually growing. Due to its unique magnetic properties, magnetic biochar opens the door to facilitating removal of various contaminants from soil or other media. This broadens the scope of biochar\'s possible use in environmental remediation.
Along with the widespread use of biochar, it may have some disadvantages which may lead to harmful impact on the environment. When using bio-char in the environment, one of the most crucial aspects to consider is stability. The carbon structure makes up the majority of biochar. Biochar stability refers to the stability of the carbon structure in general. Aromaticity and the degree of aromatic condensation in biochar are markers of its carbon structure. Biochar stability must be considered because different biochars have varying physiochemical properties. Due to the instability of biochar, Huang et al. [28] observed the potential dissolution of organic matter from biochar in the complexation of heavy metals, implying that dissolved organic matter from biochar can be discovered in solution. Furthermore, the aromaticity, stability, and resistivity of the dissolved organic matter may be high. When biochar is used in the treatment of water and wastewater, the carbon content of the water body may rise due to the release of carbon from the biochar. Furthermore, biochar, particularly sludge-derived biochar, includes heavy metals, which may leach out during the water and wastewater treatment process, resulting in heavy metal contamination. When biochar is used as a catalyst support, the catalyst\'s stability tends to deteriorate after a few uses. One reason for the lower catalyst stability could be charcoal structural degradation. As a result, biochar stability is also linked to water and wastewater treatment quality. In conclusion, the stability of biochar has a significant impact on its environmental applicability. As a result, more research is needed in the future to determine the stability of biochar. Because pyrolysis conditions can change carbon content and structure however, research into the relationship between biochar stability and pyrolysis conditions is important. Biochar\'s possible toxicity on microorganisms should be considered in addition to its stability. Biochar increases the enzymatic activities of soil microorganisms at low doses, according to Gong et al. [75], demonstrating that low doses of biochar had no toxicity on the bacteria. Dong et al. [79] shown that Fe3O4-modified bamboo biochar has a low cytotoxicity potential. In contrast, high doses of tobacco stem-derived biochar exhibited cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in epithelial cells through promoting ROS production. As previously stated, biochar has a wide range of physical and chemical properties. More research into the potential toxicity of biochar to the environment is needed to support its effective application. Fish, algae, water fleas, and luminous bacteria can all be used to conduct toxicity tests.
This chapter provided an overview of biochar application and its interaction with other substances, focusing on its use in environmental remediation. Firstly, the raw material especially waste materials used for biochar production offers a treatment option for wastes that contributes to environmental sustainability. Furthermore, biochar\'s practical applicability is aided by its low-cost feedstock and simple preparation technique. Biochar has the ability to remediate, improve soil, and mitigate climate change, all of which contribute to environmental sustainability. However, the primary explanation for the increase in soil fertility remained unknown, and the work on the impact of biochar on carbon sequestration needs to be conducted and understood. Composting organic waste using biochar can help promote biological decomposition of organic waste. However, different doses of biochar were required for various organic wastes and biochar kinds. As a result, a biochar application strategy should be developed depending on the characteristics of organic solid waste composting and soil. Biochar can be employed as absorbents in the decontamination of water and wastewater, but its adsorption capacity and stability must be improved. Biochar can activate persulfate, which can be used to remove hazardous organic pollutants from water and wastewater, however the relationship between biochar structure and persulfate activation needs to be studied further to figure out how it works. In conclusion, biochar has a bright future in improving environmental sustainability. The majority of bio-char research is currently being done in laboratories. Biochar\'s environmental impact has yet to be fully understood. Furthermore, the real world is more complex than the laboratory, resulting in ambiguity about biochar\'s environmental impact. More in situ tests are needed to determine the true impact of biochar on the environment, such as environmental microorganisms, before it is used on a broad basis. Furthermore, the preparation conditions of biochar for industrial use must be enhanced depending on the various environmental reasons.
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Very young children are regular users of smartphones and tablet, so their early digital engagement poses new challenges to parent-child relationships and parental role. First, the chapter introduces the “digital parenting” construct, moving through the literature from “traditional” parenting styles to more recent studies on “parental mediation,” that is, the different behaviors parents adopt to regulate children’s engagement with the Internet and digital media. Second, the chapter reviews empirical researches on different parental mediation practices (active or restrictive behaviors) and how they are adjusted according to the child’s characteristics (age, digital competences, etc.) or parent’s media competence and beliefs. Finally, from a bidirectional perspective of parent-child relationships, the chapter discusses the role of youths’ social involvement, communication, self-disclosure, and digital skills on parent’s beliefs and practices. 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A particular parenting style influences all phases of development and life style of adolescent. Helicopter parents overly protect their children from the difficulties by setting some set of instructions without consideration of the uniqueness of their children. Recent literature has got huge attention on this parenting style and debating the pros and cons on the development of child. Higher life satisfaction and better psychological wellbeing have been found in the children of highly intrusive parents. When there are positive effects of helicopter parenting, there are negative outcome and impacts that have also been studied. The difficulties in emotional regulation, academic productivity, and social skills among children raised by helicopter parenting have been reported in the literature. Low self-efficacy, lack of trust on peers, and alienation from peers have also been associated with helicopter parenting. The chapter highlights the associated aspects of childhood and adolescence, raised by helicopter parenting. As parents have their own concern about raising their children in certain manner, it is important to understand the underlying mechanism of parenting style. Therefore, this chapter also describes the theoretical framework. The associated mental health issues and supportive psychological intervention to be also discussed.",book:{id:"9043",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective"},signatures:"Deepika Srivastav and M.N. 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Building solid healthy relationships at this stage of their lives is of utmost importance to help them cope with the changes and challenges they are experiencing. The purpose of this chapter is to explore the parent-adolescent relationship in the substance dependency field. The focus is on the relationship between parents and their adolescents who have a substance use disorder. Parenting adolescents poses its own set of challenges, making it difficult to build and maintain healthy parent-adolescent relationships. We argue that although adolescent substance use disorder has been extensively researched, the relationship between parents and adolescents with substance use disorder has surprisingly not received the same attention. It is this gap that this chapter seeks to address. With this in mind, the ecological systems theory was employed here to shed light on the importance and significance of developing healthy parent-adolescent relationships. The findings show that the parent-adolescent relationship primarily informs the daily living of both the parents and the adolescents. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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