\r\n\tBoth diagnosis and clinical manipulation of the patient with vasospasm is a unique and challenging situation. Multi-clinical approach is extremely mandatory. The patient must be treated in a center, which requires a experienced team with both neurological surgeons, interventional radiologists, neurologists and neuroanesthesiologists. Moreover, a well-equiped, isolated neurointensive care is needed for all patients suffering form subarachnoid hemorraghe. \r\n\tIn their daily practice, both neurological surgeons, interventional radiologists, neurologists, neuroanesthesiologists, and even intensive care providers have to deal and challenge of vasospasm. Numerous studies relevant to pathophysiological mechanisms underlying vasospasm had been published, but we still know little about the exact mechanisms causing vasospasm. In the last decades of modern medical era, despite the technological developments concerning the neurological care of the patients with vasospasm, we still have no effective treatment and preventive care of this devastating entity. \r\n\tThe aim of this book project is to provide in detailed knowledge to both physicians and scientists dealing with cerebral vasospasm. This book will attract interest of both students, residents, specialists and academics of neurological sciences.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a824e678bcab74178b208a6bb6f6bb5",bookSignature:"Dr. Bora Gürer",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9448.jpg",keywords:"vasospasm, cellular responses, vascular tone, blood breakdown products, biogenic amins, electrolytes, transcranial doppler, digital subtraction angiography, cerebral blood flow studies, nitrovasodilators, free radical scavengers, calcium channel blockers, endothelin based approaches, balloon angioplasty, medical angioplasty, microneurosurgery, intraoperative manipulations",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 19th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 9th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 8th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 27th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 27th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"95341",title:"Dr.",name:"Bora",middleName:null,surname:"Gürer",slug:"bora-gurer",fullName:"Bora Gürer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/95341/images/system/95341.jpg",biography:"Bora Gurer is currently affiliated to Department of Neurosurgery, University of Health Sciences, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Education and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey. He graduated from Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Medicine. Besides being the youngest associate professor of neurosurgery in this country, he has a keen interest in complex neurovascular, neurooncological and skull base surgeries. He has authored numerous papers in peer-reviewed national and international journals.",institutionString:"Fatih Sultan Mehmet Education and Research Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"304289",firstName:"Rebekah",lastName:"Pribetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304289/images/13255_n.png",email:"rebekah@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8204",title:"Vascular Malformations of the Central Nervous System",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b6a8a26a78af3ac73731663a494fbad",slug:"vascular-malformations-of-the-central-nervous-system",bookSignature:"Bora Gürer and Pinar Kuru Bektaşoğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8204.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95341",title:"Dr.",name:"Bora",surname:"Gürer",slug:"bora-gurer",fullName:"Bora Gürer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6374",title:"Hydrocephalus",subtitle:"Water on the Brain",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b431d113b9d7fca7e67c463f0970ed04",slug:"hydrocephalus-water-on-the-brain",bookSignature:"Bora Gürer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6374.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95341",title:"Dr.",name:"Bora",surname:"Gürer",slug:"bora-gurer",fullName:"Bora Gürer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"René Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"rene-mauricio-barria",fullName:"René Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49374",title:"Cell Biology of Virus Infection. The Role of Cytoskeletal Dynamics Integrity in the Effectiveness of Dengue Virus Infection",doi:"10.5772/61704",slug:"cell-biology-of-virus-infection-the-role-of-cytoskeletal-dynamics-integrity-in-the-effectiveness-of-",body:'
1. Introduction
The cell biology of viral infection, as a new scientific approach, considers the cell as the structural and functional unit of viral infection. Within this new research program there are four topics:
There are a lot of publications already covering these four points of the cell biology of virus infection; however, here we will focus only on the role of the cytoskeleton on DENV infection. Although many years ago these studies could be classified as “virus–host cell interactions” as it was usually considered in many virology journals, since the onset of the new millennium and the advent of converged methodologies/fields of research it is possible to take another view of viral infections. Recent developments in confocal microscopy hardware, image capture and collection with augmented resolution using charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras, digital image processing, improvements in the genetic engineering of green fluorescent protein (GFP) and the chemistry of fluorophores, together with the increased capacity of computational tools for taking thousands of images, have created innovative conditions permitting the understanding of viral infections as a whole [2, 3]. Several researchers consider viruses as tools, or molecular scalpels, which are very useful for dissecting complex molecular and cellular mechanisms [4]. This chapter will consider the cycle of Virus Dengue Serotype 2 (DENV2) as a series of steps in which the virus takes control of the cytoskeleton from host cells [5].
The possibility of real-time visualization of viral infections was reached by means of genetic manipulation of the cells and viruses – cells with fluorescent subcellular compartments and viruses with fluorescent tags [6, 7]; this will be not considered here since the main goal of our approach is to study complete virions within host cells. In this context, molecular studies of isolated viral proteins in a cellular environment are not considered under the cell biology of viral infections discipline, however, those approaches are important if they are following previous research in cell biology of viral infections, because these reductionist studies can offer details regarding the identification of molecular actors in the complex cellular environment of viral infection.
On the other hand, the study of intracellular invaders [5], considering not only viruses but also bacteria, fungi, and protozoan parasites, which aims to find a cellular platform for microbiology research with the eukaryotic host cell as the main actor, is defined as cellular microbiology [8]. Since viruses are obligated parasites, they entirely depend on the cellular machinery to carry out its replication cycle; in this sense for enveloped viruses the intracellular–vesicle trafficking and the cytoskeleton play a decisive role, mainly because both of them offer structural and functional platforms where many RNA viruses are assembled and whose morphogenesis occurs in the cytoplasm of known viral factories [9, 10]. From this viewpoint, DENV will be considered as one experimental system for studying the cell biology of viral infections – its complex interactions could throw light on the search for disease therapies.
Dengue is emerging globally as the most important arboviral disease threatening human populations. It is caused by the Flavivirus DENV [11, 12], which is a small and enveloped virus with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA, which can be translated into a single polyprotein by a host cell and viral proteins [1, 13], and is transmitted to humans by Aedes genus mosquitoes [14-17]. There are nearly 2.5 billion people at risk of infection with DENV in tropical and subtropical countries. It is endemic in more than 100 countries and about 100 million cases of dengue fever are estimated annually, with over 500,000 cases being the potentially fatal dengue hemorrhagic fever [12]. Dengue virus is therefore associated with high socio-economic impacts [18, 19].
The availability of vaccines and drugs for RNA viruses has become a much greater challenge than expected, because RNA viruses evolution/mutation rates continue to elude both, vaccine design and drug effectiveness, generating extensive drug-resistant mutants, and therefore over time creating far more virulent strains [20-23]. Therefore, searching for answers inside the cell may offer an alternative method to combat the virus. Recently Villar and collaborators [24], in a big clinical trial implicating several Latin American countries, have shown important protection percentages (greater than 60%), representing an important advance in the fight against the first viral infection in Colombia. In spite of these encouraging clinical responses in patients given the tetravalent vaccine for dengue, it is necessary to wait for several years in order to evaluate the impact of this vaccine has in changing the epidemiological data of the disease. Since such vaccines take time to develop or be assessed, hope could come in the form of the development of antiviral drugs directed to cellular/molecular targets in host cells.
In this way, the cell biology of viral infections [1] has matured considerably in recent years, with cytoskeleton–virus interactions being of particular interest, because it plays both a structural and functional roles in several steps of the viral replication cycle [25, 26], connecting the cell with its environment and participating decisively in the spreading of the virus to neighboring uninfected cells [27]. The virus cannot be transported into the cell by diffusion like small molecules can, therefore, the cytoskeleton and other intracellular structures become a barrier to these [28]. This is why many viruses have shown that viral infection can cause extensive and sophisticated cytoskeletal rearrangements [10, 29-31] and alterations in the endomembrane system, something required for the replication and assembly of new virions [10, 32]. All of this leads to a cytopathic effect, which is widely known and distinctive for viral infection in cellular cultures [32]. This structural and functional intimate interaction between intracellular pathogens and the cell, involves the three elements of the cytoskeleton (actin, microtubules, and intermediate filaments) [30, 33, 34].The involvement of the cytoskeleton in viral infection has been studied for over 30 years [35], and has been found to be involved throughout the life cycle of different viruses. There are many descriptions of its involvement for adenovirus [36], human and equine herpes virus [37], HIV [38], HTLV-1 [27], Rous Sarcoma Virus [39], poliovirus [40], Epstein–Barr Virus [41], human respiratory syncytial virus [42], SV40 [43], Vaccinia virus [44, 45], poliedrosis [46], papiloma [47], and pseudorabies [48]. The replication cycle of DENV has been extensively studied with particular regard to early events such as binding, fusion, uncoating, and intracellular transport of viral proteins [28, 49, 50]. On the other hand, the relationships between the replication of DENV and the cytoskeleton host cell are not fully characterized, although data in some literature, concerning influenza and other viruses, support their existence [13, 51-56].
A structural and functional integration of vesicle trafficking and cytoskeletal/endomembrane systems in viral replication and morphogenesis represents the viral factories redefinition [10, 57, 58]. It has been postulated that trafficking occurs in microtubule motor proteins (entry via dynein and exit through kinesin [59]), something which explains the translocation of proteins between the two routes in the microtubule organizing center (MTOC) [59]. Specifically, with respect to DENV, cytoskeleton and endo/exocytosis have not been studied comprehensively [60], especially where there is dependence between vimentin intermediate filaments and the DENV infection, in which microtubules now were apparently necessary. Intercalating fluorophores were used to label the envelopes of virions associated with cholesterol isolated DENV [50, 61]; tracking was achieved in the early events of cell entry, but this did not shed new light on the endomembrane system and cytoskeleton. It has also been reported that DENV entry by endocytosis, which is pH dependent and mediated by clathrin [62], and the involvement of actin microfilaments and microtubules in mosquito cells DENV had infected was important because the inhibition of these cytoskeleton components decreased infection by 80%. The small Rho GTPases are a protein family which among other cellular functions, govern cytoskeleton reorganization [63]. When isoprenylation of Rho GTPases was blocked, using statins, the incidence of HIV[64] and DENV [65, 66] infection was reduced via alteration of the virus assembly pathway in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
The interactions between specific viral components and different molecular complexes of the host cell are fundamental in determining the infection rate. By such reasoning, cell biological characterization of the host–pathogen interactions, and knowledge of the possible role of the basic components of the cytoskeleton, microtubules, and actin microfilaments, allow the elucidation of some mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of DENV. This allows the identification of new potential host targets that could be used to design efficient and rational antiviral therapies.
The applied focus of the cell biology of viral infections is to searching for antiviral therapies based in cellular targets, which have special importance, because the mutation rates of cellular genes are several thousands of times smaller than the antivirals directed to the specific viral proteins. To illustrate this there are several reports of antiviral candidates blocking cellular targets in the host (Src kinase), like the works of Yang and collaborators [67, 68], and some reports from our working group where the HMG-CoA was blocked by lovastatin on assays in vitro and in vivo [65, 69]. Additionally, we have found out that ubiquitin–proteasome and cytoskeletal elements seem altered after dengue infected cells were treated with curcumin [70]. However, the most relevant finding in this approach is that one protein (IFITM, interferon-induced transmembrane protein) could be altered for blocking different viruses belonging to several families [71].
In order to determine the contribution of the two cytoskeleton elements (actin and microtubules) in DENV replication, a series of experimental assays was completed using Cytochalasin D and Nocodazole concomitantly using a high preservation/fixation method on the cytoskeleton in order to analyze cellular images taken using fluorescent microscopy in combination with viral titration and quantification of viral proteins. This gave a better understanding of the participation of the cytoskeleton on the functional and structural issues of DENV replication. The data shown here are in agreement with previous reports from several authors confirming distinct roles in the viral infections of DENV [72-76]. The high quality of the subcellular resolution of cytoskeleton elements in this research actually reinforces their role in these structures in DENV replication.
2. Results and discussion
2.1. Preservation/ fixation of the cytoskeleton in infected cells
To understand the cytoskeletons involvement in the DENV replication cycle and virus–host cell interaction, it is necessary to make appropriate preservations with minimal levels of perturbations to the cell morphology. To test which components of the cytoskeleton (microtubules and actin microfilaments) play a role in DENV infection, a method for preserving and fixing the cytoskeleton should be implemented [39, 40], because the conventional preparations for fluorescence microscopy with methanol/acetone, have a very dramatic effect on the cell by flushing (emptying) most of its cellular contents; thus, the information obtained from ultrastructural studies depends on the type of fixation, among other things, and therefore the level of structure conservation [77-79]. In several cell lines it was demonstrated (Fig. 1) that methanol/acetone treatment preserves microtubules but depolymerizes microfilaments and disrupts both mitochondrial and nuclear morphology. PFA-PBS preserves the general cytoarchitecture, but compromises the quality of microstructural detail. PFA-CBS was found to be the best method to fix and preserve cellular microarchitecture (actin, tubulin), without inducing any cellular change.
Figure 1.
Fluorescence microscopy optimization for visualizing cellular elements. The methanol-acetone (MA) standard protocol does not preserve actin filaments. A comparison between PFA-PBS and PFA-CBS did not demonstrate wide differences in the most notable structures, however, only PFA-CBS method revealed some cellular components which were stabilized satisfactorily. It was found that the optimal concentration for cytoskeletal element visualization was with 3.8% PFA-CBS to fix the cells and antibodies or fluorophores dilutions in CBS of +5% FBS.
2.2. Non-cytotoxic concentrations of cytoskeleton depolymerizing agents
The integrity and functionality of cytoskeleton elements are necessary for their hypothesized role in DENV infections, for which there functionality was evaluated by means of depolymerizing agents. These agents are not entirely harmless to the cells, something which was determined by means dosage ranges having low cytotoxicity (10–20% cytotoxicity) Fig. 2 (a, b). In Fig. 2 (c), the pattern and distribution of cytoskeleton and nucleus components are normal, with no condensation or fragmentation observed. Cellular alterations due to a toxic injury were not evident in these concentrations.
Figure 2.
Cytotoxicity assays for cytoskeleton depolymerizing agents. Cytotoxicity assays were performed by cell viability measuring by the method of MTT [3-[4,5 dimetiltiazole-2yl)-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide), to determine NZ and CytD concentrations that were below the toxic level to cells. We were able to observe the NZ (a, c, e) and CytD (b, d, f) effect in Vero cells. It was found that NZ 10 µM and 4 µM CytD had a cytotoxicity of about 20% and 15%, respectively.
2.3. Relationship between DENV2 and the cytoskeleton
In order to determine some relationship between viral particles and cytoskeletal elements in several steps of the replicative cycle of DENV, Vero cells were infected with DENV2, and processed 18 hours post infection (hpi) by fluorescence microscopy. The fluorescence signal coincident between actin, Fig. 3 (a, b), or the microtubules (c–f), and the viral protein, matching the envelope protein with stress fibers (b) for actin, and microtubules (d), suggests some potential structural relationship, which has an involvement of these cytoskeleton elements within some steps of the DENV infectious cycle.
Figure 3.
DENV2–cytoskeleton interaction. Vero cell DENV2 infected, viral particles interact with actin (a–b); viral particles interact with microtubules (c–f), were used Phalloidin-Alexa 594 for detect actin or Mab antiβ III Tubulin-Cy3 for microtubules, polyclonal antibody anti-Envelope + antiR IgG Alexa Fluor® 488 for viral envelope protein and Hoechst 33258 for nuclei.
2.4. Subcellular distribution pattern of viral protein altered by depolymerization of microtubules (treatment with nocodazole, NZ)
To investigate the effect of the interrupted cytoskeleton on the viruses replication cycle, Vero cells were treated with NZ before, or after, DENV2 infections. As shown in Fig. 4 (a) and\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 5 (a), mock-infected cells without treatment using microtubule depolymerizing agent, NZ, had structures and patterns of observed microtubules traditionally described, i.e., long filaments which are flexible and winding that occupy almost the entire space of the cytosol which emerge from the perinuclear region and are consistent with the MTOC. In contrast, cells that were treated with NZ, Fig. 4 (a), had microtubules which were completely depolymerized, as evidenced by a very fine spotted pattern when observed – something which was not observed the perinuclear region of the MTOC.
Figure 4.
Effects of treatment with NZ and CytD prior to DENV2 infection Vero cells were treated with NZ 5 at 10 µM and CytD 2 at 4 mM, 6 hours before infection to determine if these elements were necessary for virus entry. In both treatments a decrease in infected cells was observed using fluorescence microscopy (a). For NZ and CytD there was an inhibition of about 50% in PFU compared to the control (b), and also a significant decrease of viral protein (c). Were used monoclonal anti-β III Tubulin-Cy3 to detect microtubules, Phalloidin-Alexa 594 for detect actin, polyclonal anti-Envelope + antiR IgG Alexa 488 for viral envelope protein and Hoechst 33258 for nuclei.
Figure 5.
Effects of treatment with NZ and CytD after DENV infection. Vero cells were infected with DENV for 1 hour, the inoculum was removed and washed with PBS, after this the cells were treated with NZ 5–10 µM and CytD 2–4 mM, for 24 hours, in order to determine if these elements were necessary during the replicative cycle of DENV. In both treatments there was a decrease in infected cells when viewed using fluorescence microscopy (a), which was confirmed by the reduction of PFU in the supernatant of the treated cells (b) and viral protein concentration (c). Were used monoclonal anti-β III Tubulin-Cy3 to detect microtubules, phalloidin 594 for actin, polyclonal anti-Envelope + antiR IgG Alexa 488 for viral envelope protein and Hoechst for nuclei
Infected cells without treatment with NZ showed a subcellular pattern distribution of diffuse staining of the viral envelope protein, with some small dotted clumps. In order to understand whether microtubules are required for viral entry, treatment was performed 6 hours before infection with NZ (5μM and 10μM), and then with DENV2 at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 5 for 1 hour. The inoculum was retired, washings were performed with PBS, and cells were fixed at 24 hpi. The results obtained by fluorescence microscopy indicated that there was a great decrease in the number of infected cells, Fig. 4 (a). In contrast to this, when the cells were infected and post-treated with NZ, significant alterations were produced in this distribution pattern, showed the envelope protein in vesicles as being distributed throughout the cytoplasm, with an apparent subcellular distribution compatible with a Golgi complex Fig. 5 (a). This is because microtubule depolymerization–induced NZ treatment leads to Golgi apparatus disintegration, since the DENV maturation processes used the secretory route in this organelle. In all treatments with NZ, the nucleus was observed with a normal structure.
2.5. Subcellular distribution patterns of viral protein altered by actin depolymerization (treatment with CytD)
To investigate the effect of the interrupted cytoskeleton on the virus replication cycle, Vero cells were treated with cytochalasin D (CytD) before or after infection with DENV2. The mock-infected cells without the depolymerizing agent, CytD, showed a normal pattern with long and parallel fibrils distributed throughout the cytosol, mainly stress fibers, Fig. 4(a) and\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 5 (a). This is dramatically reduced after treatment with CytD, resulting in actin depolymerization, and leaving it in a spotted pattern of coarse grains, producing some larger groupings. In the case of actin microfilaments, in DENV2 infected cells, somewhat different findings arose compared with those observed with microtubules. In cells without CytD treatment, remodeling of actin microfilaments was clear, where cells were characterized by filopodia formation and many cells were observed with actin tails. These two actin conformations may be related to actin remodeling by Rho GTPases signaling pathway effectors. The envelope viral protein showed two subcellular distribution patterns, one being a diffuse pattern which was very fine and distributed in the perinuclear region throughout the cytosol, while the other pattern showed a few small clumps of viral protein. According to previous findings in vaccinia virus [45] and DENV [45, 65] the first patters is called "non-assembled viral protein" and the second "assembled viral protein."
In order to understand actin’s role in whether microtubules are required for viral entry, the treatment was performed 6 hours before infection with CytD (2μM and 4μM) then with DENV-2 at a MOI of 5 for 1 hour. The inoculum was retired, washings were performed with PBS, and cells were fixed at 24 hpi. To depolymerize actin filaments with CytD in DENV2 infected cells, the subcellular distribution pattern of these cells was altered similarly to uninfected cells. The results obtained by fluorescence microscopy indicated that there was a decrease in the number of infected cells, Fig. 4 (a), with observations using fluorescence microscopy showing a clear accumulation in the perinuclear region that matched the viral factory. In contrast, when cells were infected and post-treated with CytD, significant alterations in this distribution pattern were produced, although the two patterns of distribution of “assembled” viral protein and “non-assembled” changed very little, since they remained in both cells infected with DENV2 and treated with CytD, and in those infected without CytD, Fig. 5 (a). Nevertheless, it is notable that the amount of viral protein “assembled” was markedly reduced in CytD treated cells, suggesting the great role of actin integrity in viral assembly. In all treatments with CytD, the nucleus was observed with a normal structure, Fig. 5 (a).
2.6. The dynamic integrity of microtubules necessary to maintain efficiency of viral replication
To assess if microtubule dynamic integrity has any functional impact on the viral replication process, DENV2-infected cells were pre- or post-treated with 5µM and cell ELISA, after which supernatants were collected in order to quantify viral infectious particle production and intracellular viral protein. NZ pre-treatment, in addition to causing a decrease in the number of infected cells, also produced a decrease in the number of plaque forming units (PFU) quantified in the supernatant with respect to a control group, where the percentage of inhibition od PFUs was 37% for NZ 5 μM and 46% for 10 μM, Fig. 4 (b), and the amount of viral protein in infected cells was reduced to 43% and 37%, respectively, Fig. 4 (c). NZ post-treatment produced a decrease in the number of infectious particles with respect to the control group (infected cells, DMSO), measured by plaque assay (PFU), between 25% and 28% for 5μM and 10uM of this depolymerizing agent, Fig. 5 (b), consistent with a decreased viral protein of 42% approximately for both NZ concentrations, Fig. 5 (c). Together, these results suggest a role is played by microtubules in the assembly, and export, of infectious viral particles. It is probable that, if cellular structures are not properly preserved, not possible observe changes associated with the infection. In this work, we note that altering microtubule dynamics has a direct effect on infection with DENV2, contrary to what was reported by [60].
2.7. Integrity of actin filaments has a greater role in viral protein production than microtubule integrity
To assess if actin dynamic integrity has any functional impact on the viral replication process, DENV2-infected cells were pre- or post-treated with 2µM and 4mM of CytD, after which supernatants were collected for quantifying the viral infectious particle production, and cell ELISA measured intracellular viral protein expressed. In CytD 2–4 μM pre-treated cells, a clear diminution of viral infectious particles was observed, 35–43%, Fig. 4 (b), and viral protein 47–56%, Fig. 4 (c). Interestingly, CytD post-treatment produced a significant decrease in the number of infectious particles production with respect to a control group (infected cells, DMSO), which were measured by plaque assay (PFU), detecting a reduction in viral titer of approximately 37% for CytD 2 μM and 50% for 4 μM, Fig. 5 (b). Actin filament depolymerization produced an insignificant decrease in the amount of viral protein, with non-statistical differences with respect to the control cells, Fig. 5 (c). This suggests that actin may be involved not only in virus entry, but also in any step of virus maturation and, since depolymerized can alter the assembly of viral infectious particles and/or delay the output of these, reflected in a decrease of PFUs and in an intracellular accumulation of viral protein. Thus, although the depolymerization of microtubules and actin filaments reduces the production of infectious viral particles, actin filaments appear to have the most relevant role in this process.
Most recently authors found out that the cytoskeleton is not really necessary for diverse virus replication, specifically for these viruses: Sindbis virus (SINV; family Togaviridae), vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV; family Rhabdoviridae), and Herpes simplex virus (family Herpesviridae) [80]. Although these interesting data suggest a non-conventional role of the cytoskeleton, it must be taken into account that the images are only partially showing the phenomena, because the fine elements of the cytoskeleton (i.e., actin and microtubules), apparently demonstrated some artificial effects due to their preservation/fixation conditions.
There is an important role played by cytoskeleton elements in the assembly and morphogenesis of several viruses, reported in classical works [81] and more recent papers [30, 82, 83], which partially explains the data shown here. The replication complex and the viral factories are cellular structures from viral origins, but these complex structures need macromolecular and cellular constituents. In viral factories membranes and cytoskeleton elements are recruited as part of their constituents, because it is necessary to limit viral activities in this limited space [32]. In this sense, it is logical to attribute the important role of actin and microtubules in the viral assembly process, which in the case of some kind of blocking might produce a reduction in viral particle production.
Although there are some works about the role of the cytoskeleton on DENV infection, in which the participation of filopodia in DENV entry, as well as the function of Rho GTPases in regulation, is confirmed – a process by means of a cross-talk between Rac1 and Cdc42 [74, 76] – the preservation/fixation techniques in those specimens were not the best. Therefore, there are some doubts about the real participation of these elements in the dengue viral infections, because once the cells are significantly damaged the possibility for making the ulterior steps of the infectious cycle are difficult. However, the early stages of viral infections, like those shown by means of filopodia, are undoubtedly because the fine elements are well preserved.
In this vein, there is a collection of data, via images, proteins, and production of virions, demonstrating that the cytoskeleton plays an essential function in the viral replication processes. The viruses can be considered as probes for dissecting cellular signaling, cytoskeleton reorganization, and endocytosis [83, in this sense the research with dengue viruses could be considered similarly – with the actin microfilaments used for the viral assembly process since the disruption of these elements causes envelope viral protein aggregation. Images of “non-assembled” viral proteins have not been shown in others works. This pattern described here is compatible with other viruses [45, 84]. One such piece of work shows that altering actin remodeling by inhibition of a HMG-CoA reductase produces a scattered punctuated fluorescence pattern in viral protein after the treatment of lovastatin, which is compatible with an impaired assembly process. In agreement with these findings, we have shown the DENV2 infected cells treated with lovastatin, produce a clustering of envelope viral protein which also is attributed to some difficulties in the viral assembling process [65].
Consistent with this interpretation, the amounts of viral protein which had accumulated after the inhibition of actin filaments with cytochalasin D treatment was higher in comparison with the microtubules inhibited in the same conditions. If the “non-assembled” protein is reflecting some difficulty in this case [45, 65, 84], the potential role of actin microfilaments is implied in the viral assembly and/or maturation process of DENV. The indirect connection of actin microfilaments, Rho GTPases, with DENV assembly [65] had been used for clinical trials [85], based on the pleiotropic effects of inhibition of HMG-CoA by means of lovastatin [66]. The findings shown here offer new perspectives in the viral replication and morphogenesis of DENV, since at present there is lack of knowledge about the role played by actin in the viral factories and/or in the replication complex. On the other hand, the advantages of the technical approach shown here have been evidenced with other work, in which curcumin is able to alter the DENV2 replication process by blocking several cellular processes such as ubiquitin-proteasome and those of the cytoskeleton [72].
In spite of the diverse roles microtubules and actin microfilaments have in the different viral steps of replication for diverse viruses, more recently it was found that the replicative complex has intermediate filaments of vimentin which have a close, and structural, relationship with the non-structural protein 4A of DENV, forming part of their replication complex [86].
3. Conclusions
There has been an increased interest in recent years in understanding the cellular mechanisms that viruses exploit in the host cell, “Cell Biology of Viral Infection” is a new discipline that seeks to understand these intricate mechanisms [1]. Hence, in order to describe the participation of the cellular elements in DENV2 infection it is necessary to preserve the fine structure of cell morphology as closely as possible by avoiding any generation of artifacts.
In this work we have demonstrated the involvement of the cytoskeleton during DENV replication. It was determined that depolymerized microtubules and actin microfilaments generate disturbances in the DENV2 lifecycle, which causes a reduction in the production of infectious viral particles and in the intracellular expression of the viral envelope protein, as well as an altered subcellular distribution pattern of the viral protein envelope. This effect was more significant in the depolymerization of microtubules that in actin microfilaments. It has been reported that viral infections alter the global host proteomic in response to these, including cytoskeletal proteins [87-89]. However, although a role for the involvement of these proteins in viral infection is hypothesized, a route through which this occurs has yet to be identified.
4. Methods
4.1. Cell lines and virus
Aedes albopictus mosquito C6/36HT cells and epithelial Vero cell line (American Type Culture Collection CCL-81™) were grown in Dulbecco’s Eagle’s minimum essential medium (DMEM, GIBCO) supplemented with 2% or 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS, GIBCO), with 100 U/ml penicillin/100 µg/ml streptomycin and 0.25 µg/mL Amphotericin B. The cells were grown at 34°C with 5% CO2 (C6/36HT) and 37°C with 5% CO2 (Vero). DENV2 (New Guinea strain) was generously donated by María Elena Peñaranda and Eva Harris from the Sustainable Sciences Institute (SSI), San Francisco, California. The viruses were propagated in C6/36HT cells at low multiplicity of infection (MOI: 0,01 PFU/cell) and stored at -80ºC until used. Viral titers were detected by plaque assay, using a Vero cell monolayer culture under 1% methylcellulose overlay medium.
4.2. Antibodies and chemicals
The serum from rabbits against the envelope protein of DENV (polyclonal anti-DENV) was donated by Dr. Eva Harris and Robert Beatty (University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA). The secondary antibody coupled to peroxidase and anti-β-tubulin monoclonal coupled to Cy3 were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA). Mycotoxin phalloidin conjugated with Alexa Fluor-488 or Alexa Fluor 594 and acetylated tubulin were purchased from Molecular Probes Invitrogen Life Technologies (Carlsbad, CA, USA). CytD, NZ, and 3-(4,5-dimethyl thiazol-2yl)-2,55-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) were purchased from the Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA). FluorSave was purchased from Calbiochem.
4.3. MTT assay
Cell viability was measured by MTT assay [90] to determined NZ and CytD concentrations that were below cytotoxic levels. Cells were seeded, 25,000 cells/well, in 96-well plates and allowed to adhere for 24 hours at 37ºC in 5% CO2; cells were exposed to MTT (0.5mg/ml) for 4 hours, acid isopropanol (100μl) was then added to solubilize the formazan crystals produced. The culture dishes were incubated for 30 minutes and the absorbance was measured at 570nm in a Benchmark reader (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA). Vero cells were treated with 6 concentrations of these cytoskeleton-depolymerizing agents (NZ: 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, 20 and 40μM) and (CytD: 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8μM) for several periods (3, 6, 12, and 24 hours). The NZ and CytD were chosen at two concentrations (5μM and 10μM) and (2μM and 4mM) with a lower cytotoxicity (10% and 15%), but a preserved ability to depolymerize microtubules and inhibit actin polymerization, respectively. These agents were added to cultures 1 hour post-infection (hpi) with DENV.
4.4. Viral infection and treatments
In order to determine the cytoskeletal depolymerizing agent’s effects on DENV2 replication, experiments were undertaken as follows. Confluent Vero cell monolayers were grown on 24 (1 x 10 5) and 96 (2.5 x 104) multi-wells, in DMEM with 2% FBS, at 37°C and 5% CO2. Cells were infected in the absence of FBS at an MOI of 5 PFU/cell, after a 1-hour adsorption period at 4ºC, the viral inoculum was replaced with maintenance DMEM and incubated at 37ºC. Infected cells were incubated in the presence of NZ, CytD, or DMSO for the indicated times. These cells were maintained for 24 hours after infection and treatment. As a cytoskeleton infection control, we performed the same procedure without DENV under the same conditions. Coverslips for immunofluorescence (IF) were placed in 24 multi-wells. The cell monolayers were fixed and processed to visualize the viruses and cytoskeleton components by confocal fluorescence microscopy. Monolayers and culture supernatants were collected to determine the effect of CytD and NZ in viral protein production by cell ELISA. Additionally, the supernatants also were used to quantify the cytoskeleton blockage effect in infectious viral particle production by means of titration by plaque assay.
4.5. Titration by plaque assays
For quantification of infectious viral particles, the virus was titrated by plaque assays using supernatants of Vero cells infected with DENV2 and treated under different conditions, as described in [91, 92]. Briefly, cells were plated, 5x104 cells/well, on 24-well plates, in DMEM 2% FBS at 37°C in 5% CO2, and inoculated with serial dilutions of viral collected supernatants from 10-1 to 10-5 in DMEM without FBS. At 1 hpi the inoculum was removed, washed, had DMEM 2% FBS and finally 1.5% of carboximetilcelulose (SIGMA) added to it. After 8 days post-infection (dpi), the cells were fixed with paraformaldehyde (PFA) at 4% in PBS and revealed with crystal violet. The plaque number was recorded in order to calculate the PFU/ml. Two independent experiments were performed, each in duplicate.
4.6. Cell ELISA
Viral protein was quantified by a spectrophotometric cell ELISA, which is a modification of fluorometric ELISA previously described by [65]. To this immunodetection of viral protein in infected cells, Vero cells (2.5x104 cells) were submitted to different experimental strategies and were fixed for 30 minutes with 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA), washed three times with PBS, and permeabilized for 30 minutes with 0.1% Triton X-100. Endogenous peroxidase was quenched with 0.3% H2O2 in 10% methanol and, non-specific sites were saturated with a blocking buffer (10% FBS in PBS). Then the anti-DENV2 diluted (1:500) blocking buffer was incubated for 1 hour at 37°C. After washing with PBS, this was incubated for 30 minutes with a secondary antibody, anti-mouse IgG conjugated with HRPO. Finally after washing with PBS, chromogenic substrate SIGMA ® FAST OPD (St. Louis, MO, USA) was added to reveal the reaction and its absorbance was read at 405nm in the Benchmark reader (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, USA). To normalize the data, the total protein concentration in each well was determined by Bradford assay, interpolating absorbance data in a calibration curve with known concentrations of bovine serum albumin. Two independent experiments were performed with 3 replicates for each assay.
4.7. Fluorescence microscopy
In order to use the best preservation and fixation protocol for assays linked to the research, three fixations were assessed: paraformaldehyde 3.7% in phosphate buffered saline (PFA-PBS), paraformaldehyde 3.7% in cytoskeletal buffered sucrose (PFA-CBS), and Methanol-Acetone 1-1 (M-A). Vero cells were cultured in 24 multi-well plates with glass cover slips, at a density of 4.5x104 cells/well in DMEM 2% FBS. After 24 hours monolayers were fixed with different treatments. For the PFA-CBS treatment the medium was discarded, washed with CBS at 37°C, and fixed with PFA-CBS over 30 minutes at 37°C in 5% CO2. For the PFA-PBS treatment the medium was discarded, washed with PBS, and fixed with PFA-PBS over a period of 30 minutes. For the M-A treatment the medium was discarded, washed with PBS, and fixed with methanol-acetone over a period of 30 minutes at 4°C.
To evaluate the cytoskeleton blocking effects of CytD and NZ in DENV-2 infection, 24 hours after treatment Vero cell monolayers were rinsed once at 37ºC with CBS [10 mM PIPES (pH 6.9) (1,4-piperazinebis-ethane sulfonic acid), 100 mM NaCl, 1.5 mM MgCl2, and 300 mM sucrose. The cells were then permeabilized and simultaneously fixed with PFA-CBS for 30 minutes at 37ºC. To avoid auto-fluorescence the cells were placed in 50mM NH4Cl for 10 minutes, then were permeabilized with 0.3% Triton X-100 and had their non-specific sites blocked with 5% FBS in CBS. For detection of viral protein and cytoskeleton, cells were incubated with primary monoclonal anti-DENV antibody (1:500) and Alexa 488 conjugated secondary antibody. After that, cells were incubated with anti-phalloidin 594 or anti-β tubulin Cy3 and Hoechst 33258. Following washing with CBS, slides were mounted with mounting medium and examined under a confocal fluorescent microscope (Olympus IX-81 DSU). The micrographs were recorded using an Olympus CCD camera and processed with Image Pro Plus software (from Media Cybernetics).
4.8. Statistical analysis
Data are presented as means ± SD. In all cases, they represent at least three independent determinations. The significance of the results was calculated by Student’s t test. In this case, p values < 0.05 were considered significant with respect to controls.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by COLCIENCIAS grant 111554531592 from the Colombian government. JCGG was the recipient of a Full-Time Professor Program (Exclusive Dedication) for the Medicine Faculty at University of Antioquia for 2014–2015.
\n',keywords:"Cell biology, infection, dengue virus, cytoskeleton, viral replication",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/49374.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/49374.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49374",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49374",totalDownloads:1868,totalViews:381,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 3rd 2015",dateReviewed:"October 7th 2015",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 20th 2016",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The cell biology of viral infections is the focus of this research, in which the role of the cytoskeleton in dengue virus (DENV) replication in cell cultures was evaluated by means of Nocodazole and Cytochalasin D treatments before and after of DENV infection. The potential contribution of cytoskeleton elements with/without the treatment of depolymerizing agents was evidenced and quantified by the subcellular distribution of viral proteins, virions produced, and viral protein quantification. The cytoskeleton is involved in DENV replication because treatments with actin microfilaments and microtubule depolymerizing agents in non-cytotoxic concentrations, affected DENV2 replication in Vero cells and decreased both the viral protein expression and infectious virion production, when compared with non-treated cells. The actin and microtubules are partly involved in DENV2 replication, since the treatment does not completely blocked viral replication, suggesting that these components are necessary but not sufficient alone for DENV2 replication in Vero cells. The structural and functional role of actin and the microtubules in replication are postulated here, opening new perspectives for understanding the architecture of the replicative complex and viral morphogenesis processes, due to the role of the cytoskeleton in the organization, recruitment, and function of the cellular elements necessary for the assembly of viral factories.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/49374",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/49374",book:{slug:"cell-biology-new-insights"},signatures:"Elizabeth Orozco-García, Andrea Trujillo-Correa and Juan Carlos\nGallego-Gómez",authors:[{id:"98250",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gallego-Gomez",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gallego-Gomez",slug:"juan-carlos-gallego-gomez",email:"juanc.gallegomez@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"176329",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Orozco-García",fullName:"Elizabeth Orozco-García",slug:"elizabeth-orozco-garcia",email:"lizoruga@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Preservation/ fixation of the cytoskeleton in infected cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Non-cytotoxic concentrations of cytoskeleton depolymerizing agents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Relationship between DENV2 and the cytoskeleton",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Subcellular distribution pattern of viral protein altered by depolymerization of microtubules (treatment with nocodazole, NZ)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Subcellular distribution patterns of viral protein altered by actin depolymerization (treatment with CytD)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6. The dynamic integrity of microtubules necessary to maintain efficiency of viral replication",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7. Integrity of actin filaments has a greater role in viral protein production than microtubule integrity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1. Cell lines and virus",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2. Antibodies and chemicals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.3. MTT assay",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.4. Viral infection and treatments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.5. Titration by plaque assays",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.6. Cell ELISA",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.7. Fluorescence microscopy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.8. Statistical analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sodeik B, Hannover Medical School DoV, CarlâNeubergstrasse 1, Hannover 30625, Germany, Schramm B, EMBL CBaBP, Meyerhofstrasse 1, Heidelberg 69117, Germany, Suomalainen M, University of Helsinki HI, Department of Virology, PO Box 21, Helsinki FINâ00014, Finland, et al. Meeting Report: EMBO Workshop â˜Cell Biology of Virus Infectionâ™, September 25â“29, 2004, EMBL, Heidelberg, Germany. Traffic.6(4):351-6.'},{id:"B2",body:'Radtke K, Dohner K, Sodeik B. Viral interactions with the cytoskeleton: a hitchhiker\'s guide to the cell. Cell Microbiol. 2006;8(3):387-400.'},{id:"B3",body:'Stephens DJ, Allan VJ. Light microscopy techniques for live cell imaging. Science. 2003;300(5616):82-6.'},{id:"B4",body:'Sanderson CM, Smith GL. Cell motility and cell morphology: how some viruses take control. Expert Rev Mol Med. 1999;1999:1-16.'},{id:"B5",body:'Cellular Microbiology. 2nd ed: ASM Press; 2004. 593 p.'},{id:"B6",body:'Schudt G, Kolesnikova L, Dolnik O, Sodeik B, Becker S. Live-cell imaging of Marburg virus-infected cells uncovers actin-dependent transport of nucleocapsids over long distances. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110(35):14402-7.'},{id:"B7",body:'Lippincott-Schwartz J, Patterson GH. Development and use of fluorescent protein markers in living cells. Science. 2003;300(5616):87-91.'},{id:"B8",body:'Stephens RS, Sansonetti P, Sibley D. Cellular microbiology - a research agenda and an emerging discipline. Cell Microbiol. 1999;1(1):1-2.'},{id:"B9",body:'Risco C, Castro IFd, Sanz-Sánchez L, Narayan K, Grandinetti G, Subramaniam S. Three-Dimensional Imaging of Viral Infections. Annual Review of Virology. 2014;1:453-73.'},{id:"B10",body:'Novoa RR, Calderita G, Arranz R, Fontana J, Granzow H, Risco C. Virus factories: associations of cell organelles for viral replication and morphogenesis. Biol Cell. 2005;97(2):147-72.'},{id:"B11",body:'Farrar J, Focks D, Gubler D, Barrera R, Guzman MG, Simmons C, et al. Towards a global dengue research agenda. Trop Med Int Health. 12. England2007. p. 695-9.'},{id:"B12",body:'Guzman MG, Halstead SB, Artsob H, Buchy P, Farrar J, Gubler DJ, et al. Dengue: a continuing global threat. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2010;8.'},{id:"B13",body:'Mukhopadhyay S, Kuhn RJ, Rossmann MG. A structural perspective of the flavivirus life cycle. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2005;3(1):13-22.'},{id:"B14",body:'Gubler DJ, Clark GG. Dengue/dengue hemorrhagic fever: the emergence of a global health problem. Emerg Infect Dis. 1995;1(2):55-7.'},{id:"B15",body:'Gubler DJ. Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1998;11(3):480-96.'},{id:"B16",body:'Guzman MG, Kouri G. Dengue diagnosis, advances and challenges. Int J Infect Dis. 2004;8(2):69-80.'},{id:"B17",body:'Guzman M, Kouri G, Diaz M, Llop A, Vazquez S, Gonzalez D, et al. Dengue, one of the great emerging health challenges of the 21st century. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2004;3(5):511-20.'},{id:"B18",body:'Halstead SB, Suaya JA, Shepard DS. The burden of dengue infection. Lancet. 2007;369(9571):1410-1.'},{id:"B19",body:'Shepard DS, Coudeville L, Halasa YA, Zambrano B, Dayan GH. Economic Impact of Dengue Illness in the Americas. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011;84(2):200-7.'},{id:"B20",body:'Mendez JA, Usme-Ciro JA, Domingo C, Rey GJ, Sanchez JA, Tenorio A, et al. Phylogenetic history demonstrates two different lineages of dengue type 1 virus in Colombia. Virol J. 2010;7:226.'},{id:"B21",body:'Usme-Ciro JA, Mendez JA, Tenorio A, Rey GJ, Domingo C, Gallego-Gomez JC. Simultaneous circulation of genotypes I and III of dengue virus 3 in Colombia. Virol J. 2008;5:101.'},{id:"B22",body:'Isaguliants MG, Belikov SV, Starodubova ES, Gizatullin RZ, Rollman E, Zuber B, et al. Mutations conferring drug resistance affect eukaryotic expression of HIV type 1 reverse transcriptase. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2004;20(2):191-201.'},{id:"B23",body:'Mendez JA, Usme-Ciro JA, Domingo C, Rey GJ, Sanchez JA, Tenorio A, et al. Phylogenetic reconstruction of dengue virus type 2 in Colombia. Virol J. 2012;9:64.'},{id:"B24",body:'Villar L, Dayan GH, Arredondo-Garcia JL, Rivera DM, Cunha R, Deseda C, et al. Efficacy of a tetravalent dengue vaccine in children in Latin America. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(2):113-23.'},{id:"B25",body:'Smith GA, Enquist LW. Break ins and break outs: viral interactions with the cytoskeleton of Mammalian cells. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2002;18:135-61.'},{id:"B26",body:'Miller S, Krijnse-Locker J. Modification of intracellular membrane structures for virus replication. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2008;6(5):363-74.'},{id:"B27",body:'Igakura T, Stinchcombe JC, Goon PK, Taylor GP, Weber JN, Griffiths GM, et al. Spread of HTLV-I between lymphocytes by virus-induced polarization of the cytoskeleton. Science. 2003;299(5613):1713-6.'},{id:"B28",body:'Luby-Phelps K. Cytoarchitecture and physical properties of cytoplasm: volume, viscosity, diffusion, intracellular surface area. Int Rev Cytol. 2000;192:189-221.'},{id:"B29",body:'Wileman T. Aggresomes and pericentriolar sites of virus assembly: cellular defense or viral design? Annu Rev Microbiol. 2007;61:149-67.'},{id:"B30",body:'Taylor MP, Koyuncu OO, Enquist LW. Subversion of the actin cytoskeleton during viral infection. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2011;9(6):427-39.'},{id:"B31",body:'Risco C, Rodriguez JR, Lopez-Iglesias C, Carrascosa JL, Esteban M, Rodriguez D. Endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment membranes and vimentin filaments participate in vaccinia virus assembly. J Virol. 2002;76(4):1839-55.'},{id:"B32",body:'Netherton C, Moffat K, Brooks E, Wileman T. A guide to viral inclusions, membrane rearrangements, factories, and viroplasm produced during virus replication. Adv Virus Res. 2007;70:101-82.'},{id:"B33",body:'Mercer J, Schelhaas M, Helenius A. Virus entry by endocytosis. Annu Rev Biochem. 2010;79:803-33.'},{id:"B34",body:'Heath CM, Windsor M, Wileman T. Aggresomes Resemble Sites Specialized for Virus Assembly. J Cell Biol. 2001;153(3):449-56.'},{id:"B35",body:'Bonneau AM, Darveau A, Sonenberg N. Effect of viral infection on host protein synthesis and mRNA association with the cytoplasmic cytoskeletal structure. J Cell Biol. 1985;100(4):1209-18.'},{id:"B36",body:'Belin MT, Boulanger P. Processing of vimentin occurs during the early stages of adenovirus infection. J Virol. 1987;61(8):2559-66.'},{id:"B37",body:'Norregard Nielsen L, Forchhammer J, Dabelsteen E, Jepsen A, Stubbe Teglbjaerg C, Norrild B. Herpes simplex virus-induced changes of the keratin type intermediate filament in rat epithelial cells. J Gen Virol. 1987;68 (Pt 3):737-48.'},{id:"B38",body:'Liu B, Dai R, Tian CJ, Dawson L, Gorelick R, Yu XF. Interaction of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 nucleocapsid with actin. J Virol. 1999;73(4):2901-8.'},{id:"B39",body:'Notter MF, Balduzzi PC. Cytoskeletal changes induced by two avian sarcoma viruses: UR2 and Rous sarcoma virus. Virology. 1984;136(1):56-68.'},{id:"B40",body:'Elliott J, Jones MD, Griffin BE, Krauzewicz N. Regulation of cytoskeletal association by a basic amino acid motif in polyoma virus middle T antigen. Oncogene. 1998;17(14):1797-806.'},{id:"B41",body:'Friedrich RE, Bartel-Friedrich S, Lobeck H, Niedobitek G, Arps H. Epstein-Barr virus DNA, intermediate filaments and epithelial membrane antigen in nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Anticancer Res. 2000;20(6d):4909-16.'},{id:"B42",body:'Horvath AR, Kellie S. Regulation of integrin mobility and cytoskeletal association in normal and RSV-transformed chick embryo fibroblasts. J Cell Sci. 1990;97 (Pt 2):307-15.'},{id:"B43",body:'Nunbhakdi-Craig V, Craig L, Machleidt T, Sontag E. Simian virus 40 small tumor antigen induces deregulation of the actin cytoskeleton and tight junctions in kidney epithelial cells. J Virol. 2003;77(5):2807-18.'},{id:"B44",body:'Mallardo M, Schleich S, Krijnse Locker J. Microtubule-dependent Organization of Vaccinia Virus Core-derivd Early mRNAs into Distinct Cytoplasmic Structures. Mol Biol Cell. 2001;12(12):3875-91.'},{id:"B45",body:'Gallego-Gomez JC, Risco C, Rodriguez D, Cabezas P, Guerra S, Carrascosa JL, et al. Differences in virus-induced cell morphology and in virus maturation between MVA and other strains (WR, Ankara, and NYCBH) of vaccinia virus in infected human cells. J Virol. 2003;77(19):10606-22.'},{id:"B46",body:'Roncarati R, Knebel-Morsdorf D. Identification of the early actin-rearrangement-inducing factor gene, arif-1, from Autographa californica multicapsid nuclear polyhedrosis virus. J Virol. 1997;71(10):7933-41.'},{id:"B47",body:'Selinka HC, Giroglou T, Sapp M. Analysis of the infectious entry pathway of human papillomavirus type 33 pseudovirions. Virology. 2002;299(2):279-87.'},{id:"B48",body:'Van de Walle GR, Favoreel HW, Nauwynck HJ, Van Oostveldt P, Pensaert MB. Antibody-induced internalization of viral glycoproteins in pseudorabies virus-infected monocytes and role of the cytoskeleton: a confocal study. Vet Microbiol. 2002;86(1-2):51-7.'},{id:"B49",body:'Mackenzie JM, Jones MK, Westaway EG. Markers for trans-Golgi Membranes and the Intermediate Compartment Localize to Induced Membranes with Distinct Replication Functions in Flavivirus-Infected Cells†. J Virol. 1999;73(11):9555-67.'},{id:"B50",body:'van der Schaar HM, Rust MJ, Waarts BL, van der Ende-Metselaar H, Kuhn RJ, Wilschut J, et al. Characterization of the early events in dengue virus cell entry by biochemical assays and single-virus tracking. J Virol. 2007;81(21):12019-28.'},{id:"B51",body:'Berghall H, Wallen C, Hyypia T, Vainionpaa R. Role of cytoskeleton components in measles virus replication. Arch Virol. 2004;149(5):891-901.'},{id:"B52",body:'Douglas MW, Diefenbach RJ, Homa FL, Miranda-Saksena M, Rixon FJ, Vittone V, et al. Herpes simplex virus type 1 capsid protein VP26 interacts with dynein light chains RP3 and Tctex1 and plays a role in retrograde cellular transport. J Biol Chem. 2004;279(27):28522-30.'},{id:"B53",body:'Lakadamyali M, Rust MJ, Babcock HP, Zhuang X. Visualizing infection of individual influenza viruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003;100(16):9280-5.'},{id:"B54",body:'Leopold PL, Kreitzer G, Miyazawa N, Rempel S, Pfister KK, Rodriguez-Boulan E, et al. Dynein- and microtubule-mediated translocation of adenovirus serotype 5 occurs after endosomal lysis. Hum Gene Ther. 2000;11(1):151-65.'},{id:"B55",body:'Martinez-Moreno M, Navarro-Lerida I, Roncal F, Albar JP, Alonso C, Gavilanes F, et al. Recognition of novel viral sequences that associate with the dynein light chain LC8 identified through a pepscan technique. FEBS Lett. 2003;544(1-3):262-7.'},{id:"B56",body:'Ng ML, Hong SS. Flavivirus infection: essential ultrastructural changes and association of Kunjin virus NS3 protein with microtubules. Arch Virol. 1989;106(1-2):103-20.'},{id:"B57",body:'Ward BM. The Taking of the Cytoskeleton One Two Three: How Viruses Utilize the Cytoskeleton During Egress. Virology. 2011;411(2):244-50.'},{id:"B58",body:'Netherton CL, Wileman T. Virus factories, double membrane vesicles and viroplasm generated in animal cells. Current Opinion in Virology. 2011;1(5):381-7.'},{id:"B59",body:'Pierini R, Cottam E, Roberts R, Wileman T. Modulation of membrane traffic between endoplasmic reticulum, ERGIC and Golgi to generate compartments for the replication of bacteria and viruses. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 2009;20(7):828-33.'},{id:"B60",body:'Chen W, Gao N, Wang JL, Tian YP, Chen ZT, An J. Vimentin is required for dengue virus serotype 2 infection but microtubules are not necessary for this process. Arch Virol. 2008;153(9):1777-81.'},{id:"B61",body:'van der Schaar HM, Rust MJ, Chen C, van der Ende-Metselaar H, Wilschut J, Zhuang X, et al. Dissecting the cell entry pathway of dengue virus by single-particle tracking in living cells. PLoS Pathog. 2008;4(12):e1000244.'},{id:"B62",body:'Mosso C, Galvan-Mendoza IJ, Ludert JE, del Angel RM. Endocytic pathway followed by dengue virus to infect the mosquito cell line C6/36 HT. Virology. 2008;378(1):193-9.'},{id:"B63",body:'Heasman SJ, Ridley AJ. Mammalian Rho GTPases: new insights into their functions from in vivo studies. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2008;9(9):690-701.'},{id:"B64",body:'del Real G, Jimenez-Baranda S, Mira E, Lacalle RA, Lucas P, Gomez-Mouton C, et al. Statins Inhibit HIV-1 Infection by Down-regulating Rho Activity. J Exp Med. 2004;200(4):541-7.'},{id:"B65",body:'Martinez-Gutierrez M, Castellanos JE, Gallego-Gomez JC. Statins reduce dengue virus production via decreased virion assembly. Intervirology. 2011;54(4):202-16.'},{id:"B66",body:'Rothwell C, Lebreton A, Young Ng C, Lim JY, Liu W, Vasudevan S, et al. Cholesterol biosynthesis modulation regulates dengue viral replication. Virology. 2009;389(1-2):8-19.'},{id:"B67",body:'Yang CC, Tsai MH, Hu HS, Pu SY, Wu RH, Wu SH, et al. Characterization of an efficient dengue virus replicon for development of assays of discovery of small molecules against dengue virus. Antiviral Res. 2013;98(2):228-41.'},{id:"B68",body:'Chu JJH, Yang PL. c-Src protein kinase inhibitors block assembly and maturation of dengue virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104(9):3520-5.'},{id:"B69",body:'Martinez-Gutierrez M, Correa-Londono LA, Castellanos JE, Gallego-Gomez JC, Osorio JE. Lovastatin delays infection and increases survival rates in AG129 mice infected with dengue virus serotype 2. PLoS One. 2014;9(2):e87412.'},{id:"B70",body:'Padilla SL, Rodriguez A, Gonzales MM, Gallego GJC, Castano OJC. Inhibitory effects of curcumin on dengue virus type 2-infected cells in vitro. Arch Virol. 2014;159(3):573-9.'},{id:"B71",body:'Brass AL, Huang IC, Benita Y, John SP, Krishnan MN, Feeley EM, et al. The IFITM proteins mediate cellular resistance to influenza A H1N1 virus, West Nile virus, and dengue virus. Cell. 2009;139(7):1243-54.'},{id:"B72",body:'Padilla-S L, Rodríguez A, Gonzales MM, Gallego-G JC, Castaño-O JC. Inhibitory effects of curcumin on dengue virus type 2-infected cells in vitro. Arch Virol. 2013.'},{id:"B73",body:'Yang J, Zou L, Hu Z, Chen W, Zhang J, Zhu J, et al. Identification and characterization of a 43 kDa actin protein involved in the DENV-2 binding and infection of ECV304 cells. Microbes Infect. 2013;15(4):310-8.'},{id:"B74",body:'Zamudio-Meza H, Castillo-Alvarez A, Gonzalez-Bonilla C, Meza I. Cross-talk between Rac1 and Cdc42 GTPases regulates formation of filopodia required for dengue virus type-2 entry into HMEC-1 cells. J Gen Virol. 2009;90(Pt 12):2902-11.'},{id:"B75",body:'Shrivastava N, National Institute of Virology P, India, Sripada S, National Institute of Virology P, India, Kaur J, National Institute of Virology P, India, et al. Insights into the Internalization and Retrograde Trafficking of Dengue 2 Virus in BHK-21 Cells. PLOS ONE. 2011;6(10).'},{id:"B76",body:'Wang JL, Zhang JL, Chen W, Xu XF, Gao N, Fan DY, et al. Roles of Small GTPase Rac1 in the Regulation of Actin Cytoskeleton during Dengue Virus Infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010;4(8).'},{id:"B77",body:'Cande WZ, Lazarides E, McIntosh JR. A comparison of the distribution of actin and tubulin in the mammalian mitotic spindle as seen by indirect immunofluorescence. J Cell Biol. 1977;72(3):552-67.'},{id:"B78",body:'Connolly JA, Kalnins VI, Cleveland DW, Kirschner MW. Immunoflourescent staining of cytoplasmic and spindle microtubules in mouse fibroblasts with antibody to tau protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977;74(6):2437-40.'},{id:"B79",body:'Szechyńska-Hebda M, University W, Sciences IoPPPAo, Wędzony M, Sciences IoPPPAo, Dubas E, et al. Visualisation of microtubules and actin filaments in fixed BY-2 suspension cells using an optimised whole mount immunolabelling protocol. Plant Cell Reports. 2006;25(8):758-66.'},{id:"B80",body:'Matthews JD, Morgan R, Sleigher C, Frey TK. Do viruses require the cytoskeleton? Virol J. 2013;10:121.'},{id:"B81",body:'Genty N, Bussereau F. Is cytoskeleton involved in vesicular stomatitis virus reproduction? J Virol. 1980;34(3):777-81.'},{id:"B82",body:'Hyde JL, Gillespie LK, Mackenzie JM. Mouse norovirus 1 utilizes the cytoskeleton network to establish localization of the replication complex proximal to the microtubule organizing center. J Virol. 2012;86(8):4110-22.'},{id:"B83",body:'Jeffree CE, Brown G, Aitken J, Su-Yin DY, Tan BH, Sugrue RJ. Ultrastructural analysis of the interaction between F-actin and respiratory syncytial virus during virus assembly. Virology. 2007;369(2):309-23.'},{id:"B84",body:'Ravi LI, Liang L, Wong PS, Brown G, Tan BH, Sugrue RJ. Increased hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase activity during respiratory syncytial virus infection mediates actin dependent inter-cellular virus transmission. Antiviral Res. 2013;100(1):259-68.'},{id:"B85",body:'Whitehorn J, Van Vinh Chau N, Truong NT, Tai LT, Van Hao N, Hien TT, et al. Lovastatin for adult patients with dengue: protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials. 2012;13:203.'},{id:"B86",body:'Teo CS CJ. Cellular Vimentin Regulates Construction of Dengue V... [J Virol. 2014] - PubMed - NCBI J Virol.2014. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/.'},{id:"B87",body:'Frontiers: Global host proteomic responses to virus infection: Frontiers Media SA; 2014.'},{id:"B88",body:'Zhang M, Zheng X, Wu Y, Gan M, He A, Li Z, et al. Differential proteomics of Aedes albopictus salivary gland, midgut and C6/36 cell induced by dengue virus infection. Virology. 2013;444(1-2):109-18.'},{id:"B89",body:'Pando-Robles V, Oses-Prieto JA, Rodriguez-Gandarilla M, Meneses-Romero E, Burlingame AL, Batista CV. Quantitative proteomic analysis of Huh-7 cells infected with Dengue virus by label-free LC-MS. J Proteomics. 2014;111:16-29.'},{id:"B90",body:'Mosmann T. Rapid colorimetric assay for cellular growth and survival: application to proliferation and cytotoxicity assays. J Immunol Methods. 1983;65(1-2):55-63.'},{id:"B91",body:'Meiklejohn G, England B, Lennette. Propagation of dengue virus strains in unweaned mice. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1952;1(1):51-8.'},{id:"B92",body:'Fujita N, Tamura M, Hotta S. Dengue virus plaque formation on microplate cultures and its application to virus neutralization (38564). Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1975;148(2):472-5.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Elizabeth Orozco-García",address:null,affiliation:'
Translational and Molecular Medicine Group, Medellín Medical Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
Institute of Biology, Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Juan Carlos Gallego-Gómez",address:"juanc.gallegomez@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Translational and Molecular Medicine Group, Medellín Medical Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"4696",title:"Cell Biology",subtitle:"New Insights",fullTitle:"Cell Biology - New Insights",slug:"cell-biology-new-insights",publishedDate:"January 20th 2016",bookSignature:"Stevo Najman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4696.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87193",title:"Prof.",name:"Stevo",middleName:"J",surname:"Najman",slug:"stevo-najman",fullName:"Stevo Najman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"49356",title:"A Proposal for a Machine Learning Classifier for Viral Infection in Living Cells Based on Mitochondrial Distribution",slug:"a-proposal-for-a-machine-learning-classifier-for-viral-infection-in-living-cells-based-on-mitochondr",totalDownloads:1292,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Juan Carlos Cardona-Gomez, Leandro Fabio Ariza-Jimenez and\nJuan Carlos Gallego-Gomez",authors:[{id:"98250",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gallego-Gomez",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gallego-Gomez",slug:"juan-carlos-gallego-gomez"},{id:"177691",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Cardona",fullName:"Juan Carlos Cardona",slug:"juan-carlos-cardona"},{id:"177692",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Ariza-Jimenez",fullName:"Leandro Ariza-Jimenez",slug:"leandro-ariza-jimenez"}]},{id:"49171",title:"Epithelial Na+,K+-ATPase — A Sticky Pump",slug:"epithelial-na-k-atpase-a-sticky-pump",totalDownloads:1237,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Jorge Alberto Lobato Álvarez, Teresa del Carmen López Murillo,\nClaudia Andrea Vilchis Nestor, María Luisa Roldán Gutierrez, Omar\nPáez Gómez and Liora Shoshani",authors:[{id:"174656",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Liora",middleName:null,surname:"Shoshani",fullName:"Liora Shoshani",slug:"liora-shoshani"},{id:"174657",title:"MSc.",name:"Teresa Del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"López-Murillo",fullName:"Teresa Del Carmen López-Murillo",slug:"teresa-del-carmen-lopez-murillo"},{id:"174658",title:"MSc.",name:"Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Paez-Gómez",fullName:"Omar Paez-Gómez",slug:"omar-paez-gomez"},{id:"174659",title:"MSc.",name:"María Luisa",middleName:null,surname:"Roldán",fullName:"María Luisa Roldán",slug:"maria-luisa-roldan"},{id:"174660",title:"MSc.",name:"Claudia Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Vilchis-Nestor",fullName:"Claudia Andrea Vilchis-Nestor",slug:"claudia-andrea-vilchis-nestor"},{id:"174947",title:"MSc.",name:"Jorge Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Lobato-Alvarez",fullName:"Jorge Alberto Lobato-Alvarez",slug:"jorge-alberto-lobato-alvarez"}]},{id:"49568",title:"Cell-cycle Alterations in Post-mitotic Cells and Cell Death by Mitotic Catastrophe",slug:"cell-cycle-alterations-in-post-mitotic-cells-and-cell-death-by-mitotic-catastrophe",totalDownloads:2060,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Duccio Lombardi and Laura Lasagni",authors:[{id:"97887",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Lasagni",fullName:"Laura Lasagni",slug:"laura-lasagni"},{id:"174838",title:"Dr.",name:"Duccio",middleName:null,surname:"Lombardi",fullName:"Duccio Lombardi",slug:"duccio-lombardi"}]},{id:"49064",title:"New Frontiers in Cancer Chemotherapy — Targeting Cell Death Pathways",slug:"new-frontiers-in-cancer-chemotherapy-targeting-cell-death-pathways",totalDownloads:1708,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Yong Zhong Xu, Cynthia Kanagaratham, Mina Youssef and Danuta\nRadzioch",authors:[{id:"105594",title:"Prof.",name:"Danuta",middleName:null,surname:"Radzioch",fullName:"Danuta Radzioch",slug:"danuta-radzioch"}]},{id:"49374",title:"Cell Biology of Virus Infection. The Role of Cytoskeletal Dynamics Integrity in the Effectiveness of Dengue Virus Infection",slug:"cell-biology-of-virus-infection-the-role-of-cytoskeletal-dynamics-integrity-in-the-effectiveness-of-",totalDownloads:1868,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Elizabeth Orozco-García, Andrea Trujillo-Correa and Juan Carlos\nGallego-Gómez",authors:[{id:"98250",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gallego-Gomez",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gallego-Gomez",slug:"juan-carlos-gallego-gomez"},{id:"176329",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Orozco-García",fullName:"Elizabeth Orozco-García",slug:"elizabeth-orozco-garcia"}]},{id:"49210",title:"Autophagy and Lipid Metabolism – A Cellular Platform where Molecular and Metabolic Pathways Converge to Explain Dengue Viral Infection",slug:"autophagy-and-lipid-metabolism-a-cellular-platform-where-molecular-and-metabolic-pathways-converge-t",totalDownloads:1847,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Elizabeth Orozco-García and Juan Carlos Gallego-Gómez",authors:[{id:"98250",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gallego-Gomez",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gallego-Gomez",slug:"juan-carlos-gallego-gomez"}]},{id:"49799",title:"Macrophages – The Key Actors in Adipose Tissue Remodeling and Dysfunction",slug:"macrophages-the-key-actors-in-adipose-tissue-remodeling-and-dysfunction",totalDownloads:1381,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Sanja Stojanović and Stevo Najman",authors:[{id:"87193",title:"Prof.",name:"Stevo",middleName:"J",surname:"Najman",fullName:"Stevo Najman",slug:"stevo-najman"},{id:"180808",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanja",middleName:null,surname:"Stojanović",fullName:"Sanja Stojanović",slug:"sanja-stojanovic"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1817",title:"Current Frontiers and Perspectives in Cell Biology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2fd3fc4286eaf0cf01166591ec89bc66",slug:"current-frontiers-and-perspectives-in-cell-biology",bookSignature:"Stevo Najman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1817.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87193",title:"Prof.",name:"Stevo",surname:"Najman",slug:"stevo-najman",fullName:"Stevo Najman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"35875",title:"Tight Junctions",slug:"tight-junctions",signatures:"Lorenza Gonzalez-Mariscal, Miguel Quiros, Mónica Diaz-Coranguez and Pablo Bautista",authors:[{id:"103240",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorenza",middleName:null,surname:"González-Mariscal",fullName:"Lorenza González-Mariscal",slug:"lorenza-gonzalez-mariscal"},{id:"103258",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Bautista",fullName:"Pablo Bautista",slug:"pablo-bautista"},{id:"103260",title:"MSc",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Díaz-Coránguez",fullName:"Mónica Díaz-Coránguez",slug:"monica-diaz-coranguez"},{id:"103264",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quirós",fullName:"Miguel Quirós",slug:"miguel-quiros"}]},{id:"35876",title:"Tubulohelical Membrane Arrays, Annulate Lamellae and Nuclear Pores: Tripartite Membrane Architecture with the Participation of Nucleoporins",slug:"tubulohelical-membrane-arrays-annulate-lamellae-and-nuclear-pores-tripartite-membrane-architecture",signatures:"Siegfried Reipert and Elena Kiseleva",authors:[{id:"95131",title:"Dr.",name:"Siegfried",middleName:null,surname:"Reipert",fullName:"Siegfried Reipert",slug:"siegfried-reipert"},{id:"138364",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Kiseleva",fullName:"Elena Kiseleva",slug:"elena-kiseleva"}]},{id:"35877",title:"Actin Folding, Structure and Function: Is It a Globular or an Intrinsically Disordered Protein?",slug:"actin-folding-structure-function-is-it-globular-or-intrinsically-disordered-protein",signatures:"Olga I. Povarova, Anna I. Sulatskaya, Irina M. Kuznetsova and Konstantin K. Turoverov",authors:[{id:"103778",title:"Prof.",name:"Konstantin",middleName:null,surname:"Turoverov",fullName:"Konstantin Turoverov",slug:"konstantin-turoverov"},{id:"104488",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Povarova",fullName:"Olga Povarova",slug:"olga-povarova"},{id:"104489",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Sulatskaya",fullName:"Anna Sulatskaya",slug:"anna-sulatskaya"},{id:"104490",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Kuznetsova",fullName:"Irina Kuznetsova",slug:"irina-kuznetsova"}]},{id:"35878",title:"Microtubules During the Cell Cycle of Higher Plant Cells",slug:"microtubules-during-the-cell-cycle-of-higher-plant-cells",signatures:"Elena Smirnova",authors:[{id:"98574",title:"Prof.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Smirnova",fullName:"Elena Smirnova",slug:"elena-smirnova"}]},{id:"35879",title:"Centromere Evolution: Digging into Mammalian Primary Constriction",slug:"centromere-evolution-digging-into-mammalian-primary-constriction",signatures:"Giuliana Giannuzzi, Claudia Rita Catacchio and Mario Ventura",authors:[{id:"94049",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",fullName:"Mario Ventura",slug:"mario-ventura"},{id:"103244",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuliana",middleName:null,surname:"Giannuzzi",fullName:"Giuliana Giannuzzi",slug:"giuliana-giannuzzi"},{id:"103247",title:"MSc.",name:"Claudia R",middleName:null,surname:"Catacchio",fullName:"Claudia R Catacchio",slug:"claudia-r-catacchio"}]},{id:"35880",title:"mRNA Biogenesis in the Nucleus and Its Export to the Cytoplasm",slug:"mrna-biogenesis-in-the-nucleus-and-its-export-to-the-cytoplasm",signatures:"Naoko Fujiwara, Takuya Shiki and Seiji Masuda",authors:[{id:"104237",title:"Prof.",name:"Seiji",middleName:null,surname:"Masuda",fullName:"Seiji Masuda",slug:"seiji-masuda"},{id:"104249",title:"Prof.",name:"Naoko",middleName:null,surname:"Fujiwara",fullName:"Naoko Fujiwara",slug:"naoko-fujiwara"},{id:"104251",title:"MSc.",name:"Takuya",middleName:null,surname:"Shiki",fullName:"Takuya Shiki",slug:"takuya-shiki"}]},{id:"35881",title:"Membrane Initiated Effects of 1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 in Prostate Cancer Cells: Effects on AP1 and CREB Mediated Transcription",slug:"membrane-initiated-effects-of-1-25-dihydroxyvitamin-d3-in-prostate-cancer-cells-effects-on-ap1-and",signatures:"Dennis Larsson, Adele Jonas, Niklas Bergsten, Fredrik Stahl and Sandra Karlsson",authors:[{id:"93146",title:"Dr.",name:"Dennis",middleName:null,surname:"Larsson",fullName:"Dennis Larsson",slug:"dennis-larsson"},{id:"103837",title:"BSc.",name:"Adele",middleName:null,surname:"Jonas",fullName:"Adele Jonas",slug:"adele-jonas"},{id:"103839",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Niklas",middleName:null,surname:"Bergsten",fullName:"Niklas Bergsten",slug:"niklas-bergsten"},{id:"103840",title:"Prof.",name:"Fredrik",middleName:null,surname:"Ståhl",fullName:"Fredrik Ståhl",slug:"fredrik-stahl"},{id:"103841",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Karlsson",fullName:"Sandra Karlsson",slug:"sandra-karlsson"}]},{id:"35882",title:"Genetic Transformation and Analysis of Protein- Protein Interaction of Class B MADS-Box Genes from Dendrobium moniliforme",slug:"genetic-transformation-and-analysis-of-protein-protein-interaction-of-class-b-mads-box-genes-from-de",signatures:"Supatida Abdullakasim and Takashi Handa",authors:[{id:"82549",title:"Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Handa",fullName:"Takashi Handa",slug:"takashi-handa"},{id:"89685",title:"Dr.",name:"Supatida",middleName:null,surname:"Abdullakasim",fullName:"Supatida Abdullakasim",slug:"supatida-abdullakasim"}]},{id:"35883",title:"Exploring Secrets of Nuclear Actin Involvement in the Regulation of Gene Transcription and Genome Organization",slug:"exploring-secrets-of-nuclear-actin-involvement-in-the-regulation-of-gene-transcription-and-genome-or",signatures:"Yong Zhong Xu, Cynthia Kanagaratham and Danuta Radzioch",authors:[{id:"105594",title:"Prof.",name:"Danuta",middleName:null,surname:"Radzioch",fullName:"Danuta Radzioch",slug:"danuta-radzioch"},{id:"105597",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Cynthia",middleName:null,surname:"Kanagaratham",fullName:"Cynthia Kanagaratham",slug:"cynthia-kanagaratham"},{id:"105598",title:"Dr.",name:"YongZhong",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"YongZhong Xu",slug:"yongzhong-xu"}]},{id:"35884",title:"Signaling of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases in the Nucleus",slug:"signaling-of-receptor-tyrosine-kinases-in-the-nucleus",signatures:"Sally-Anne Stephenson, Inga Mertens-Walker and Adrian Herington",authors:[{id:"106797",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Herington",fullName:"Adrian Herington",slug:"adrian-herington"},{id:"106811",title:"Dr.",name:"Sally-Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Stephenson",fullName:"Sally-Anne Stephenson",slug:"sally-anne-stephenson"},{id:"106813",title:"Dr.",name:"Inga",middleName:null,surname:"Mertens-Walker",fullName:"Inga Mertens-Walker",slug:"inga-mertens-walker"}]},{id:"35885",title:"G Protein-Coupled Receptors-Induced Activation of Extracellular Signal-Regulated Protein Kinase (ERK) and Sodium-Proton Exchanger Type 1 (NHE1)",slug:"g-protein-coupled-receptors-induced-activation-of-extracellular-signal-regulated-protein-kinase-erk",signatures:"Maria N. Garnovskaya",authors:[{id:"98074",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Garnovskaya",fullName:"Maria Garnovskaya",slug:"maria-garnovskaya"}]},{id:"35886",title:"The Kinetochore and Mitosis: Focus on the Regulation and Correction Mechanisms of Chromosome-to-Microtubule Attachments",slug:"the-kinetochore-and-mitosis-focus-on-the-regulation-and-correction-mechanisms-of-chromosome-to-micr",signatures:"Rita M. Reis and Hassan Bousbaa",authors:[{id:"94665",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Bousbaa",fullName:"Hassan Bousbaa",slug:"hassan-bousbaa"},{id:"139048",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Reis",fullName:"Rita Reis",slug:"rita-reis"}]},{id:"35887",title:"Molecular and Sub-Cellular Gametogenic Machinery of Stem and Germline Cells Across Metazoa",slug:"molecular-and-sub-cellular-gametogenic-machinery-of-stem-and-germline-cells-across-metazoa",signatures:"Andrey I. Shukalyuk and Valeria V. Isaeva",authors:[{id:"53507",title:"Prof.",name:"Valeria V.",middleName:null,surname:"Isaeva",fullName:"Valeria V. Isaeva",slug:"valeria-v.-isaeva"},{id:"102081",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",middleName:"I.",surname:"Shukalyuk",fullName:"Andrey Shukalyuk",slug:"andrey-shukalyuk"}]},{id:"35888",title:"Drosophila: A Model System That Allows in vivo Manipulation and Study of Epithelial Cell Polarity",slug:"drosophila-a-model-system-that-allows-for-in-vivo-manipulation-and-study-of-epithelia-cell-polarity",signatures:"Andrea Leibfried and Yohanns Bellaiche",authors:[{id:"111357",title:"Dr.",name:"Yohanns",middleName:null,surname:"Bellaiche",fullName:"Yohanns Bellaiche",slug:"yohanns-bellaiche"},{id:"111358",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Leibfried",fullName:"Andrea Leibfried",slug:"andrea-leibfried"}]},{id:"35889",title:"Development and Cell Polarity of the C. elegans Intestine",slug:"development-and-cell-polarity-of-the-c-elegans-intestine",signatures:"Olaf Bossinger and Michael Hoffmann",authors:[{id:"103035",title:"Prof.",name:"Olaf",middleName:null,surname:"Bossinger",fullName:"Olaf Bossinger",slug:"olaf-bossinger"},{id:"105983",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Hoffmann",fullName:"Michael Hoffmann",slug:"michael-hoffmann"}]},{id:"35890",title:"Intercellular Communication",slug:"intercellular-communication",signatures:"Nuri Faruk Aykan",authors:[{id:"94089",title:"Prof.",name:"Nuri Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aykan",fullName:"Nuri Faruk Aykan",slug:"nuri-faruk-aykan"}]},{id:"35891",title:"Adult Stem Cells in Tissue Homeostasis and Disease",slug:"adult-stem-cells-in-tissue-homeostasis-and-disease",signatures:"Elena Lazzeri, Anna Peired, Lara Ballerini and Laura Lasagni",authors:[{id:"97887",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Lasagni",fullName:"Laura Lasagni",slug:"laura-lasagni"},{id:"98417",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Lazzeri",fullName:"Elena Lazzeri",slug:"elena-lazzeri"},{id:"98422",title:"Dr.",name:"Lara",middleName:null,surname:"Ballerini",fullName:"Lara Ballerini",slug:"lara-ballerini"},{id:"103672",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Peired",fullName:"Anna Peired",slug:"anna-peired"}]},{id:"35892",title:"Claudins in Normal and Lung Cancer State",slug:"claudins-in-normal-and-lung-cancer-state",signatures:"V. Morales-Tlalpan, C. Saldana, P. Garcia-Solis, H. L. Hernandez-Montiel and H. Barajas-Medina",authors:[{id:"57467",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Tlalpan",fullName:"Veronica Morales-Tlalpan",slug:"veronica-morales-tlalpan"},{id:"57468",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Saldana",fullName:"Carlos Saldana",slug:"carlos-saldana"},{id:"60045",title:"Prof.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia-Solis",fullName:"Pablo Garcia-Solis",slug:"pablo-garcia-solis"},{id:"60046",title:"Dr.",name:"Hilario",middleName:null,surname:"Barajas-Medina",fullName:"Hilario Barajas-Medina",slug:"hilario-barajas-medina"},{id:"122175",title:"Dr.",name:"Hebert Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Montiel",fullName:"Hebert Luis Hernández-Montiel",slug:"hebert-luis-hernandez-montiel"}]},{id:"35893",title:"Biology of Cilia and Ciliopathies",slug:"biology-of-cilia-and-ciliopathies",signatures:"David Alejandro Silva, Elizabeth Richey and Hongmin Qin",authors:[{id:"92897",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongmin",middleName:null,surname:"Qin",fullName:"Hongmin Qin",slug:"hongmin-qin"},{id:"92899",title:"Ms.",name:"David Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"David Alejandro Silva",slug:"david-alejandro-silva"},{id:"104694",title:"Ms.",name:"Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Richey",fullName:"Elizabeth Richey",slug:"elizabeth-richey"}]},{id:"35894",title:"The Roles of ESCRT Proteins in Healthy Cells and in Disease",slug:"the-roles-of-escrt-proteins-in-healthy-cells-and-in-disease",signatures:"Jasmina Ilievska, Naomi E. Bishop, Sarah J. Annesley and Paul R. Fisher",authors:[{id:"96049",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:"Robert",surname:"Fisher",fullName:"Paul Fisher",slug:"paul-fisher"},{id:"99845",title:"Ms.",name:"Jasmina",middleName:null,surname:"Ilievska",fullName:"Jasmina Ilievska",slug:"jasmina-ilievska"},{id:"99846",title:"Dr.",name:"Naomi",middleName:null,surname:"Bishop",fullName:"Naomi Bishop",slug:"naomi-bishop"},{id:"99848",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah",middleName:null,surname:"Annesley",fullName:"Sarah Annesley",slug:"sarah-annesley"}]},{id:"35895",title:"Autologous Grafts of Mesenchymal Stem Cells – Between Dream and Reality",slug:"autologous-grafts-of-adult-stem-cells-between-dream-and-reality",signatures:"Frederic Torossian, Aurelie Bisson, Laurent Drouot, Olivier Boyer and Marek Lamacz",authors:[{id:"104403",title:"Prof.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Lamacz",fullName:"Marek Lamacz",slug:"marek-lamacz"}]},{id:"35896",title:"Salivary Glands: A Powerful Experimental System to Study Cell Biology in Live Animals by Intravital Microscopy",slug:"novel-imaging-approaches-to-study-cell-biology-in-live-animals",signatures:"Monika Sramkova, Natalie Porat-Shliom,\r\nAndrius Masedunkas, Timothy Wigand, Panomwat Amornphimoltham and Roberto Weigert",authors:[{id:"82699",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Weigert",fullName:"Roberto Weigert",slug:"roberto-weigert"},{id:"103871",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:null,surname:"Sramkova",fullName:"Monika Sramkova",slug:"monika-sramkova"},{id:"103873",title:"Mr.",name:"Andrius",middleName:null,surname:"Masedunkas",fullName:"Andrius Masedunkas",slug:"andrius-masedunkas"},{id:"103876",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalie",middleName:null,surname:"Porat-Shliom",fullName:"Natalie Porat-Shliom",slug:"natalie-porat-shliom"},{id:"103878",title:"Dr.",name:"Panomwat",middleName:null,surname:"Amornphimoltham",fullName:"Panomwat Amornphimoltham",slug:"panomwat-amornphimoltham"},{id:"103882",title:"Mr.",name:"Timothy",middleName:null,surname:"Wigand",fullName:"Timothy Wigand",slug:"timothy-wigand"}]},{id:"35897",title:"Evaluation of Mitochondrial DNA Dynamics Using Fluorescence Correlation Analysis",slug:"evaluation-of-mitochondrial-dna-dynamics-using-fluorescence-correlation-analysis",signatures:"Yasutomo Nomura",authors:[{id:"82568",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasutomo",middleName:null,surname:"Nomura",fullName:"Yasutomo Nomura",slug:"yasutomo-nomura"}]},{id:"35898",title:"Regeneration and Recycling of Supports for Biological Macromolecules Purification",slug:"regeneration-and-recycling-of-biological-macromolecules-purification-supports",signatures:"Marcello Tagliavia and Aldo Nicosia",authors:[{id:"90850",title:"PhD.",name:"Marcello",middleName:null,surname:"Tagliavia",fullName:"Marcello Tagliavia",slug:"marcello-tagliavia"},{id:"96926",title:"PhD.",name:"Aldo",middleName:null,surname:"Nicosia",fullName:"Aldo Nicosia",slug:"aldo-nicosia"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"68137",title:"The Potential of Insect Farming to Increase Food Security",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88106",slug:"the-potential-of-insect-farming-to-increase-food-security",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Entomophagy is prevalent in many regions, and ~1500–2000 species of insects and other invertebrates are consumed by 3000 ethnic groups across 113 countries in Asia, Australia and Central and South America [1]. Africa, where more than 500 species are consumed daily, is a hotspot of edible insect biodiversity [2, 3]. In Thailand, entomophagy has spread to the south from the north-east as people migrate towards city centres. It has become so popular that >150 species are sold in the markets of Bangkok [4]. The most common edible insects are moths, cicadas, beetles, mealworms, flies, grasshoppers and ants [5]. Although human insectivory is an ancient practice and 80% of the world’s population consumes insects, it is relatively uncommon in contemporary Western culture. In many regions that have traditionally eaten insects, the practice is declining due to globalisation, and their consumption has decreased over the last decade as agriculture and living standards change, and the availability of wild-caught insects has decreased [6, 7, 8].
\n
This chapter reviews and provides an accessible synthesis of the literature surrounding the potential of insects to alleviate food security while promoting food sovereignty and integrating social acceptability. These are immediate and current problems of food security and nutrition that must be solved to meet the Sustainable Development Goals [3, 9].
\n
\n
\n
2. Food insecurity
\n
Food insecurity is created when food is unavailable, unaffordable, unevenly distributed or unsafe to eat. Inefficiencies in the current food production system generate inconsistencies between the demand and supply of food resources, which is exacerbated by the diminution of pastures and increasing demand for food. Thirty percent of land is already used for agriculture, but 70% of this is used for macro-livestock production, an industry which consumes 77 million tonnes of plant protein only to produce 58 million tonnes of animal protein per year. This animal protein is not evenly distributed across the globe, as the average person in a ‘developed’ country consumes 40 g more protein a day than the average person in a ‘developing’ country [10]. The demand for affordable and sustainable protein is high, while animal protein is becoming more expensive and less accessible in some regions, especially in Africa [11].
\n
To ensure food access and to alleviate poverty, there is a particular need for investment into Africa’s agricultural potential as this continent will soon account for 50% of the world’s population growth. Currently, Africa has 25% of all undernourished people worldwide, and the income gap between rural and urban areas drives rapid urbanisation; this is decreasing the agricultural workforce [12, 13]. With substantial food insecurity and rising food prices, one in six people dies from malnutrition and hunger, and more than 1 billion people are undernourished, triggering 1/3 of the child disease burden [10, 14]. Effects are worse in the populations that already have high rates of malnutrition, such as Zambia, where chronic undernutrition is 45% and causes 52% of deaths in the population under the age of 5. Over 800 million people are thought to have a food energy deficit average of >80 kcal/day/person [3, 15].
\n
The prospect of global food shortage grows as the world’s population is estimated to increase to 9 billion by 2050. The conventional meat production system will not be able to respond sufficiently to the increase in demand. Per capita, meat consumption is expected to increase by 9% in high-income countries by 2030, and the increase in world crop prices will increase the price of meat by 18–21% [16]. Systems with a low carbon footprint must be promoted according to the economic and cultural restraints of the region by modifying animal feed from soy meal to locally sourced feed [17]. Any expansion of agricultural land must be mitigated to reduce losses in natural ecosystems. Therefore, our increasing population will need to be fed from the same area of land available now [18].
\n
Climate change is also a growing threat to global food security as this is reducing the area of land available to agriculture [10], and future cereal yields are predicted to decrease, especially in low-latitude areas. The poorest countries will suffer the worst consequences of climate change, which will increase both malnutrition and poverty. To prevent future undernutrition and to decrease current levels, food access and socioeconomic conditions must improve globally [14]. With this climate change-driven prediction of reduced agricultural yields in most countries given current crop practices and varieties, it is therefore necessary to increase the diversity and sustainability of crop supply so that food insecurity is not exacerbated [15].
\n
\n
\n
3. Nutritional potential of edible insects
\n
In general, insects have a higher quality of nutrition than macro-livestock in terms of protein, lipids, carbohydrates and vitamins [10]. Insects have high crude protein levels of 40–75%, contain all essential amino acids, are rich in fatty acids and have a high proportion of dietary fibre, and it has been further suggested that there are health benefits from eating chitin through enhancement of gut flora and antibiotic properties, though it is not known how insect fibre specifically affects human health [19].
\n
In a study of the calorific value of 94 insect species, 50% were higher than soybeans, 87% higher than maize, 63% higher than beef and 70% higher than fish [10]. The composition of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in mealworms is comparable to that of fish, and other insects with ideal fatty acid ratios are house crickets, short-tailed crickets, Bombay locusts and scarab beetles [20]. Some insect species have micronutrients not found in some conventional animal proteins, such as riboflavin in termites and high concentrations of thiamine in silk moth larvae (224.7% daily human requirement) and palm weevils (201.3%) compared to chicken (5.4%). Mealworms have a higher content of protein (all essential amino acids), calcium, vitamin C, thiamine, vitamin A and riboflavin per kg than beef. Although the nutritional content of many insects is well-described in the literature, there is a variation depending on diet, sex, life stage, origin and environmental factors, and the realised nutritional content also depends on preparation and cooking [21, 22, 23].
\n
Insect consumption has the potential to reduce hunger on a global scale as they are nutrient dense as well as calorie dense. A calorie deficit of 1500 kcal/day could be addressed by rearing 1 kg/day of crickets in 10 m2 while also providing the recommended daily amount of lysine, methionine, cysteine, tryptophan, zinc and vitamin B12. Not only do insects provide calories and nutrients, but they are also cost-effective, easily grown and can be environmentally sustainable when incorporated into a circular production system using organic side streams.
\n
\n
\n
4. The rise of insect farming
\n
Until the end of the twentieth century, the most common way to collect insects worldwide was by wild harvest (circa 90%), and the tradition of collecting and eating insects from the wild is seen in many cultures. Though seasonality limits consistent availability, traditional regulation patterns can mitigate this and maintain locally sustainable sources [24, 25]. Wild catch is declining in many areas with many factors contributing to this including land conversion, overexploitation and urbanisation [7]. With insects acknowledged to be key to the delivery of many ecosystem services, their conservation in natural ecosystems is now paramount [26, 27]. In response, the farming of edible insects is now rising from being only a minor component of the market and should be promoted to improve quality and supply as well as to limit the environmental impacts of wild harvesting [11, 28].
\n
No matter the scale of insect farming, the economic benefits boost food security in terms of availability and accessibility and at the same time improve dietary quality and contribute to both gender equity and livelihoods. At the community scale, more than 20,000 small farmers in Thailand profitably produce crickets; in Laos, the majority of insect vendors are illiterate females who may earn c$5/day; in Uganda and Kenya, the Flying Food Project supports expansion of small-scale farms into local and greater value chain markets [20, 29, 30]. By integrating mini-livestock farming into current agricultural systems, the access to edible insects could be improved and simultaneously provide co-benefits such as female employment and a high-grade compost contribution to the enhancement of soil fertility [28]. Harvesting insects as a by-product of another industry also has substantial potential but needs more widespread implementation and cultural assimilation. For example, domesticated silkworms for the textile industry can be eaten in the pupa stage, and palm weevils reared on felled palm trees could be moved into more formal production [15]. Insect farming is now moving into western markets and developing technologically refined production systems. The French company Ynsect has raised $175 M for expansion, and the USA edible insect market is predicted to increase by 43% in the coming 5 years [31, 32]. There are different costs and benefits at all scales (Figure 1), though all may have an important place in future food security.
\n
Figure 1.
Trade-offs in the scale of production needed to maximise food sovereignty relative to the technology and initial funding needed. X axis: 0 = none needed, 1 = high setup costs needed. Y axis: 0 = no food sovereignty, 1 = complete food sovereignty.
\n
\n
\n
5. The environmental advantage of insect farming
\n
In general, insects have a lower consumption of energy and resources than conventional animal livestock. Insects are poikilothermic, so they expend less energy, are more efficient in transforming phytomass into zoomass and have higher fecundity and growth rates and a higher rate of matter assimilation. On average, an insect only needs 2 g of food per gramme of weight gained, whereas a cow needs 8 g of food. Not only is the efficiency of insect production higher because of the feed conversion ratio (Table 1) but also because the edible portion of insects is higher as crickets can be eaten whole, but we only eat 40% of a cow, 58% of a chicken and 55% of a pig [8, 10, 33].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
Cricket
\n
Poultry
\n
Pork
\n
Beef
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Feed conversion ratio (kg feed: kg live weight)
\n
1.7
\n
2.5
\n
5
\n
10
\n
\n
\n
Edible portion (%)
\n
80
\n
55
\n
55
\n
40
\n
\n
\n
Feed (kg: kg edible weight)
\n
2.1
\n
4.5
\n
9.1
\n
25
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Efficiencies of production of conventional meat and crickets [17].
\n
Edible insects are an environmentally attractive alternative to conventional livestock because they require less feed and water; they produce lower levels of greenhouse gases and can be raised in small spaces. Worldwide, livestock contributes to 18% of greenhouse gas emissions, which, in light of global warming and climate change, favours the less resource-intensive insect production which emits fewer greenhouse gases by a factor of 100 [3, 28].
\n
Insects can be a renewable food source in the future as many edible species can consume agricultural and food waste or culinary by-products, but there remain important research gaps in understanding the effects of variable feedstocks as most case studies use high-grade feed [10, 15, 28]. Such organic side streams could be used to reduce the environmental impact of insect farming while simultaneously creating a novel, circular waste-processing income. Throughout the world, 1/3 of all food is wasted, and household food waste is 70% of the post-farm total. If food waste was its own country, it would be the third largest emitter of greenhouse gases after the USA and China [30]. Food waste is expected to increase in the future with a continually growing and increasingly urbanised global population adopting ‘modern’ lifestyles.
\n
It is challenging and wasteful to commercialise traditional composting of multiple waste streams on a large scale, but waste can be fed directly to insects to convert low-value biomass into higher-value insect mass. By valorising waste as feed, it may mitigate the impact of the food industry. Some fly (Diptera) species are known to be able to convert agricultural manure into body mass and reduce the waste dry matter by 58%. For food waste the conversion is as high as 95% leaving the remainder as a high-grade soil improver [30, 33].
\n
\n
\n
6. Acceptability of eating insects as animal protein
\n
The feasibility of promoting edible insect farming as sustainable protein depends on social acceptance, as the benefits cannot be realised if people do not choose to eat insects. The understanding of current perceptions, which often depend on class, location, gender and age, is essential to any market development. In some locations, newly urbanised citizens view insects as pests or as poor person’s food [7]. Although in this particular case, acceptance does depend on the insect itself, as there is an inferiority complex associated with wild harvesting of insects. In the Western world, insects are largely unfamiliar and mostly viewed as holiday novelty or ‘yuk’; thus, awareness of local taboos, cultural preferences and the population’s exposure to insects as food are crucial for the successful promotion of insect farming for food [3, 15, 34].
\n
In many urban and developed populations, a central issue is food neophobia, but after taking the first step in trying an insect, continued exposure correlates with increased acceptance. Processed insect products such as cookies, snack bars or powders further normalise the protein source [34, 35]. Conventional meat has a special status in society, both culturally and structurally in meals, so a sustainable culinary culture must be promoted in order to associate insect protein with pleasurable food [17].
\n
There are also risk considerations with the dissemination of novel foods and novel production pathways. Possible effects of prolonged insect consumption are nutrient malabsorption, growth alteration, allergy risk and contamination, and more research is needed into the digestion and absorption of insects in the human body [36]. Intensive insect farming runs risks of microbial infestation, parasites and pesticides. Preventative approaches, such as probiotics, transgenerational immune priming or heat treatment, and measured responses such as those advocated by Integrated Crop Management (ICM) will develop with the industry [20, 37]. There are other limitations in the lack of protocols in storage and decontamination, and although international regulation is underway, these ancient foods are currently classified the EU as novel foods [38].
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusion
\n
The issue of food security is multi-faceted, and each country’s solution will be different. Tackling food security requires responses that are both innovative and culturally appropriate. Farming insect livestock has the potential to alleviate food insecurity while promoting food sovereignty, especially if it is integrated with social acceptability in mind. Engagement of all stakeholders on the production and consumption sides and continued support for and from them will be vital for the success of its implementation. Commercial farming is growing across Europe and the North American continent, though a question yet to be answered at a wider scale is how edible insect farming can be increased and deployed in a way that benefits all parties, including especially the most vulnerable. We have overviewed the field and hope that this synthesis of much important work along with the exemplar production model of Figure 2 can provide encouragement and compact information to those seeking to evaluate the future of farmed insect production.
\n
Figure 2.
Idealised schematic of the inputs and outputs of a sustainable production model for insect farming.
\n
There is currently too little research available on the integration of insect farming with existing agricultural systems, and future solutions require the coordination of international, national and legal frameworks. With this in place, the future food revolution will be more able to directly benefit the poor and be environmentally sustainable [39].
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors wish to thank Harry McDade who contributed to the discussions on this topic. Thanks also go to the many who have written so passionately on this topic and to the inspiring Arnold van Huis; may these efforts eventually bear fruit, or larvae. Particular thoughts go to Dr. Marianne Schockley of the University of Georgia, Athens, GA, who advocated so ably and enthusiastically for Entomophagy in the USA.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
\n
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n
\n',keywords:"climate change, sustainability, entomophagy, insectivory, acceptance",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68137.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68137.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68137",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68137",totalDownloads:597,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"April 5th 2019",dateReviewed:"June 17th 2019",datePrePublished:"August 14th 2019",datePublished:"January 29th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Insect protein production through ‘mini-livestock farming’ has enormous potential to reduce the level of undernutrition in critical areas across the world. Sustainable insect farming could contribute substantially to increased food security, most especially in areas susceptible to environmental stochasticity. Entomophagy has long been acknowledged as an underutilised strategy to address issues of food security. This chapter reviews and provides a synthesis of the literature surrounding the potential of insect farming to alleviate food security while promoting food sovereignty and integrating social acceptability. These are immediate and current problems of food security and nutrition that must be solved to meet the UNDP Sustainable Development Goals.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68137",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68137",signatures:"Flora Dickie, Monami Miyamoto and C. Matilda (Tilly) Collins",book:{id:"8005",title:"Edible Insects",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Edible Insects",slug:"edible-insects",publishedDate:"January 29th 2020",bookSignature:"Heimo Mikkola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8005.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144330",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimo",middleName:"Juhani",surname:"Mikkola",slug:"heimo-mikkola",fullName:"Heimo Mikkola"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"301019",title:"Dr.",name:"C M",middleName:"(Tilly)",surname:"Collins",fullName:"C M Collins",slug:"c-m-collins",email:"t.collins@imperial.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"301022",title:"Ms.",name:"Flora",middleName:null,surname:"Dickie",fullName:"Flora Dickie",slug:"flora-dickie",email:"flora.dickie17@imperial.ac.uk",position:null,institution:{name:"Imperial College London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"308040",title:"Ms.",name:"Monami",middleName:null,surname:"Miyamoto",fullName:"Monami Miyamoto",slug:"monami-miyamoto",email:"monami.miyamoto17@imperial.ac.uk",position:null,institution:{name:"Imperial College London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Food insecurity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Nutritional potential of edible insects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The rise of insect farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The environmental advantage of insect farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Acceptability of eating insects as animal protein",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'MacEvilly C. Bugs in the system. Nutrition Bulletin. 2000;25(4):267-268'},{id:"B2",body:'Kelemu S, Niassy S, Torto B, Fiaboe K, Affognon H, Tonnang H, et al. African edible insects for food and feed: Inventory, diversity, commonalities and contribution to food security. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 2015;1(2):103-119'},{id:"B3",body:'Stull VJ, Wamulume M, Mwalukanga MI, Banda A, Bergmans RS, Bell MM. “We like insects here”: Entomophagy and society in a Zambian village. Agriculture and Human Values. 2018;35(4):867-883'},{id:"B4",body:'Yhoung-Aree J, Viwatpanich K. Edible insects in the Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. In: Paoletti MG, editor. Ecological implications of minilivestock: Potential of insects, rodents, frogs and snails. Enfield, NH, USA: Science Publisher Inc; 2005. pp. 415-440'},{id:"B5",body:'Ramos-Elorduy J. Anthropo-entomophagy: Cultures, evolution and sustainability. Entomological Research. 2009;39:271-288'},{id:"B6",body:'Belluco S, Losasso C, Maggioletti M, Alonzi CC, Paoletti MG, Ricci A. Edible insects in a food safety and nutritional perspective: A critical review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2013;12(3):296-313'},{id:"B7",body:'Looy H, Dunkel FV, Wood JR. How then shall we eat? Insect-eating attitudes and sustainable foodways. Agriculture and Human Values. 2014;31(1):131-141'},{id:"B8",body:'Vogel G. For more protein, filet of cricket. Science. 2010;327(5967):881'},{id:"B9",body:'Tomberlin JK, Zheng L, van Huis A. Insects to feed the world conference 2018. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 2018;4(2):75-76'},{id:"B10",body:'Premalatha M, Abbasi T, Abbasi T, Abbasi SA. Energy-efficient food production to reduce global warming and ecodegradation: The use of edible insects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2011;15:4357-4360'},{id:"B11",body:'Raheem D, Carrascosa C, Oluwole OB, Nieuwland M, Saraiva A, Millán R, et al. Traditional consumption of and rearing edible insects in Africa, Asia and Europe. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2018;15:1-20'},{id:"B12",body:'Sasson A. Food security for Africa: An urgent global challenge. Agriculture and Food Security. 2012;1(2)'},{id:"B13",body:'Parnell S, Walawege R. Sub-Saharan African urbanisation and global environmental change. Global Environmental Change. 2011;21(suppl 1):12-20'},{id:"B14",body:'Lloyd SJ, Sari Kovats R, Chalabi Z. Climate change, crop yields, and undernutrition: Development of a model to quantify the impact of climate scenarios on child undernutrition. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2011;119(12):1817-1823'},{id:"B15",body:'Laar A, Kotoh A, Parker M, Milani P, Tawiah C, Soor S, et al. An exploration of edible palm weevil larvae (Akokono) as a source of nutrition and livelihood: Perspectives from Ghanaian stakeholders. Food and Nutrition Bulletin. 2017;38(4):455-467'},{id:"B16",body:'van Huis A. Potential of insects as food and feed in assuring food security. Annual Review of Entomology. 2013;58(1):563-583'},{id:"B17",body:'van der Spiegel M, Noordam MY, van der Fels-Klerx HJ. Safety of novel protein sources (insects, microalgae, seaweed, duckweed, and rapeseed) and legislative aspects for their application in food and feed production. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2013;12:662-678'},{id:"B18",body:'Oonincx DGAB, de Boer IJM. Environmental impact of the production of mealworms as a protein source for humans: A life cycle assessment. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:12'},{id:"B19",body:'Ozimek L, Sauer WC, Kozikowski V, Ryan JK, Jørgensen H, Jelen P. Nutritive value of protein extracted from honey bees. Journal of Food Science. 1985;50(5):1327-1329'},{id:"B20",body:'Barennes H, Phimmasane M, Rajaonarivo C. Insect consumption to address undernutrition, a national survey on the prevalence of insect consumption among adults and vendors in Laos. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(8)'},{id:"B21",body:'Payne CLR, Scarborough P, Rayner M, Nonaka K. Are edible insects more or less “healthy” than commonly consumed meats? A comparison using two nutrient profiling models developed to combat over- and undernutrition. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2016;70(3):285-291'},{id:"B22",body:'van Huis A, Oonincx DGAB. The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 2017;35(7):1-14'},{id:"B23",body:'Banjo A, Lawal O, Sononga E. The nutritional value of fourteen species of edible insects in southwestern Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2006;5:298-301'},{id:"B24",body:'Illgner P, Nel E. The geography of edible insects in sub-Saharan Africa: A study of the mopane caterpillar. The Geographical Journal. 2000;166(4):336-351'},{id:"B25",body:'Mbata KJ, Chidumayo EN, Lwatula CM. Traditional regulation of edible caterpillar exploitation in the Kopa area of Mpika district in northern Zambia. Journal of Insect Conservation. 2002;6(115)'},{id:"B26",body:'Losey JE, Vaughn M. The economic value of ecological services provided by insects. Bioscience. 2006;56(4):311'},{id:"B27",body:'Sánchez-Bayo F, Wyckhuys KAG. Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers. Biological Conservation. 2019;232:8-27'},{id:"B28",body:'Nadeau L, Nadeau I, Franklin F, Dunkel F. The potential for entomophagy to address undernutrition. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 2015;54(3):200-208'},{id:"B29",body:'Halloran A, Vantomme P, Hanboonsong Y, Ekesi S. Regulating edible insects: The challenge of addressing food security, nature conservation, and the erosion of traditional food culture. Food Security. 2015;7(3):739-746'},{id:"B30",body:'Entomics. Entomics [Internet]. Available from: www.entomics.com'},{id:"B31",body:'Ynsect [Internet]. 2019. Available from: http://www.ynsect.com/en/'},{id:"B32",body:'Ahuja K, Deb S. Edible insects: Market size by product, by application, industry analysis report, regional outlook, application potential, price trends, competitive market share and forecast, 2018-2024. Delaware, USA: Global Market Insights; 2018'},{id:"B33",body:'van Huis A, Klunder JVIH, Merten E, Halloran A, Vantomme P. Edible Insects. Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2013'},{id:"B34",body:'Collins CM, Vaskou P, Kountouris Y. Insect food products in the Western world: Assessing the potential of a new ‘green’ market. Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 2019. IN PRESS'},{id:"B35",body:'Hartmann C, Siegrist M. Becoming an insectivore: Results of an experiment. Food Quality and Preference. 2016;51:118-122'},{id:"B36",body:'Testa M, Stillo M, Maffei G, Andriolo V, Gardois P, Zotti CM. Ugly but tasty: A systematic review of possible human and animal health risks related to entomophagy. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2017'},{id:"B37",body:'Grau T, Vilcinskas A, Joop G. Sustainable farming of the mealworm Tenebrio molitor for the production of food and feed. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung: Section C Journal of Biosciences. 2017;72(9):337-349'},{id:"B38",body:'Finke MD, Rojo S, Roos N, van Huis A, Yen AL. The European food safety authority scientific opinion on a risk profile related to production and consumption of insects as food and feed. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 2015;1(4):245-247'},{id:"B39",body:'Conway G, Wilson K. One Billion Hungry. 1st Editio ed. Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock Publ. Assoc; 2012'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Flora Dickie",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8005",title:"Edible Insects",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Edible Insects",slug:"edible-insects",publishedDate:"January 29th 2020",bookSignature:"Heimo Mikkola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8005.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144330",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimo",middleName:"Juhani",surname:"Mikkola",slug:"heimo-mikkola",fullName:"Heimo Mikkola"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"165055",title:"Mr.",name:"Dan",middleName:null,surname:"Ledbetter",email:"dan.ledbetter@uky.edu",fullName:"Dan Ledbetter",slug:"dan-ledbetter",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Altering Autophagy: Mouse Models of Human Disease",slug:"altering-autophagy-mouse-models-of-human-disease",abstract:null,signatures:"Amber Hale, Dan Ledbetter, Thomas Gawriluk and Edmund B. Rucker III",authors:[{id:"163761",title:"Prof.",name:"Edmund",surname:"Rucker",fullName:"Edmund Rucker",slug:"edmund-rucker",email:"edmund.rucker@uky.edu"},{id:"165053",title:"Mr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Gawriluk",fullName:"Thomas Gawriluk",slug:"thomas-gawriluk",email:"tgawriluk@uky.edu"},{id:"165054",title:"Ms.",name:"Amber",surname:"Hale",fullName:"Amber Hale",slug:"amber-hale",email:"amber.hale@uky.edu"},{id:"165055",title:"Mr.",name:"Dan",surname:"Ledbetter",fullName:"Dan Ledbetter",slug:"dan-ledbetter",email:"dan.ledbetter@uky.edu"}],book:{title:"Autophagy - A Double-Edged Sword",slug:"autophagy-a-double-edged-sword-cell-survival-or-death-",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"60878",title:"Dr.",name:"Dieter",surname:"Willbold",slug:"dieter-willbold",fullName:"Dieter Willbold",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"108846",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",surname:"Warnes",slug:"gary-warnes",fullName:"Gary Warnes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Queen Mary University of London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"163924",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Romano",slug:"patricia-romano",fullName:"Patricia Romano",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of Cuyo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"164152",title:"Prof.",name:"Tassula",surname:"Proikas-Cezanne",slug:"tassula-proikas-cezanne",fullName:"Tassula Proikas-Cezanne",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/164152/images/3709_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tübingen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"164170",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Bakula",slug:"daniela-bakula",fullName:"Daniela Bakula",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"164681",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonghui",surname:"Ma",slug:"tonghui-ma",fullName:"Tonghui Ma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jilin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"165068",title:"Dr.",name:"Malgorzata",surname:"Gajewska",slug:"malgorzata-gajewska",fullName:"Malgorzata Gajewska",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Warsaw University of Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"165092",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeannine",surname:"Mohrlüder",slug:"jeannine-mohrluder",fullName:"Jeannine Mohrlüder",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"165095",title:"Dr.",name:"Oliver",surname:"Weiergräber",slug:"oliver-weiergraber",fullName:"Oliver Weiergräber",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"165352",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding-funders-list",title:"List of Funders by Country",intro:"
If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
",metaTitle:"List of Funders by Country",metaDescription:"If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-funding-funders-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117095},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"125",title:"Earth Science",slug:"earth-science",parent:{title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"},numberOfBooks:33,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:825,numberOfWosCitations:768,numberOfCrossrefCitations:495,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1346,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"earth-science",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8974",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Cyclone Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3bf6428d456edbadac595a8417045865",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-cyclone-research",bookSignature:"Anthony Lupo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8974.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"18289",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",middleName:"Rocco",surname:"Lupo",slug:"anthony-lupo",fullName:"Anthony Lupo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8007",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",subtitle:"Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec140486c42d62e69ef428e6cf71b6d7",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",bookSignature:"Jiayi Pan and Adam Devlin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179303",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiayi",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"jiayi-pan",fullName:"Jiayi Pan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7606",title:"Coastal and Marine Environments",subtitle:"Physical Processes and Numerical Modelling",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd1227726856d58b88116129b0de8384",slug:"coastal-and-marine-environments-physical-processes-and-numerical-modelling",bookSignature:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7606.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67904",title:"Prof.",name:"José Simão",middleName:null,surname:"Antunes Do Carmo",slug:"jose-simao-antunes-do-carmo",fullName:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8476",title:"Earth Crust",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebef9911d87b6db8cb55dad47250a6be",slug:"earth-crust",bookSignature:"Muhammad Nawaz, Farha Sattar and Sandeep Narayan Kundu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8476.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"269790",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Nawaz",slug:"muhammad-nawaz",fullName:"Muhammad Nawaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7767",title:"Rainfall",subtitle:"Extremes, Distribution and Properties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9f9b3b7d86cb46e2ce3653587805475d",slug:"rainfall-extremes-distribution-and-properties",bookSignature:"John Abbot and Andrew Hammond",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7767.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"225780",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Abbot",slug:"john-abbot",fullName:"John Abbot"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6982",title:"Arctic Studies",subtitle:"A Proxy for Climate Change",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6545831965fb2dcef181c46d18fed1ba",slug:"arctic-studies-a-proxy-for-climate-change",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Yoshihiro Kakinami and Genti Toyokuni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6982.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7484",title:"Topics in Hydrometerology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d7e790445c691226a5778a32abd15cf",slug:"topics-in-hydrometerology",bookSignature:"Theodore V Hromadka II and Prasada Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7484.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181008",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore",middleName:null,surname:"Hromadka",slug:"theodore-hromadka",fullName:"Theodore Hromadka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6836",title:"Groundwater",subtitle:"Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7cad088c49e61c898abc7d7511de42f6",slug:"groundwater-resource-characterisation-and-management-aspects",bookSignature:"Modreck Gomo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6836.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185450",title:"Dr.",name:"Modreck",middleName:null,surname:"Gomo",slug:"modreck-gomo",fullName:"Modreck Gomo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6973",title:"Advanced Evapotranspiration Methods and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7c54751778dc2ff4a19cd84f1bf0c706",slug:"advanced-evapotranspiration-methods-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Bucur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6973.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50794",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"G",surname:"Bucur",slug:"daniel-bucur",fullName:"Daniel Bucur"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6012",title:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79ce8dc1cde58947a61fe4aea725d437",slug:"morphodynamic-model-for-predicting-beach-changes-based-on-bagnold-s-concept-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Takaaki Uda, Masumi Serizawa and Shiho Miyahara",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6012.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"13491",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaaki",middleName:null,surname:"Uda",slug:"takaaki-uda",fullName:"Takaaki Uda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"8669",title:"Coastal Environment, Disaster, and Infrastructure",subtitle:"A Case Study of China's Coastline",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52abc534177a147ffd3154db2f4f4ba1",slug:"coastal-environment-disaster-and-infrastructure-a-case-study-of-china-s-coastline",bookSignature:"X. San Liang and Yuanzhi Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210315",title:"Prof.",name:"X. San",middleName:null,surname:"Liang",slug:"x.-san-liang",fullName:"X. San Liang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"6732",title:"Desalination and Water Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eee2f03e0328f289e68fde28738c333f",slug:"desalination-and-water-treatment",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir Yüksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6732.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:33,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"27305",doi:"10.5772/39363",title:"Water Stress in Plants: Causes, Effects and Responses",slug:"water-stress-in-plants-causes-effects-and-responses",totalDownloads:27651,totalCrossrefCites:38,totalDimensionsCites:112,book:{slug:"water-stress",title:"Water Stress",fullTitle:"Water Stress"},signatures:"Seyed Y. S. Lisar, Rouhollah Motafakkerazad, Mosharraf M. Hossain and Ismail M. M. Rahman",authors:[{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M. M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.-m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M. M. Rahman"}]},{id:"53211",doi:"10.5772/66416",title:"Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture",slug:"biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:14914,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:70,book:{slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano, Luis Rafael Martínez-\nCórdova, Marcel Martínez-Porchas and Anselmo Miranda-Baeza",authors:[{id:"146126",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho",middleName:null,surname:"Emerenciano",slug:"mauricio-gustavo-coelho-emerenciano",fullName:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano"},{id:"186970",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Porchas",slug:"marcel-martinez-porchas",fullName:"Marcel Martínez-Porchas"},{id:"186971",title:"Prof.",name:"Anselmo",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Baeza",slug:"anselmo-miranda-baeza",fullName:"Anselmo Miranda-Baeza"},{id:"195101",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Córdoba",slug:"luis-rafael-martinez-cordoba",fullName:"Luis Rafael Martínez-Córdoba"}]},{id:"26970",doi:"10.5772/29578",title:"Plant Water-Stress Response Mechanisms",slug:"plant-water-stress-response-mechanisms",totalDownloads:20267,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:39,book:{slug:"water-stress",title:"Water Stress",fullTitle:"Water Stress"},signatures:"Şener Akıncı and Dorothy M. Lösel",authors:[{id:"78435",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sener",middleName:null,surname:"Akinci",slug:"sener-akinci",fullName:"Sener Akinci"},{id:"126728",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorothy M.",middleName:null,surname:"Lösel",slug:"dorothy-m.-losel",fullName:"Dorothy M. Lösel"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53211",title:"Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture",slug:"biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:14914,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:70,book:{slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano, Luis Rafael Martínez-\nCórdova, Marcel Martínez-Porchas and Anselmo Miranda-Baeza",authors:[{id:"146126",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho",middleName:null,surname:"Emerenciano",slug:"mauricio-gustavo-coelho-emerenciano",fullName:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano"},{id:"186970",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Porchas",slug:"marcel-martinez-porchas",fullName:"Marcel Martínez-Porchas"},{id:"186971",title:"Prof.",name:"Anselmo",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Baeza",slug:"anselmo-miranda-baeza",fullName:"Anselmo Miranda-Baeza"},{id:"195101",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Córdoba",slug:"luis-rafael-martinez-cordoba",fullName:"Luis Rafael Martínez-Córdoba"}]},{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:18980,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,book:{slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"63043",title:"Desalination of Water",slug:"desalination-of-water",totalDownloads:2063,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"desalination-and-water-treatment",title:"Desalination and Water Treatment",fullTitle:"Desalination and Water Treatment"},signatures:"Manish Thimmaraju, Divya Sreepada, Gummadi Sridhar Babu,\nBharath Kumar Dasari, Sai Kiran Velpula and Nagaraju Vallepu",authors:[{id:"249016",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Thimmaraju",slug:"manish-kumar-thimmaraju",fullName:"Manish Kumar Thimmaraju"},{id:"256566",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sreepada",middleName:null,surname:"Divya",slug:"sreepada-divya",fullName:"Sreepada Divya"}]},{id:"52622",title:"Review of the Impact on Water Quality and Treatment Options of Cyanide Used in Gold Ore Processing",slug:"review-of-the-impact-on-water-quality-and-treatment-options-of-cyanide-used-in-gold-ore-processing",totalDownloads:2216,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Benias C. Nyamunda",authors:[{id:"186506",title:"Dr.",name:"Benias",middleName:null,surname:"Nyamunda",slug:"benias-nyamunda",fullName:"Benias Nyamunda"}]},{id:"53194",title:"Impact of Wastewater on Surface Water Quality in Developing Countries: A Case Study of South Africa",slug:"impact-of-wastewater-on-surface-water-quality-in-developing-countries-a-case-study-of-south-africa",totalDownloads:5751,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:32,book:{slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Joshua N. Edokpayi, John O. Odiyo and Olatunde S. Durowoju",authors:[{id:"187867",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Edokpayi",slug:"joshua-edokpayi",fullName:"Joshua Edokpayi"},{id:"189690",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Odiyo",slug:"john-odiyo",fullName:"John Odiyo"},{id:"194678",title:"Dr.",name:"Olatunde",middleName:"Samod",surname:"Durowoju",slug:"olatunde-durowoju",fullName:"Olatunde Durowoju"}]},{id:"57345",title:"Safe Drinking Water: Concepts, Benefits, Principles and Standards",slug:"safe-drinking-water-concepts-benefits-principles-and-standards",totalDownloads:4153,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Megersa Olumana Dinka",authors:[{id:"206964",title:"Dr.",name:"Megersa Olumana",middleName:null,surname:"Dinka",slug:"megersa-olumana-dinka",fullName:"Megersa Olumana Dinka"}]},{id:"68134",title:"Introductory Chapter: Earth Crust - Origin, Structure, Composition and Evolution",slug:"introductory-chapter-earth-crust-origin-structure-composition-and-evolution",totalDownloads:782,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"earth-crust",title:"Earth Crust",fullTitle:"Earth Crust"},signatures:"Muhammad Nawaz",authors:[{id:"269790",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Nawaz",slug:"muhammad-nawaz",fullName:"Muhammad Nawaz"}]},{id:"61215",title:"Solar Desalination",slug:"solar-desalination",totalDownloads:1657,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"desalination-and-water-treatment",title:"Desalination and Water Treatment",fullTitle:"Desalination and Water Treatment"},signatures:"Fadi Alnaimat, James Klausner and Bobby Mathew",authors:[{id:"151722",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadi",middleName:null,surname:"Alnaimat",slug:"fadi-alnaimat",fullName:"Fadi Alnaimat"},{id:"245337",title:"Prof.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Klausner",slug:"james-klausner",fullName:"James Klausner"},{id:"245338",title:"Dr.",name:"Bobby",middleName:null,surname:"Mathew",slug:"bobby-mathew",fullName:"Bobby Mathew"}]},{id:"66437",title:"Detection of Underground Water by Using GPR",slug:"detection-of-underground-water-by-using-gpr",totalDownloads:1497,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"groundwater-resource-characterisation-and-management-aspects",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects"},signatures:"Dalia N. Elsheakh and Esmat A. Abdallah",authors:[{id:"111813",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Elsheakh",slug:"dalia-elsheakh",fullName:"Dalia Elsheakh"},{id:"111867",title:"Prof.",name:"Esmat",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"esmat-abdallah",fullName:"Esmat Abdallah"}]},{id:"52639",title:"Metals Toxic Effects in Aquatic Ecosystems: Modulators of Water Quality",slug:"metals-toxic-effects-in-aquatic-ecosystems-modulators-of-water-quality",totalDownloads:3153,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Stefania Gheorghe, Catalina Stoica, Gabriela Geanina Vasile, Mihai\nNita-Lazar, Elena Stanescu and Irina Eugenia Lucaciu",authors:[{id:"186964",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefania",middleName:null,surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"stefania-gheorghe",fullName:"Stefania Gheorghe"},{id:"194072",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalina",middleName:null,surname:"Stoica",slug:"catalina-stoica",fullName:"Catalina Stoica"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"earth-science",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/165055/dan-ledbetter",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"165055",slug:"dan-ledbetter"},fullPath:"/profiles/165055/dan-ledbetter",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()