Importance ranking of knowledge.
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He was awarded 4 Kudos awards by Intel for his contributions in the design and verification of the microchip’s design for testability (DFT) features.",institutionString:"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"454196",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalene",middleName:null,surname:"Goh Wan Ching",slug:"magdalene-goh-wan-ching",fullName:"Magdalene Goh Wan Ching",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr Magdalene Goh Wan Ching\r\nDesignation: Senior lecturer\r\nQualifications: Diploma in Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Inti College), BEng in Electrical\r\nEngineering & Electronics (University of Liverpool, UK), PhD in Solid State\r\nDevice Physics & RF Transistors Design (University of Liverpool, UK)\r\n\r\nProfessional Body\r\nMemberships:\r\n\r\nInaugural Senior Member, International Engineering & Technology Institute\r\n(IETI), Hong Kong\r\n\r\nBiodata: Dr. Magdalene Goh obtained her Diploma in Electrical & Electronics Engineering\r\nfrom Inti College before leaving for the UK to pursue her BEng in Electrical\r\nEngineering & Electronics and later on, her PhD. Prior to joining the academia,\r\nshe has worked for a few years in the industry in the areas of semiconductor\r\nprocess technology, silicon wafer characterizations, mask layout design,\r\nanalogue circuits design and design for testability (DFT). While in the academic,\r\nshe had served as a judge for Innovate Malaysia undergraduate final year\r\nprojects competition from 2012 - 2015. She had served as an external examiner\r\nfor a PhD candidate from VIT University, India in 2013, and an external examiner\r\nfor SEGi College Penang from 2014 – 2018. She has been actively involved with\r\nthe Penang Science Cluster in their radio telescope team since 2014, where she\r\nworks with a team of volunteers (from both academia and the industry in\r\nPenang) to create curricula in radio astronomy, for the purpose of introducing the\r\nconcepts of radio astronomy and radio telescopes to both school pupils and\r\ncollege students. She has been a member of the Astronomical Society of\r\nPenang since 2016.\r\n\r\nCourse Development\r\nExperience:\r\n\r\nSince joining WOU, Dr. Goh has developed eight courses, namely Control\r\nSystems, Microprocessors, Digital Communications, Microelectronics, VLSI\r\nDesign, Process Control & Instrumentation, Power Electronics & Drives and\r\nElectrical Power & Drives.\r\n\r\nResearch Interest: Dr. Goh’s research interests are in the areas of semiconductor physics and\r\nelectromagnetics. She also has strong interest in the field of astronomy and is\r\nworking with a group of volunteers to promote astronomy education in the\r\nsecondary schools in Penang. She had also worked with some interns on the\r\nradio telescope project at the Penang Science Cluster.\r\n\r\nResearch Projects and\r\nConsultancy Work:\r\nSelected Publications: Design of Radio Frequency Metal-Insulator-Metal (MIM) Capacitors. \r\n\r\nExperimental Investigation on Thermoelectric Generator for Battery - Charger\r\nBased Oven.\r\nAnalyzing the Physics of Radio Telescopes and Radio Astronomy (book\r\nchapters).\r\n\r\nConferences,\r\nSeminars and\r\nWorkshops:\r\n\r\nDr. Goh was appointed as one of the Technical Committee Member for the\r\nVirtual Conference on Electronics and Communication: Loading Intelligence on\r\nFuture Electronics (October 2020).\r\n\r\nHonorary\r\nAppointments and\r\nAwards:\r\n\r\nDr. Goh is a reviewer of the following journals:-\r\n1. Microwave and Optical Technology Letters.\r\n2. Journal of Electrical Engineering.\r\n3. 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Accounting education is no exception to the rule, and it has now become necessary to make it evolve by introducing new goals, new tools and new courses.
This development is all the more urgent since some researchers [2, 3, 4] have highlighted two disturbing phenomena in the United States: increasingly fewer students opt for educations in accounting, and it is the least brilliant of them who are now choosing this discipline. We can question the extrapolation of these trends in our case, Tunisia. Developments related to globalization, liberalization of markets and the diffusion of new technologies require expanding both the knowledge and the skills from professional accountants in order to meet the needs of the profession in a changing environment. Several previous studies have examined the question of what should be the knowledge and skills components in accounting education programs [5, 6, 7].
This research fits into this context. Through a questionnaire-based survey administered to Tunisian professional accountants, we will seek, first, to highlight the knowledge, skills, and teaching methods seen as important for professional accountants and, secondly, we will conduct a comparative study regarding the knowledge and skills perceived as necessary by professional accountants practicing in the United States, China, and Tunisia. Thus, to adapt to the environmental changes mentioned above, accounting education must evolve in order to prepare future professionals for these new requirements. Hence the interest of our research questions: What kind of knowledge, skills and teaching methods are seen as important for professional accountants? And secondly, do the needs of Tunisian accountants professionals match to those of Americans and Chinese’s professionals?
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. The Section 2 presents the study background and reviews the relevant literature. The third section describes the research methodology. Perceptions of the Tunisian professional accountants are described and discussed in Section 4. Finally, we conclude in Section 5 with implications for further research and practice.
In recent decades, considerable changes have occurred in the business environment, as well as in the nature and the role of the accounting profession. These changes have led accounting education to fundamentally call itself into question [1, 2, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Indeed, in western countries, several academic studies and professional reports have identified issues related to the accounting curriculum [5, 6, 7]. These latter are considered traditional because they are focused on the training of students to prepare for professional qualifying exams, to the detriment of teaching a broader base of knowledge and professional skills [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. These significant criticisms from the accounting profession, as well as the rapid evolution of technologies [1], economic globalization, and increasing competition in the business world have led teachers in the accounting field to undertake a reform of accounting education, both in the United States and in other countries [18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Thus, in the American context, since 1986 and in order to cope with these changes, the major accounting firms (the “Big Four”) created a dedicated commission to study the correlation between accounting education programs and the requirements of the accounting profession resulting from new economic conditions. Due to perceived deficiencies in accounting education, a great number of studies have been conducted, seeking to improve it. Several studies were conducted in the United States, including the report prepared by the Bedford Committee [12] promoting the reform of accounting education in the United States. Later, one report focused on the prospects of international accounting firms and education [23] and, in 1990, the Accounting Education Change Commission (AECC) published a report entitled:
In their report entitled
Later, in 2002, Francisco and Kelly proposed a continuation of Albrecht and Sack’s work, particularly in the area of skills development. To do this, students were asked to assess different professional skills in order to identify those that were the most important for their future career. They identified differences in the perceived importance of these skills between students enrolled in accounting education and those registered in other disciplines. Although there are some variations in the perceptions of students with practitioners and teachers, all stakeholders nevertheless agreed on the need for an immediate and thorough reform in accounting education [2, 28, 29]. Since the report by Albrecht and Sack [2], concerns about the curriculum, seemingly unchanged in the post-Enron era, have been renewed. Attempts to fill in the gaps have not achieved a significant change, and accounting education continues to be “limited, focusing strictly on technical accounting” [30]. Several authors have criticized the limited reaction of academics following the accounting scandals, and advocated broadening the base of accounting education by addressing the economic, social, cultural, and political roles of accounting [31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. More specifically, Ravenscroft and Williams [31] argue that “there are currently serious omissions in the accounting curriculum which must be rectified, and that accounting students are poorly trained in some critical areas. Almost, a decade later, the Pathways Commission [5] identified a need for a new model of education that is better aligned with the contemporary environment and evolving demands on accounting professionals. It is the integrated competency-based framework developed as part of a research project of Lawson
Although resistance to changes in accounting education seems to be considerable [2, 17, 36], the above studies and reports produced a positive impact on the development of the accounting education in the Chinese context. Indeed, several studies have focused on the context of an emerging country as China [37, 38, 39]. In recent years, due to the rapid evolution of economic reforms and the internationalization of Chinese accounting, accounting education underwent considerable changes to adopt western systems [40, 41, 42]. However, after more than two decades of reforms, the Chinese system of accounting education is now quite similar to the U.S. model, deemed traditional [43]. It is in this context that Lin
At the international level, the problem of professional accounting education has become increasingly important, which led the International Federation of accountants (IFAC) to conclude that it is imperative to develop a general framework and standards governing accounting education. To do this, the IFAC Education Committee, International Accounting Education Standards Board (IAESB) has developed International Education Standard (IES) aimed at professional accountants. In addition, the International Educational Guideline (IEG) No. 9 of IFAC asserts that “the objective of theoretical education in accounting is to prepare future competent professional accountants (…) it is necessary to offer an education that provides them with knowledge, skills and rules that allow them to continue to enrich their background and adapt to change throughout their active life” [44]. The IAESB sets standards to increase the “competence of the global accountancy profession and contribute to strengthened public interest” [45]. Indeed, the IAESB declares that adopting IES practice will enhance education in the public interest by “contributing to the ability of the accountancy profession to meet the needs of decision makers” [46]. However, the challenge to the IAESB to motivate education practice in its organizational field goes beyond influencing professional bodies and international regulators with an interest in globalized accounting practice. Audiences involved in professional accountancy education also include, for example professional bodies operating in countries at different stages of development, national governments, private training providers, universities, and employers [47].
In conclusion, the experience of the reforms in accounting education in the United States, in China, as well as in other countries is a relevant reference from which we can draw the inspiration to change the accounting education in other contexts. Given the rapid integration of the Tunisian economy in the global markets through its production of high technology products and the globalization of its trade activities, accounting education in Tunisia is similar to that of the western world. It is, as such, also confronted with this new requirement which has the objective of training students in order to meet the challenges arising from the changing business environment. It seems to us that it is time to suggest changes in the accounting education in order both to broaden the base of knowledge and to develop skills, and change teaching methods. The timing is particularly appropriate since the Tunisian government, after implementing LMD reform (License-Master-Doctorate) [48], is currently putting implementing a new reform of higher education [49].
In light of our research questions and our purposes, we conducted a survey using a questionnaire prepared based on the literature focused on the theme of the accounting profession needs and accounting education, on the IES and, lastly, on the various existing questionnaires on this theme. The first draft was submitted to three phases of pre-testing. Once finalized, the questionnaire was administered to the 6151 Certified Public Accountants (CPA) enrolled in the Association of CPA of Tunisia, as well as to the 4442 Certified Public Accountant trainees (CPAt) who passed the national CPA examination and were, at the time, doing their internship.3
The survey instrument includes a list of knowledge (19 items), professional, and technological skills (respectively, 22 items and 18 items), as well as teaching methods (12 items). We asked respondents to express their views about their perception of the importance of the required knowledge, skills, and pedagogy on a scale of 1–4 (1 represents not at all important; 4 is very important).
CPA education seems appropriate to our object of research for three reasons. Firstly, in the Tunisian context, CPA education is training that deals with a very broad program, encompassing different subject matter already studied in the master of accounting (level: high school diploma +4 years). Secondly, the Tunisian CPA education leads to a prestigious national examination. Thirdly, success in this exam allows students to become a CPA after the completion of three years of internship.
An initial release of our survey instrument was conducted by e-mail in September 2010. We then presented the questionnaire by hand to the 350 CPA and CPAt who had not yet responded to our email. After four reminders, we received 131 questionnaires from the CPA and 175 questionnaires from the CPAt. Altogether, 306 usable questionnaires were collected and were entered into SPSS. The overall response rate was 37%, including 26% for the CPA and 48% for the CPAt. Statistical tests carried out in this study are descriptive statistics and comparison of means tests.
In this part of the study we will present the perceptions of professional accountants. First, we will put forward the differences in perception between the Tunisian CPA and CPAt about the importance of the needs (4.1.). These needs are seen in terms of knowledge, professional and technological skills, and finally, in terms of teaching methods. Then, we will propose a comparison of perceptions in terms of needs from professional accountants who are in developed, emerging, or developing countries. These countries are the United States, China and Tunisia (4.2.).
From the first column in Table 1, we can notice that, at the aggregate level, the respondents identified tax, auditing/assurance services, business law, financial accounting, managerial accounting, information systems, finance, technology topics, business strategy and electronic commerce as the ten most important knowledge subjects. Analytical/critical thinking, oral communication, foreign language, written communication, professional demeanor, measurement, risk analysis, teamwork, continuous learning and computing technology were identified as the ten most important professional skills (Table 2). According to Table 3, spreadsheet software, word processing software, world-wide web searching, systems analysis, windows, presentation software, database software, file & directory management, project management and communication software are, in turn, considered by respondents as the ten most important technological skills. Finally, assignments with real companies, team teaching, case analysis, team (group) work and role playing were identified as the five most effective methods for training accounting students in the current business environment in Tunisia (Table 4).
Panel 1: Knowledge | Total population N = 306 | Certified Public Accountants N = 131 | Certified Public Accountants trainees N = 175 | F (P) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | ||
Taxes | 3.777 | .508 | 1 | 3.748 | .501 | 1 | 3.800 | .514 | 1 | .780(.378) |
Auditing/Assurance services | 3.620 | .616 | 2 | 3.717 | .468 | 2 | 3.548 | .700 | 3 | 5.711(.017)* |
Financial accounting | 3.604 | .558 | 3 | 3.580 | .540 | 4 | 3.622 | .572 | 2 | .437(.509) |
Business law | 3.588 | .617 | 4 | 3.679 | .530 | 3 | 3.520 | .668 | 4 | 5.066(.025)* |
Managerial accounting | 3.477 | .633 | 5 | 3.549 | .584 | 5 | 3.422 | .663 | 6 | 3.021(.083) |
Information systems | 3.447 | .732 | 6 | 3.542 | .623 | 6 | 3.377 | .799 | 8 | 3.829(.051) |
Finance | 3.402 | .604 | 7 | 3.343 | .565 | 8 | 3.445 | .630 | 5 | 2.148(.144) |
Technology topics | 3.385 | .880 | 8 | 3.351 | .822 | 7 | 3.411 | .923 | 7 | .350(.554) |
Business strategy | 3.153 | .741 | 9 | 3.274 | .784 | 9 | 3.062 | .696 | 9 | 6.223(.013)* |
Electronic commerce | 3.009 | .932 | 10 | 3.190 | .912 | 10 | 2.874 | .926 | 12 | 8.864(.003)** |
Statistics/Quantitative methods | 2.990 | .986 | 11 | 3.076 | .873 | 13 | 2.925 | 1.061 | 10 | 1.750(.187) |
Organizational behavior/ Human resource management | 2.928 | .948 | 12 | 3.152 | .808 | 11 | 2.760 | 1.011 | 13 | 13.359(.000)** |
Accounting research methods | 2.892 | .848 | 13 | 2.877 | .784 | 14 | 2.902 | .894 | 11 | .065(.799) |
Ethics and social responsibility | 2.849 | .990 | 14 | 3.099 | .918 | 12 | 2.662 | 1.003 | 16 | 15.227(.000)** |
Operations/Supply-chain management | 2.771 | .968 | 15 | 2.824 | .854 | 15 | 2.731 | 1.046 | 14 | .690(.407) |
Global/International business | 2.722 | .907 | 16 | 2.793 | .865 | 16 | 2.668 | .937 | 15 | 1.430(.233) |
Economics | 2.408 | .856 | 17 | 2.740 | .837 | 17 | 2.160 | .786 | 18 | 38.620(.000)** |
Marketing | 2.343 | .870 | 18 | 2.557 | .833 | 18 | 2.182 | .864 | 17 | 14.480(.000)** |
Retail and sales | 2.192 | .904 | 19 | 2.404 | .857 | 19 | 2.034 | .909 | 19 | 13.047(.000)** |
Importance ranking of knowledge.
Significant at the 5% level.
Very significant at the 1% level.
Panel 2: Professional skills | Total population N = 306 | Certified Public Accountants N = 131 | Certified Public Accountants trainees N = 175 | F (P) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | ||
Analytical/Critical thinking | 3.692 | .558 | 1 | 3.694 | .509 | 5 | 3.691 | .593 | 1 | .002(.960) |
Oral communication | 3.673 | .582 | 2 | 3.786 | .429 | 1 | 3.588 | .662 | 4 | 8.866(.003)** |
Foreign language | 3.653 | .576 | 3 | 3.732 | .493 | 3 | 3.594 | .626 | 3 | 4.378(.037)* |
Written communication | 3.627 | .620 | 4 | 3.709 | .488 | 4 | 3.565 | .698 | 7 | 4.084(.044)* |
Professional demeanor | 3.617 | .622 | 5 | 3.626 | .501 | 6 | 3.611 | .701 | 2 | .041(.840) |
Measurement | 3.601 | .651 | 6 | 3.626 | .572 | 7 | 3.582 | .705 | 6 | .327(.568) |
Risk analysis | 3.578 | .674 | 7 | 3.618 | .561 | 8 | 3.548 | .747 | 8 | .801(.371) |
Teamwork | 3.545 | .637 | 8 | 3.488 | .636 | 15 | 3.588 | .635 | 5 | 1.851(.175) |
Continuous learning | 3.509 | .692 | 9 | 3.534 | .611 | 13 | 3.491 | .749 | 9 | .287(.593) |
Computing technology | 3.500 | .678 | 10 | 3.557 | .570 | 12 | 3.457 | .748 | 10 | 1.633(.202) |
Interpersonal | 3.483 | .697 | 11 | 3.564 | .569 | 11 | 3.422 | .775 | 12 | 3.127(.078) |
Entrepreneurship | 3.470 | .729 | 12 | 3.526 | .586 | 14 | 3.428 | .819 | 11 | 1.358(.245) |
Decision-making | 3.408 | .728 | 13 | 3.458 | .659 | 16 | 3.371 | .776 | 13 | 1.058(.304) |
Research | 3.388 | .739 | 14 | 3.580 | .594 | 9 | 3.245 | .803 | 14 | 16.088(.000)** |
Leadership | 3.356 | .760 | 15 | 3.564 | .608 | 10 | 3.200 | .823 | 15 | 18.245(.000)** |
Negotiation | 3.294 | 2.419 | 16 | 3.755 | 3.515 | 2 | 2.948 | .866 | 20 | 8.544(.004)** |
Project-management | 3.232 | .729 | 17 | 3.351 | .619 | 17 | 3.142 | .793 | 16 | 6.204(.013)* |
Customer orientation | 3.169 | .779 | 18 | 3.213 | .723 | 20 | 3.137 | .818 | 17 | .723(.396) |
Resource-management | 3.150 | .748 | 19 | 3.305 | .689 | 19 | 3.034 | .772 | 18 | 10.106(.002)** |
Change-management | 3.039 | .800 | 20 | 3.129 | .778 | 21 | 2.971 | .812 | 19 | 2.949(.087) |
Salesmanship | 3.003 | .892 | 21 | 3.335 | .760 | 18 | 2.754 | .904 | 21 | 35.394(.000)** |
Business Decision Modeling | 2.846 | .833 | 22 | 3.084 | .702 | 22 | 2.668 | .880 | 22 | 19.763(.000)** |
Importance ranking of professional skills.
Significant at the 5% level.
Very significant at the 1% level.
Panel 3: Technological skills | Total population N = 306 | Certified public accountants N = 131 | Certified Public Accountants trainees N = 175 | F (P) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | ||
Spreadsheet software (e.g. Excel) | 3.735 | .559 | 1 | 3.763 | .477 | 1 | 3.714 | .614 | 1 | .575(.449) |
Word processing software (e.g. Word) | 3.585 | .612 | 2 | 3.542 | .598 | 2 | 3.617 | .622 | 2 | 1.130(.289) |
World-Wide Web searching | 3.503 | .673 | 3 | 3.442 | .622 | 5 | 3.548 | .708 | 3 | 1.853(.174) |
Systems analysis | 3.441 | 2.878 | 4 | 3.519 | 2.707 | 4 | 3.382 | 3.007 | 6 | .167(.683) |
Windows | 3.437 | .736 | 5 | 3.442 | .703 | 6 | 3.434 | .761 | 4 | .010(.921) |
Presentation software (e.g. Power Point) | 3.392 | .726 | 6 | 3.412 | .642 | 8 | 3.377 | .784 | 7 | .174(.677) |
Database software (e.g. Access) | 3.388 | .743 | 7 | 3.519 | .648 | 3 | 3.291 | .795 | 8 | 7.161(.008)** |
File & directory management | 3.379 | .742 | 8 | 3.351 | .678 | 10 | 3.400 | .787 | 5 | .324(.570) |
Project management | 3.303 | .827 | 9 | 3.412 | .711 | 7 | 3.222 | .897 | 9 | 3.963(.047)* |
Communication software (e.g. Outlook) | 3.261 | .766 | 10 | 3.381 | .717 | 9 | 3.171 | .790 | 11 | 5.728(.017)* |
Intra/Extranets | 3.225 | .859 | 11 | 3.282 | .777 | 11 | 3.182 | .916 | 10 | 1.005(.317) |
Electronic commerce | 3.114 | .917 | 12 | 3.061 | .892 | 14 | 3.154 | .937 | 12 | .772(.380) |
Information systems planning & auditing | 3.062 | .805 | 13 | 3.175 | .673 | 13 | 2.925 | .982 | 15 | 4.602(.033)* |
Technology management & budgeting | 3.062 | .833 | 14 | 3.213 | .822 | 12 | 2.948 | .825 | 14 | 7.753(.006)** |
Graphics software (e.g. Adobe) | 2.957 | .924 | 15 | 3.000 | .841 | 15 | 2.925 | .982 | 15 | .483(.487) |
Other operating systems | 2.526 | .955 | 16 | 2.916 | .868 | 16 | 2.234 | .914 | 17 | 43.477(.000)** |
HTML programming | 2.392 | .993 | 17 | 2.595 | .942 | 17 | 2.240 | 1.005 | 16 | 0.871(.002)** |
Programming languages | 2.303 | .913 | 18 | 2.427 | .804 | 18 | 2.211 | .980 | 18 | 4.231(.041)* |
Importance ranking of technological skills.
Significant at the 5% level.
Very significant at the 1% level.
Panel 4: Teaching methods | Total population N = 306 | Certified Public Accountants N = 131 | Certified Public Accountants trainees N = 175 | F (P) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | Mean | Standard deviation | Rank | ||
Assignments with real companies | 3.594 | .681 | 1 | 3.687 | .497 | 1 | 3.525 | .786 | 1 | 4.239(.040)* |
Team teaching | 3.500 | .678 | 2 | 3.542 | .558 | 2 | 3.468 | .756 | 2 | .876(.350) |
Case analysis | 3.460 | .632 | 3 | 3.519 | .573 | 3 | 3.417 | .671 | 3 | 1.952(.163) |
Team (group) work | 3.392 | .735 | 4 | 3.458 | .659 | 5 | 3.342 | .785 | 4 | 1.842(.176) |
Role playing | 3.392 | .799 | 5 | 3.503 | .672 | 4 | 3.308 | .875 | 6 | 4.520(.034)* |
Technology assignments | 3.352 | .845 | 6 | 3.396 | .751 | 7 | 3.320 | .909 | 5 | .620(.432) |
Oral presentations | 3.150 | .787 | 7 | 3.442 | .609 | 6 | 2.931 | .834 | 9 | 35.130(.000) ** |
Lecture | 3.127 | .764 | 8 | 3.328 | .625 | 8 | 2.977 | .823 | 8 | 16.633(.000) ** |
Feedback exercises (e.g. Quizzes) | 3.101 | .759 | 9 | 3.221 | .682 | 11 | 3.011 | .802 | 7 | 5.818(.016)* |
Reading textbooks | 3.039 | .808 | 10 | 3.259 | .697 | 10 | 2.874 | .848 | 10 | 17.941(.000)** |
Writing assignments | 2.993 | .805 | 11 | 3.267 | .677 | 9 | 2.788 | .834 | 11 | 28.851(.000) ** |
Videos | 2.555 | .871 | 12 | 2.740 | .780 | 12 | 2.417 | .911 | 12 | 10.641(.001)** |
Importance ranking of teaching methods.
Significant at the 5% level.
Very significant at the 1% level.
In addition, Table 1 presents the means and the standard deviations for the CPA and CPA trainees. For the knowledge components, it is important to note that both CPAs and CPA trainees recognized tax as the most important knowledge. However, some variations exist in the scores of perceived importance and the ranking among the two groups of respondents. Regarding the top five most important knowledge items, CPA have ranked auditing/assurance services as the second most important knowledge item, although auditing was ranked as the third most important knowledge item by the CPA trainees. Financial accounting is recognized by CPA as the fourth most important knowledge item, but it was ranked the second most important knowledge item by the CPA trainees. In addition, CPA ranked Ethics and social responsibility as the twelfth most important knowledge, but ethics was seen as only the sixteenth most important knowledge item by the CPA trainees. We also note rather significant differences in ranking regarding several knowledge items, such as, for example, Information systems, Finance and Electronic commerce. Mean scores of the two groups of respondents concerning the less important knowledge items varied considerably. However, retail and sales were ranked last in accordance with perceptions of the two groups.
With regard to the three most requested professional skills, CPA and CPA trainees are consistent in the identification of the third most important skill, namely a foreign language. While analytical/critical thinking was ranked by the CPA trainees as being the most important professional skill, it was ranked the fifth professional skill by the CPA. Regarding oral communication, although it is considered to be the most important professional skill by CPA, it is only recognized by CPA trainees as the fourth most important skill. It should be noted that CPAs perceive decision-making as a relatively unimportant professional skill (ranked 16th), lower than it was perceived by CPA trainees (ranked 13th). It is also interesting to note that CPA trainees ranked written communication seventh, a skill which practitioners gave a much higher ranking to (fourth most important skill). Other findings seem quite striking, in fact, while some skills are relatively important for CPA trainees, CPAs considered them much less important, for example, teamwork, learning, and entrepreneurship. Conversely, some skills appear to be important for CPAs but not at all for CPA trainees. The most striking example is the one relating to negotiation. Indeed, the group of CPAs perceives negotiation as the second most important professional skill while CPA trainees relegated it to twentieth (Table 2).
Turning now to technological skills, responses displayed in Table 3 show a convergence of opinion between CPA and CPA trainees in the ranking concerning the two most important technological skills. The two groups of respondents find that mastering spreadsheet software and word processing software are the two most important technological skills respectively. However, differences in rankings between the two groups are numerous. For example, while mastering databases is considered the third most important technological skill by the CPA, CPA trainees ranked it eighth. Similarly, world-wide web searching was ranked the third most important technological skill by CPA trainees, but was considered only the fifth most important by CPA. Other differences in ranking between the two groups may be observed, for example, concerning the use of file & directory management and communications software. However, both CPA and CPA trainees agreed that programming languages is the least important technological skill.
With regard to the most important teaching methods, surprisingly, both CPA and CPA trainees identified assignments with real companies, team teaching, and case analysis as the three most important methods. Similarly, the two groups of respondents agreed on the least important teaching method, namely the use of videos. However, Table 4 highlights some differences in ranking, particularly with regard to role playing, technology assignments, and oral presentations. Finally, it is important to emphasize the importance given to writing assignments by CPA (ranked 9th), while CPA trainees ranked them eleventh.
Our survey results reveal that respondents recognize the importance of a series of knowledge, skills and teaching methods for the training of future professional accountants in the changing business environment in Tunisia. In particular, respondents have a consistent perception of the top five most important knowledge items. As shown in Table 1, the knowledge items perceived as being important are mainly traditional accounting subjects such as auditing, financial accounting, and managerial accounting, while most of the broader types of knowledge received relatively lower scores, for example, ethics and social responsibility, global business, and economics. This result may suggest that the importance of receiving broader knowledge in the accounting education is not fully recognized by the respondents. We can conclude that at present time, accounting education of CPA in Tunisia has a relatively narrow focus manifested in particular by the concentration on traditional or content-mastery knowledge, while multidisciplinary roles such as management and other areas in social sciences and humanities are not sufficiently addressed.4
Regarding professional skills, and particularly those ranked highest, it is interesting to note that CPA’ averages are higher than those of CPA trainees. The two groups of respondents rank oral communication among the four most important skills. This seems to contradict the stereotypical impression of isolated professional accountants recording accounting documents throughout the day. It appears that the respondents understand the interpersonal nature of the accounting environment. It is not surprising that CPA trainees consider written communication as the seventh most important professional skill while the professionals consider it to be more important. In fact, CPA are more accustomed to writing business reports and audit opinions, and are therefore more likely to consider the importance of such a skill.
At the aggregate level, analytical/critical thinking is one of the three most important professional skills. However, in our context, only the CPA trainees placed it at the forefront. This can be explained by the fact that most CPA trainees of our sample were exposed to situations that require them to think critically.
Mastering foreign languages were unanimously ranked as the third most important professional skill, both for CPA and CPA trainees. This result is not surprising given the current emphasis on globalization. Apparently, the two groups felt that English was the language of business and, therefore, they should master it.
Moreover, CPA trainees gave much more importance to professional demeanor (ranked 2nd) than CPA (ranked 6th). We can explain this result by the fact that, at the beginning of their careers, CPA trainees are more sensitive to ethics and eventually give tremendous respect to their accreditation body.
The ranking of negotiating skill was very high in the CPA sample. Indeed, they regard it as the second most important professional skill because, after many years of practice, they are able to recognize that negotiation plays a major role in their everyday life. Conversely, CPA trainees are still at the level of their internship and haven’t faced such situations yet. In the course of their internship, they are assigned tasks that do not require the use of negotiation, for example, bookkeeping and auditing.
The ranking of respondents regarding the five least important skills show less striking diversity than at the level of the five most important skills. Actually, both groups of respondents ranked the following items: customer orientation, resource-management, change-management, salesmanship, and business decision modeling, close together and were unanimous regarding their importance. The results also show that customer orientation is not considered as a very important skill for both CPA trainees and CPA. This seems surprising on the part of the CPA who work in firms that depend on their customers. Therefore, they should take more account of the present and future needs of their customers and should meet their requirements and strive to meet their expectations. Change management was considered more important by trainees than by practitioners. This result is surprising since practitioners have had experience in the real world and should therefore be aware that change is part of life. Despite their young age, CPA trainees are aware that all companies must evolve in order to survive in today’s dynamic environment.
The rankings of technological skills highlight the agreement of CPA and CPA trainees regarding the importance given to spreadsheet software and word processing software. Thus, this result shows the importance of the use of spreadsheet software and word processing software in the daily tasks that Tunisian professional accountants are required to carry out, including bookkeeping and the preparation of audit reports. However, it appears that the two groups of respondents do not share the same opinion when it comes to world-wide web searching. CPA trainees give more importance to web searching. This finding could be explained by a shift between two generations. The new generation of Tunisian professional accountants gives more importance to web searching. They therefore understood the relevance of search engines when it comes to seeking information. While it seems that CPA prefer using more conventional means when it comes to looking for information. HTML programming and programming languages do not appear to be important for the two groups of respondents. We can explain this result by the existence of programming experts who are more likely than professional accountants to carry out programming.
Finally, concerning the teaching methods in accounting education, both groups of respondents have similar views on the importance of the various methods. One notable difference is that practitioners have given greater weight to writing assignments compared to feedback exercises (e.g. Quizzes), while CPA trainees have an opposite point of view. This may be interpreted by the fact that Tunisian CPA trainees should be aware of the importance of the written communication skills that CPA need (ranked 4th).
After having studied the perceptions of the Tunisian respondents about their needs, we will now offer a comparison of the perceptions of the importance of knowledge, professional skills, technological skills, and teaching methods for professional accountants coming from different economic and cultural environments. Table 5 shows the ranking of the different components of the knowledge, skills, and teaching methods items. The ranking order is determined by the average score of the perceived importance of each item or component. The Tunisian sample data were collected from our survey. U.S. and Chinese data results from studies conducted by Albrecht and Sack [2] and by Lin
Professional accountants | |||
---|---|---|---|
Tunisia: Khemiri, 2012 | China: Lin & al, 2005 | USA: Albrecht & Sack, 2000 | |
Panel 1: Knowledge | |||
Taxes | 1 | 2 | 3 |
Auditing/Assurance services | 2 | 7 | 6 |
Financial accounting | 3 | 1 | 1 |
Business law | 4 | 6 | 10 |
Managerial accounting | 5 | 4 | 7 |
Information systems | 6 | 8 | 2 |
Finance | 7 | 3 | 3 |
Technology topics | 8 | 10 | 8 |
Business strategy | 9 | 14 | 5 |
Electronic commerce | 10 | 13 | 9 |
Statistics/Quantitative methods | 11 | 17 | 14 |
Organizational behavior/Human resource management | 12 | 16 | 17 |
Accounting research methods | 13 | — | 15 |
Ethics and social responsibility | 14 | 5 | 12 |
Operations/Supply-chain management | 15 | 18 | 16 |
Global/International business | 16 | 12 | 11 |
Economics | 17 | 9/111 | 13 |
Marketing | 18 | 15 | 18 |
Retail and sales | 19 | 19 | — |
Panel 2: Professional skills | |||
Analytical/Critical thinking | 1 | 4 | 2 |
Oral communication | 2 | 8 | 3 |
Foreign language | 3 | 9 | 22 |
Written communication | 4 | 3 | 1 |
Professional demeanor | 5 | 1 | 10 |
Measurement | 6 | — | 20 |
Risk analysis | 7 | — | 13 |
Teamwork | 8 | 6 | 5 |
Continuous learning | 9 | — | 9 |
Computing technology | 10 | 2 | 4 |
Interpersonal | 11 | 7 | 7 |
Entrepreneurship | 12 | 14 | 19 |
Decision-making | 13 | 5 | 6 |
Research | 14 | 1 | 18 |
Leadership | 15 | 10 | 8 |
Negotiation | 16 | 15 | 15 |
Project-management | 17 | 11 | 10 |
Customer orientation | 18 | 16 | 16 |
Resource-management | 19 | 12 | 17 |
Change-management | 20 | 17 | 14 |
Salesmanship | 21 | 18 | 21 |
Business Decision Modeling | 22 | 13 | 12 |
Panel 3: Technological skills | |||
Spreadsheet software (e.g. Excel) | 1 | — | 1 |
Word processing software (e.g. Word) | 2 | — | 3 |
World-Wide Web searching | 3 | — | 4 |
Systems analysis | 4 | — | 15 |
Windows | 5 | — | 2 |
Presentation software (e.g. Power Point) | 6 | — | 6 |
Database software (e.g. Access) | 7 | — | 8 |
File & directory management | 8 | — | 6 |
Project management | 9 | — | 11 |
Communication software (e.g. Outlook) | 10 | — | 10 |
Intra/Extranets | 11 | — | 16 |
Electronic commerce | 12 | — | 12 |
Information systems planning & auditing | 13 | — | 12 |
Technology management & budgeting | 14 | — | 14 |
Graphics software (e.g. Adobe) | 15 | — | 19 |
Other operating systems | 16 | — | 20 |
HTML programming | 17 | — | 21 |
Programming languages | 18 | — | 22 |
Panel 4: Teaching methods | |||
Assignments with real companies | 1 | 3 | 2 |
Team teaching | 2 | — | 8 |
Case analysis | 3 | 2 | 5 |
Team (group) work | 4 | — | 3 |
Role playing | 5 | 7 | 7 |
Technology assignments | 6 | 4 | 1 |
Oral presentations | 7 | — | 6 |
Lecture | 8 | — | 12 |
Feedback exercises (e.g. Quizzes) | 9 | — | 10 |
Reading textbooks | 10 | — | 11 |
Writing assignments | 11 | 5 | 4 |
Videos | 12 | — | 9 |
Importance ranking of Tunisian, Chinese and American accounting practitioners.
According to the study of Lin
According to Table 5, the ranking of the first three knowledge items is relatively uniform for both American and Chinese samples, namely financial accounting, taxes, and finance. Gaps exist for other knowledge items. For example, there are considerable differences in the ranking of information systems, business law, ethics, and social responsibility. Indeed, information systems was ranked as the second most important knowledge item by U.S. practitioners [2], but ranked eighth by Chinese respondents [37], and placed sixth by professional accountants in Tunisia. This difference is probably due to the fact that information systems are much less developed in China and Tunisia than in the United States. Thus, the Tunisian respondents could not give the same high ranking for this item as their counterparts in the United States. In addition, business law which was classified by Chinese practitioners as the sixth most important knowledge item and by their American counterparts as the tenth most important one has been ranked by Tunisian practitioners as the fourth most important knowledge item. The reason for this may be due to the importance given by the Tunisian accounting profession to the issues of rights. Thus, business law is, at present, considered a very important component of the accounting education in Tunisia.
Another difference to note concerns ethics and social responsibility, which were ranked as the fifth most important knowledge item by Chinese practitioners, the twelfth most important by U.S. practitioners [2] and the fourteenth most important knowledge item by Tunisian practitioners. Such a difference can be explained by the fact that the accounting profession at the worldwide level has established a major emphasis on ethics and social responsibility in recent years. This happened as a response to public concerns following the Enron and Arthur Andersen case at the beginning of 2001. So, it seems that Chinese have recognized the ethics and social responsibility as a very important knowledge item for accounting education. Obviously, Tunisian practitioners are still not aware of the importance of such knowledge in accounting education.
In addition, as shown in panel 2 of Table 5, there are considerable differences in the perceived importance of the professional skills necessary for professional accountants in the Tunisian, Chinese and American contexts. The major items which received scores of varied importance by Tunisian, Chinese and Americans respondents are especially analytical/critical thinking, professional demeanor, foreign language, computing technology, communications (written and oral), decision-making, change-management and research. Thus, while Chinese respondents gave information technology a higher rank than American respondents did, Tunisian respondents, for their part, assigned it a rank lower than that of the Americans and Chinese (ranked 10th). This ranking by the Tunisian professionals seems surprising because computerization is now gaining ground in Tunisia. Indeed, the level of computer culture is high in Tunisia and such skills may have been taken for granted by Tunisian professional accountants. Similarly, professional demeanor is ranked by Tunisian respondents as the fifth most important skill, while Chinese practitioners put it in first place and American practitioners only in tenth place [2]. The difference may be due to the different business environments of the three countries. Further, as the accounting profession is less mature in Tunisia, Tunisian respondents may feel that it is important to develop professional demeanor to improve the social status and reputation of the Tunisian accounting professionals.
Foreign languages are ranked ninth by the Chinese, while it was perceived as the least important professional skill by American practitioners. However, the Tunisian practitioners put it in the third place. Since the gradual integration of the Tunisian economy in the world market, especially after the entry of Tunisia in the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, mastering foreign languages has become a very important professional skill and one that is useful for Tunisian professional accountants, allowing them to work for foreign clients or Tunisian companies which possess subsidiaries abroad or working in cooperation with foreign companies. Regarding the American CPAs’ ranking of foreign languages, it is possible that respondents consider the English language to be the universal language of business and that communications around the world are generally made in English. Therefore, they minimize the value of foreign languages by considering them to be useless.
Critical thinking, oral, as well as written communications are considered in the Albrecht and Sack [2] study to be the three most important professional skills in the eyes of American professionals. This view is shared by Tunisian professionals. Chinese respondents, however, give these skills relatively low ranking. This finding may reflect the fact that accounting practices and transactions are quite complicated, so Tunisian professionals employ the analytical and critical thinking and professional judgment in their practice. In addition, the high rankings given to oral and written communication by Tunisian respondents seem surprising. Indeed, this result contradicts the influence of the eastern culture in which individuals are supposed to be humble and must strictly obey the orders or instructions of their superiors. In such a cultural context, bidirectional communication is generally not encouraged and the value of communications skills could be underestimated. These skills are crucial for accountants in a changing and dynamic business world and they should take a greater role in accounting education in Tunisia.
Regarding technological skills, only the U.S. and Tunisian professionals have expressed themselves about their perception of the level of importance of such skills. Moreover, it is interesting to note the convergence of the two groups of respondents particularly at the level of the ranking of the most important technological skills and the least important. On the one hand, U.S. and Tunisian practitioners agree on the importance of spreadsheet software, word processing software and world-wide web searching for the accounting profession. It seems that these three technological skills are widely used in the daily tasks of the practitioners. In addition, this consistency in the perceptions of importance of the two groups of respondents may reflect the level of computerization among the Tunisian accounting professionals who seem seduced by its multiple benefits: speed, reliability, traceability, inventory management, paper saving and teleconsultation of documents. On the other hand, the two groups of respondents pointed the same technological skills which appear to them to be least important for accounting practice. This is the case, for example, for HTML programming and programming languages. It seems that these skills are considered overly technical specialties for professional accountants and that it is more appropriate to employ a specialist when necessary.
Lastly, the perceived level of importance of teaching methods by U.S., Chinese and Tunisian professionals reveals some differences. While Tunisian respondents rank team teaching second, American respondents rank it eighth. In addition, technology assignments are considered by American practitioners as the most important teaching method. Chinese practitioners rank it fourth, while Tunisian practitioners rank it only sixth. This result shows that the use of technology is part of the American educational landscape. It helps to explain the importance given by American professionals, on the one hand, to technology as being one of the ten most important knowledge items and, on the other hand, to computing technology as being the fourth most important professional skill. We can also notice that Tunisian professionals have not been made sensitive to the completion of technological skills; this could be due to the fact that technological tools have not yet made their appearance in the accounting education of CPA. Similarly, respondents do not agree on the importance of writing assignments. While American professionals believe that writing assignments are the fourth most important pedagogical method, Chinese and Tunisian respondents ranked them seventh and eleventh respectively. Such a result confirms the importance given to written communications by American practitioners (ranked the most important skill), which is not the case for other respondents. So, it seems that writing assignments help to initiate the future professionals in the writing of numerous reports that they will be required to carry out, for example, audit reports.
However, the three groups of respondents have similar views in terms of the perceived importance of assignments with real companies, team (group) work, and role playing. These different methods enable developing certain skills required for the accounting practice. For example, assignments with real companies can develop the critical and analytical mind of students. Team teaching could teach students leadership and importance of collaboration. And role-playing introduces students to negotiation. The use of textbooks doesn’t seem to be an important teaching method for both American and Tunisian professional accountants. Indeed, the use of textbooks seems to be abandoned in favor of other methods that extend the scope of knowledge and also have the possibility of updating.
Major changes in the environment of affairs throughout these last decades have greatly impacted the accounting profession. The development of globalization and technology has resulted in new requirements for professional accountants. For example, these needs are reflected in the emergence of new missions with high added value, whose demand is ever increasing, such as consulting and opinion services. To carry out these new missions, professional accountants must get an academic education that enables them to develop new competencies (knowledge and skills). The identification of these competencies has been the subject of both academic [6, 11, 28, 37, 38] and professional studies [5, 12, 25, 50].
All the studies converge and identified a set of knowledge and skills as well as technical, personal [51], and in the field of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Technology forces today are significantly changing many professions, including the accounting profession. Hood [52] reports the result of interviews with thought leaders throughout the accounting profession, noting their three “biggest nightmares:” (1) technology-induced changes that devalue longstanding core services of the profession, (2) finding new employees with the right mix of skills and retraining current employees who need new skills, and (3) keeping up with the pace of technology change [52]. Further evidence of the impact of technology forces on the accounting profession may be seen in significant offshoring of tasks (to lower costs) and increasing automation of accounting/finance jobs. The result is an increasing skills gap in accounting/finance [1]. However, if the Anglo-Saxon countries, including the United States, were the first to respond to this new economic situation in adopting educational systems capable of providing the future professional knowledge and skills mentioned above, Tunisia, for its part, has set up a higher education system on the License-Master-Doctorate model, without so far, providing a specific accounting educational path for CPA. Can we say that the current system of CPA education in Tunisia is adapted to the needs of the accounting profession?
We conducted a survey on Tunisian CPA and CPA trainees. The results revealed a range of knowledge, skills and teaching methods considered to be the most important. The results also highlight similarities in the perception of knowledge and skills required by professional accountants, whether they are Tunisians, Chinese or Americans. Differences of perception are probably due to the differences in terms of economic and technological development, as well as social and cultural influences that differ from one country to another. Thus, this research has helped to form two convictions. The first one is that we must continue to think about the pedagogy to adopt in the context of accounting education, as well as the manner in which the knowledge is transmitted [11, 51]. The second is that academic accounting education curriculum plays a crucial role to meet the needs of the profession and influences the development of the profession.
In conclusion, this work cannot claim to have responded to all issues related to the problems and challenges facing accounting education, even less to have found the solutions. One of the main objectives of this study was to try to put the problem in its context and to propose a model for analyzing the situation. Academics in the field of accounting face the challenge of repositioning their discipline in a position of excellence. Indeed, the accounting discipline should be organized in order to benefit from the experience gained particularly over the last decades, to evolve and adapt to new challenges and new expectations of the accounting profession. This can be accomplished only if the academic world agrees to abandon its conformity and its commitment to traditional teaching methods. It is obvious that in the current state, higher education institutions have no choice than to change their methods. The costs associated with the implementation of these changes are much lower than the costs that would be generated by a possible lack of action.
“The author declares no conflict of interest.”
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The presented biological wastewater treatment processes include: (1) bioremediation of wastewater that includes aerobic treatment (oxidation ponds, aeration lagoons, aerobic bioreactors, activated sludge, percolating or trickling filters, biological filters, rotating biological contactors, biological removal of nutrients) and anaerobic treatment (anaerobic bioreactors, anaerobic lagoons); (2) phytoremediation of wastewater that includes constructed wetlands, rhizofiltration, rhizodegradation, phytodegradation, phytoaccumulation, phytotransformation, and hyperaccumulators; and (3) mycoremediation of wastewater. The discussed chemical wastewater treatment processes include chemical precipitation (coagulation, flocculation), ion exchange, neutralization, adsorption, and disinfection (chlorination/dechlorination, ozone, UV light). Additionally, this chapter elucidates and illustrates the wastewater treatment plants in terms of plant sizing, plant layout, plant design, and plant location.",book:{id:"4619",slug:"wastewater-treatment-engineering",title:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering",fullTitle:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering"},signatures:"Mohamed Samer",authors:[{id:"175050",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Samer",slug:"mohamed-samer",fullName:"Mohamed Samer"}]},{id:"48803",doi:"10.5772/60770",title:"Bioremediation of Polluted Waters Using Microorganisms",slug:"bioremediation-of-polluted-waters-using-microorganisms",totalDownloads:11381,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:79,abstract:"Water pollution is an issue of great concern worldwide, and it can be broadly divided into three main categories, that is, contamination by organic compounds, inorganic compounds (e.g., heavy metals), and microorganisms. In recent years, the number of research studies concerning the use of efficient processes to clean up and minimize the pollution of water bodies has been increasing. In this context, the use of bioremediation processes for the removal of toxic metals from aqueous solutions is gaining considerable attention. Bioremediation can be defined as the ability of certain biomolecules or types of biomass to bind and concentrate selected ions or other molecules present in aqueous solutions. Bioremediation using microorganisms shows great potential for future development due to its environmental compatibility and possible cost-effectiveness. A wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, yeasts, and algae, can act as biologically active methylators, which are able to at least modify toxic species. Many microbial detoxification processes involve the efflux or exclusion of metal ions from the cell, which in some cases can result in high local concentrations of metals at the cell surface, where they can react with biogenic ligands and precipitate. Although microorganisms cannot destroy metals, they can alter their chemical properties via a surprising array of mechanisms. The main purpose of this chapter is to provide an update on the recent literature concerning the strategies available for the remediation of metal-contaminated water bodies using microorganisms and to critically discuss their main advantages and weaknesses. The focus is on the heavy metals associated with environmental contamination, for instance, lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and chromium (Cr), which are potentially hazardous to ecosystems. The types of microorganisms that are used in bioremediation processes due to their natural capacity to biosorb toxic heavy metal ions are discussed in detail. This chapter summarizes existing knowledge on various aspects of the fundamentals and applications of bioremediation and critically reviews the obstacles to its commercial success and future perspectives.",book:{id:"4602",slug:"advances-in-bioremediation-of-wastewater-and-polluted-soil",title:"Advances in Bioremediation of Wastewater and Polluted Soil",fullTitle:"Advances in Bioremediation of Wastewater and Polluted Soil"},signatures:"Luciene M. Coelho, Helen C. Rezende, Luciana M. Coelho, Priscila\nA.R. de Sousa, Danielle F.O. Melo and Nívia M.M. Coelho",authors:[{id:"163731",title:"Prof.",name:"Nivia",middleName:null,surname:"Coelho",slug:"nivia-coelho",fullName:"Nivia Coelho"},{id:"177651",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Coelho",slug:"luciana-coelho",fullName:"Luciana Coelho"},{id:"177741",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciene M.",middleName:null,surname:"Coelho",slug:"luciene-m.-coelho",fullName:"Luciene M. Coelho"},{id:"177742",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen C.",middleName:null,surname:"Rezende",slug:"helen-c.-rezende",fullName:"Helen C. Rezende"},{id:"177743",title:"Dr.",name:"Priscila A.R.",middleName:null,surname:"de Sousa",slug:"priscila-a.r.-de-sousa",fullName:"Priscila A.R. de Sousa"},{id:"177744",title:"Dr.",name:"Danielle F.O.",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",slug:"danielle-f.o.-melo",fullName:"Danielle F.O. Melo"}]},{id:"41953",doi:"10.5772/52665",title:"Treatment Technologies for Organic Wastewater",slug:"treatment-technologies-for-organic-wastewater",totalDownloads:10682,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:75,abstract:null,book:{id:"2503",slug:"water-treatment",title:"Water Treatment",fullTitle:"Water Treatment"},signatures:"Chunli Zheng, Ling Zhao, Xiaobai Zhou, Zhimin Fu and An Li",authors:[{id:"141286",title:"Dr",name:"An",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"an-li",fullName:"An Li"},{id:"155298",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunli",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"chunli-zheng",fullName:"Chunli Zheng"},{id:"155299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ling",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"ling-zhao",fullName:"Ling Zhao"},{id:"155300",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaobai",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"xiaobai-zhou",fullName:"Xiaobai Zhou"},{id:"155301",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhimin",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhimin-fu",fullName:"Zhimin Fu"}]},{id:"30860",doi:"10.5772/36310",title:"Use of Agro-Industrial Wastes in Solid-State Fermentation Processes",slug:"use-of-agro-industrial-wastes-in-solid-state-fermentation-processes",totalDownloads:4176,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:66,abstract:null,book:{id:"1868",slug:"industrial-waste",title:"Industrial Waste",fullTitle:"Industrial Waste"},signatures:"Solange I. Mussatto, Lina F. Ballesteros, Silvia Martins and José A. Teixeira",authors:[{id:"107810",title:"Dr.",name:"Solange I.",middleName:null,surname:"Mussatto",slug:"solange-i.-mussatto",fullName:"Solange I. Mussatto"},{id:"109520",title:"MSc.",name:"Lina F.",middleName:null,surname:"Ballesteros",slug:"lina-f.-ballesteros",fullName:"Lina F. Ballesteros"},{id:"109522",title:"MSc.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Martins",slug:"silvia-martins",fullName:"Silvia Martins"},{id:"109523",title:"Prof.",name:"José António",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",slug:"jose-antonio-teixeira",fullName:"José António Teixeira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49024",title:"Biological and Chemical Wastewater Treatment Processes",slug:"biological-and-chemical-wastewater-treatment-processes",totalDownloads:27708,totalCrossrefCites:55,totalDimensionsCites:103,abstract:"This chapter elucidates the technologies of biological and chemical wastewater treatment processes. The presented biological wastewater treatment processes include: (1) bioremediation of wastewater that includes aerobic treatment (oxidation ponds, aeration lagoons, aerobic bioreactors, activated sludge, percolating or trickling filters, biological filters, rotating biological contactors, biological removal of nutrients) and anaerobic treatment (anaerobic bioreactors, anaerobic lagoons); (2) phytoremediation of wastewater that includes constructed wetlands, rhizofiltration, rhizodegradation, phytodegradation, phytoaccumulation, phytotransformation, and hyperaccumulators; and (3) mycoremediation of wastewater. The discussed chemical wastewater treatment processes include chemical precipitation (coagulation, flocculation), ion exchange, neutralization, adsorption, and disinfection (chlorination/dechlorination, ozone, UV light). Additionally, this chapter elucidates and illustrates the wastewater treatment plants in terms of plant sizing, plant layout, plant design, and plant location.",book:{id:"4619",slug:"wastewater-treatment-engineering",title:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering",fullTitle:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering"},signatures:"Mohamed Samer",authors:[{id:"175050",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Samer",slug:"mohamed-samer",fullName:"Mohamed Samer"}]},{id:"52474",title:"Slaughterhouse Wastewater: Treatment, Management and Resource Recovery",slug:"slaughterhouse-wastewater-treatment-management-and-resource-recovery",totalDownloads:6763,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:49,abstract:"The meat processing industry is one of the largest consumers of total freshwater used in the agricultural and livestock industry worldwide. Meat processing plants (MPPs) produce large amounts of slaughterhouse wastewater (SWW) because of the slaughtering process and cleaning of facilities. SWWs need significant treatment for a sustainable and safe discharge to the environment due to the high content of organics and nutrients. Therefore, the treatment and final disposal of SWW are a public health necessity. In this chapter, the regulatory frameworks relevant to the SWW management, environmental impacts, health effects, and treatment methods are discussed. Although physical, chemical, and biological treatment can be used for SWW degradation, each treatment process has different advantages and drawbacks depending on the SWW characteristics, best available technology, jurisdictions, and regulations. SWWs are typically assessed using bulk parameters because of the various pollutant loads derived from the type and the number of animals slaughtered that fluctuate amid the meat industry. Thus, an on-site treatment using combined processes would be the best option to treat and disinfect the slaughterhouse effluents to be safely discharged into receiving waters.",book:{id:"6050",slug:"physico-chemical-wastewater-treatment-and-resource-recovery",title:"Physico-Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery",fullTitle:"Physico-Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery"},signatures:"Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte and Mehrab Mehrvar",authors:[{id:"66753",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehrab",middleName:null,surname:"Mehrvar",slug:"mehrab-mehrvar",fullName:"Mehrab Mehrvar"},{id:"189304",title:"Dr.",name:"Ciro",middleName:"Fernando",surname:"Bustillo-Lecompte",slug:"ciro-bustillo-lecompte",fullName:"Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte"}]},{id:"48946",title:"Cogeneration Power-Desalting Plants Using Gas Turbine Combined Cycle",slug:"cogeneration-power-desalting-plants-using-gas-turbine-combined-cycle",totalDownloads:4586,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The gas-steam turbine combined cycle (GTCC) is the preferred power plant type because of its high efficiency and its use of cheap and clean natural gas as fuel. It is also the preferred type in the Arab Gulf countries where it is used as cogeneration power-desalting plant (CPDP). In this chapter, descriptions and analysis of the GTCC components are presented, namely, the gas turbine cycle (compressor, combustor, gas turbine), heat recovery steam generator, and steam turbine. Combinations of the GTCC with thermally driven desalination units to present CPDP are presented. A parametric study to show the effect of using GTCC on several operating parameters on the CPDP is also presented, as well as cost allocation methods of fuel between the two product utilities (electric power and desalted seawater are also presented).",book:{id:"4613",slug:"desalination-updates",title:"Desalination Updates",fullTitle:"Desalination Updates"},signatures:"M.A. Darwish, H.K. Abdulrahim, A.A. Mabrouk and A.S. Hassan",authors:[{id:"173364",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Darwish",slug:"mohamed-darwish",fullName:"Mohamed Darwish"},{id:"173603",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulrahim",slug:"hassan-abdulrahim",fullName:"Hassan Abdulrahim"},{id:"173774",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Nasser",middleName:null,surname:"Mabrouk",slug:"abdel-nasser-mabrouk",fullName:"Abdel Nasser Mabrouk"},{id:"175519",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashraf",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"ashraf-hassan",fullName:"Ashraf Hassan"}]},{id:"54201",title:"Pulp Mill Wastewater: Characteristics and Treatment",slug:"pulp-mill-wastewater-characteristics-and-treatment",totalDownloads:4873,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"The production of chemical pulp in recent times is 180 million tons per year; while the production of eucalyptus pulp has increased intensively, especially in the southern hemisphere. The pulp and paper industry has long been considered a large consumer of natural resources (wood and water) and one of the largest sources of pollution to the environment (air, water courses and soil). Important efforts are being made to reduce the pollutant levels and water consumption of the industry. The wastewater composition, and therefore, the efficiency of effluent treatments and characteristics of the discharges to water are strongly dependent on the applied technology and raw materials. Despite a large body of literature on softwood-based wastewater, few studies have examined the characteristics of kraft eucalyptus bleaching effluents and their behaviour in the different biological treatments. The largest secondary treatment systems today use the activated sludge process. Sixty to seventy-five per cent of all the biological effluent treatment plants within the pulp and paper industry use this kind of treatment system. This chapter reviews the current pulping technologies at mills and compares the chemical composition and biological treatment of wastewater between softwood and hardwood bleached pulps.",book:{id:"5417",slug:"biological-wastewater-treatment-and-resource-recovery",title:"Biological Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery",fullTitle:"Biological Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery"},signatures:"María Noel Cabrera",authors:[{id:"187931",title:"Dr.",name:"María Noel",middleName:null,surname:"Cabrera",slug:"maria-noel-cabrera",fullName:"María Noel Cabrera"}]},{id:"54320",title:"Phosphorus Recovery by Struvite Crystallization from Livestock Wastewater and Reuse as Fertilizer: A Review",slug:"phosphorus-recovery-by-struvite-crystallization-from-livestock-wastewater-and-reuse-as-fertilizer-a-",totalDownloads:2539,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"In China, the intensive livestock farming produces massive livestock wastewater with high concentration of phosphorus. Discharge of these compounds to surface water not only causes water eutrophication but also wastes phosphorus resources for plant growth. Therefore, it’s necessary combining the removal of phosphorus from livestock wastewater with its recovery and reuse as fertilizer. As a valuable slow-release mineral fertilizer, struvite crystallization has become a focus in phosphorus recovery. In this chapter, struvite crystallization mechanism, reaction factors, crystallizers, and the applications of struvite as fertilizer are discussed. Two steps of nucleation and crystal growth for struvite crystallization from generation to growth are introduced. The reaction factors, including molar ratio of magnesium and phosphate, solution pH, coexisting substances, and seeding assist, of struvite crystallization are summarized. Several innovate types of crystallizer, which relate to the shape and size of harvest struvite to realize the phosphorus recycling, are demonstrated. Due to the influence of toxic or harmful impurities in struvite on its reuse as fertilizer, the environmental risk evaluation of struvite application is introduced. In conclusion, struvite crystallization is a promising tool for recovering phosphorus from livestock wastewater.",book:{id:"6050",slug:"physico-chemical-wastewater-treatment-and-resource-recovery",title:"Physico-Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery",fullTitle:"Physico-Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery"},signatures:"Tao Zhang, Rongfeng Jiang and Yaxin Deng",authors:[{id:"185487",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"tao-zhang",fullName:"Tao Zhang"},{id:"195403",title:"Dr.",name:"Rongfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"rongfeng-jiang",fullName:"Rongfeng Jiang"},{id:"195404",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaxin",middleName:null,surname:"Deng",slug:"yaxin-deng",fullName:"Yaxin Deng"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"779",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/13.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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