Classification of supraglottic airways.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8444",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Lunar Science",title:"Lunar Science",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Lunar science is in the middle of a small revolution, with now many new countries sending orbiters, landers, and even sample return missions to the moon. Additionally, both governments and private companies are now more and more considering the moon as a base for solar system exploration. With such an increase in attention, lunar science is now encompassing several unified dimensions. The first is the science of the moon itself, its origin, evolution, and inner composition. The second is how humans can live on the moon, covering biology and in general the logistics of surviving there, including surface mapping and in-situ resource utilization.",isbn:"978-1-78984-128-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-127-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-854-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78817",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"lunar-science",numberOfPages:124,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f1dcf511a174e8ec89d97ca8c0c6146a",bookSignature:"Yann H. Chemin",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8444.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6089,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 13th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 7th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 6th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 27th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 26th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"270578",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",middleName:"H.",surname:"Chemin",slug:"yann-chemin",fullName:"Yann Chemin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270578/images/system/270578.png",biography:"Dr. Yann H. Chemin’s research spans across remote sensing, algorithms, geography, cartography, energy balance, agriculture, land and water processes, rocky (minor) planets and the Moon. His credentials are a BSc in International Agri-Development (1995, France), an MSc in Land and Water Resources Management (1996, UK), a DTSc in RS/GIS Genetic Algorithms Applications (2006, Thailand), a BSc in Planetary Sciences with Astronomy (2016, UK) and an eMBA-SDS in Security, Defense and Space (2022, FR). He worked on Data Assimilation with Genetic Algorithms in remote Sensing and on the Chandrayaan-1 M3 sensor and its hyperspectral applications on the Apollo 12 landing site and on Ceres craters. As of May 16, 2019, he has joined the European Commission at JRC in Italy.",institutionString:"European Commission",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"European Commission",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"623",title:"Solar System",slug:"solar-system"}],chapters:[{id:"67064",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Tipping Point for a Return to the Moon",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86300",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-tipping-point-for-a-return-to-the-moon",totalDownloads:759,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Yann H. Chemin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67064",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67064",authors:[{id:"270578",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",surname:"Chemin",slug:"yann-chemin",fullName:"Yann Chemin"}],corrections:null},{id:"65612",title:"Initial Evolution of the Moon",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84171",slug:"initial-evolution-of-the-moon",totalDownloads:706,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The problem of the origin of the Moon is of fundamental importance to understanding the mechanism of the planetary solar system’s formation. It is important to know the mechanism of differentiation of substances in a growing planet. When planets are formed from a cold protoplanetary cloud, the matter of the inner regions of the Earth and the Moon remains at temperatures lower than the melting point of iron. The main volume of the matter of the protoplanet remains in its unmelted state, and its differentiation occurs in the formed planet. In this work, attention is paid to the most important internal sources of energy: the decay energy of short-lived isotopes, the dissipation of tidal friction energy, and thermal energy from accidental deposition of bodies and particles on a growing surface. Accounting for these sources provides a solution to the problem.",signatures:"Khachay Yuriy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65612",authors:[{id:"225379",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuriy",surname:"Khachay",slug:"yuriy-khachay",fullName:"Yuriy Khachay"}],corrections:null},{id:"65725",title:"On the Deviation of the Lunar Center of Mass to the East: Two Possible Mechanisms Based on Evolution of the Orbit and Rounding Off the Shape of the Moon",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84465",slug:"on-the-deviation-of-the-lunar-center-of-mass-to-the-east-two-possible-mechanisms-based-on-evolution-",totalDownloads:983,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is known that the Moon’s center of mass (COM) does not coincide with the geometric center of figure (COF) and the line “COF/COM” is not directed to the center of the Earth, but deviates from it to the South-East. Here, we discuss two mechanisms to explain the deviation of the lunar COM to the East from the mean direction to Earth. The first mechanism considers the secular evolution of the Moon’s orbit, using the effect of the preferred orientation of the satellite with synchronous rotation to the second (empty) orbital focus. It is established that only the scenario with an increase in the orbital eccentricity e leads to the required displacement of the lunar COM to the East. It is important that high-precision calculations confirm an increase e in our era. In order to fully explain the shift of the lunar COM to the East, a second mechanism was developed that takes into account the influence of tidal changes in the shape of the Moon at its gradual removal from the Earth. The second mechanism predicts that the elongation of the lunar figure in the early era was significant. As a result, it was found that the Moon could have been formed in the annular zone at a distance of 3–4 radii of the modern Earth.",signatures:"Boris P. Kondratyev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65725",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65725",authors:[{id:"277909",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",surname:"Kondratyev",slug:"boris-kondratyev",fullName:"Boris Kondratyev"}],corrections:null},{id:"65508",title:"New Principles of Monitoring Seismological and Deformation Processes Occurring in the Moon Rock Massive",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84300",slug:"new-principles-of-monitoring-seismological-and-deformation-processes-occurring-in-the-moon-rock-mass",totalDownloads:790,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Currently, the interest in studying the processes occurring in other planets surrounding the Earth is becoming increasingly important. The Moon-satellite planet is the closest to the planet Earth, and therefore, it makes sense to organize a system for studying it first and foremost, incorporating the most advanced ideas about the physics of processes in rock massive, which are also used in terrestrial conditions. In this paper, new ideas on the organization of seismological and deformation monitoring are set out, based on the results obtained for the rock massive of the Earth and the theoretical ideas presented in the works of I. Prigogine and S. Hawking.",signatures:"Olga Hachay and Oleg Khachay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65508",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65508",authors:[{id:"150801",title:"Prof.",name:"Olga",surname:"Hachay",slug:"olga-hachay",fullName:"Olga Hachay"},{id:"263300",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleg",surname:"Khachay",slug:"oleg-khachay",fullName:"Oleg Khachay"}],corrections:null},{id:"66992",title:"Lunar Occultation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86110",slug:"lunar-occultation",totalDownloads:904,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A detailed explanation of the reduction method used to determine the angular diameters of the stars occulted by the dark limb of the Moon is presented.",signatures:"Abdulrahman Malawi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66992",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66992",authors:[{id:"282963",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulrahman",surname:"Malawi",slug:"abdulrahman-malawi",fullName:"Abdulrahman Malawi"}],corrections:null},{id:"65534",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: Lunar Base Issues",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84284",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-lunar-base-issues",totalDownloads:1106,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Creating a presence and an industrial capability on the Moon is essential for the development of humankind. There are many historical study results that have identified and quantified the lunar resources and analyzed the methods of obtaining and employing those resources. The idea of finding, obtaining, and using these materials is called in situ resource utilization (ISRU). The ISRU research and development efforts have led to new ideas in rocket propulsion. Applications in chemical propulsion, nuclear electric propulsion, and many other propulsion systems will be critical in making the initial lunar base and future lunar industries more sustainable and will lead to brilliant futures for humanity.",signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65534",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65534",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}],corrections:null},{id:"65461",title:"Human Health in the Lunar Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84352",slug:"human-health-in-the-lunar-environment",totalDownloads:847,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The lunar environment contains many hazards to human health, some common to extraterrestrial locations, some unique to the Moon. Exposures of particular concern are hypobaric environments, hypogravity, space radiation, and lunar dust. This chapter provides a brief overview of these exposures, as they represent the gravest threats to human health in the lunar environment (i.e., they may affect mortality rates) and then reviews the published studies of mortality of the original twenty-four lunar astronauts who visited the Moon between 1969 and 1972. The chapter closes with a reexamination of lunar astronaut mortality using updated data, including detailed discussion of the interpretation of the results.",signatures:"Robert J. Reynolds",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65461",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65461",authors:[{id:"220737",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"J. Reynolds",slug:"robert-j.-reynolds",fullName:"Robert J. 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In spite of tremendous advances in contemporary anaesthetic practice, advances in airway management continue to be of paramount importance to anaesthesiologists. Till some time ago, the cuffed tracheal tube was considered as the gold standard for providing a safe glottic seal [1]. The disadvantages of tracheal intubation, which involves rigid laryngoscopy, are the concomitant hemodynamic responses and damage to the oropharyngeal structures. Postoperative airway morbidity is also a serious concern. This precluded the global utility of the tracheal tube and there was a perceived need for better alternatives [2].
Dr. Archie Brain, a British anaesthesiologist, introduced the laryngeal mask airway (LMA) in 1983 for the first time, designed to be positioned around the laryngeal inlet. LMA is a supraglottic airway (SGA) device with an inflatable cuff forming a low-pressure seal around the laryngeal inlet and permitting ventilation.
Supraglottic Airways (SGAs) have revolutionised the airway management [3]. Besides serving as a rescue device in the difficult airway, and as a conduit for the endotracheal tube insertion, SGAs provide a less invasive and less traumatic means of securing the airway in surgical patients [4, 5].
Careful observations and clinical experience have led to several modifications of the LMA leading to development of newer supraglottic airway devices with better features for airway maintenance [3]. Over a period of time, new airway devices have been added to the anaesthesiologist‘s armamentarium to address specific needs. A wide variety of airway devices are available today which are employed to protect the airway in both elective as well as emergency situations [6].
In 2001, Dr. Archie Brain came up with a modification of the LMA. This device was called the Proseal-Laryngeal mask airway™ (Teleflex®, USA) [7]. This double lumen, double cuff LMA has some clear advantages over its predecessor. The double tube design separated the respiratory and alimentary tracts, providing a safe escape channel for the regurgitated fluids.
Since then, several devices that are able to accommodate nasogastric tubes have been invented. Newer features like better sealing pressures, reduced risk of pulmonary aspiration by stomach contents, single use devices, integrated bite blocks, and the ability to act as conduits for endotracheal tube (ETT) placement have rendered these devices more reliable for routine use. The last decade has seen a rapid rise in the number of clinical studies evaluating these second-generation SGAs.
LMAs are especially useful when mask fit is difficult as in edentulous or bearded patients. It also frees the hands of the anaesthesia care giver.
The LMA may be used in the spontaneously breathing patient with adequate sedation and topical anaesthesia, or the paralysed, anaesthetised patient with assisted mechanical ventilation.
The indications for use of the supraglottic airway devices are expanding. Their routine use in laparoscopic surgeries has almost replaced the endotracheal tubes. Second generation SGAs have proved to provide adequate sealing pressure required to provide adequate ventilation and maintain airway safety [8]. Also, pharyngolaryngeal morbidity (sore throat, dysphagia, dysphonia) are less as compared to endotracheal tube [9, 10].
In today’s era, the number of obese patients undergoing surgeries is increasing. Intubation is known to be more difficult in obese patients [11, 12]. Closed claims analysis shows that obesity, difficult intubation and intubation by inexperienced personnel are risk factors for severe airway injuries and pharyngo-oesophageal perforation [13].
In such cases, SGAs after successful placement can provide better postoperative pulmonary performance if used in very well selected patients. Hence, SGAs may be a simple alternative to intubation in short-term elective surgery in obese patients, as suggested by some randomised controlled trials (RCTs) [14]. These maybe used as conduits for tracheal intubation in obese patients with failed laryngoscopy and expected/unexpected difficult airways [15].
Maternal morbidity from failed intubation and aspiration remains the biggest concern with general anaesthesia. SGAs can be lifesaving in caesarean deliveries where scenarios of cannot ventilate and cannot intubate is faced. Second generation SGAs have become the gadget of choice in such scenarios [16, 17, 18].
Being user-friendly, SGAs are now more commonly used in children. They obviate the use of ETTs and avoid many complications associated with endotracheal intubation [19, 20]. The LMA Classic™ and the LMA Proseal™ have established their safety and efficacy for routine as well as in emergency cases in paediatric patients [21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. The presence of a drain tube, which helps to empty the stomach in the Second-generation SGAs, has removed the fear of distension of the stomach with gas during controlled or spontaneous ventilation, leading to impairment of respiration, especially in a smaller child.
Surgery performed in the prone position require significant OT time and necessitate additional manpower for proper positioning of the patient. Induction and device placement in the prone position avoids the displacement of OT personnel from other tasks as significantly less number of people is required in shifting the patient. Anaesthetic induction of the patient and SGA insertion can be done in prone position, unlike endotracheal intubation. A large cohort study included 1000 patients undergoing surgery under general anaesthesia in prone position where SGAs were safely used to secure the airway [26].
SGAs can be used as a conduit for blind and fiberoptic-guided intubation for rescue of failed direct laryngoscopy or failed intubation [27, 28, 29]. After inserting the LMA, a well lubricated ETT with deflated cuff is passed over the fiberscope. The fiberscope is then advanced through the LMA. The ETT is advanced around 1.5 cm past the mask aperture. The tip of the ETT lifts the fiberscope away from the bowl of the mask and exposes the glottis. The fiberoptic scope is then advanced up to the distal end of the tracheal tube. The ETT is advanced until the glottis is brought into view and then further advanced into the trachea.
A specific advantage of using an SGA is the ability to continue ventilating and anaesthetising the patient through the SGA until formal tracheal intubation is achieved. The Aintree catheter, a modification of the Cook’s airway exchanger may be used to intubate through the SGA. It is loaded over a fiberoptic bronchoscope (FOB) and the trachea is visualised through the SGA [30, 31]. Leaving the Aintree catheter in place, the SGA is then removed. The ETT is then loaded over the catheter and advanced into the trachea.
The difficult airway algorithm made by the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) has a prominent place for the use of SGAs in airway rescue [32]. The Difficult Airway Society (DAS) 2015 guidelines suggests the use of SGAs as first line rescue airway for management of a failed intubation [33]. Several case reports support the use of SGAs for supporting ventilation in difficult airways with failed intubation [34, 35, 36, 37]. SGAs also aid successful tracheal intubation in situations in which conventional methods have failed.
Flexible bronchoscopies comprise the major airway procedures performed including bronchoalveolar lavage, transbronchial biopsies, and foreign body removal [38]. LMA use during paediatric bronchscopies is associated with ease of insertion during general anaesthesia with spontaneous or assisted ventilation, as well as a net decrease in procedure time.
Certain patients who cannot tolerate the procedure with conscious sedation (i.e., excessive gag response or discomfort) may require general anaesthesia. An LMA is an ideal device in such a scenario.
Percutaneous tracheostomies are increasingly performed in the critical care setting. It is indicated in patients who are ventilator dependent due to acute illnesses, or if duration of ETT use is expected to exceed 2 weeks [39]. Cattano et al. conducted a study on patients undergoing percutaneous tracheostomy using dilating forceps approach where ETT was replaced by an SGA [40]. They concluded that intubation through SGAs offered a superior view of the trachea without the risk of the bronchoscope or the ETT getting needle punctured.
Since SGAs cause less cough and rise in intracranial or intraocular pressures compared to the ETT, they may be used for smooth emergence from anaesthesia. The device may be placed after removal of the ETT. This is helpful in situations in which airway and hemodynamic reflexes are undesirable.
In the field, securing an airway is of paramount importance. SGAs are lifesaving in the “can’t ventilate, can’t intubate” situation. An SGA can be used for transport until a definitive airway can be obtained [41]. The placement of an SGA is easily mastered by the inexperienced hands with minimal training.
During cardio pulmonary resuscitation (CPR), the first part of the secondary survey includes securing an airway device as soon as possible [42]. SGA use during CPR has increased since SGA insertion is easier to learn than tracheal intubation and feasible with fewer and shorter interruptions in chest compression [43]. Use of SGAs during CPR is associated with a lower incidence of regurgitation of gastric contents than bag-mask ventilation [44].
Patients with risk of gastric aspiration (non-fasted, Gastro Oesophageal Reflux Disease, hiatus hernia)
Patients with airway morbidities (Respiratory tract infections, COPD etc.)
Restricted mouth opening (< 2.5 cm)
Distorted airway anatomy and airway obstruction
Prolonged duration of surgery (>2 hrs)
Surgery involving the upper airway
Maxillo facial trauma
Morbidly obese patients
Regurgitation and aspiration
Misplacement of mask and airway obstruction
Malposition or dislodgement of LMA
Upper airway trauma
Inadequate sealing of airway and leaks
Cough and laryngospasm
Gastric insufflation
Vocal cord palsy and nerve injuries (Lingual nerve, Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve, Hypoglossal Nerve, Glossopharyngeal Nerve)
All LMAs consist of four parts, a hollow tube (shaft) continuous with a hollow mask or cuff, inflation line with pilot balloon and drain (gastric access) tube. The broad elliptical inflatable cuff has a smooth upper surface that prevents pharyngeal secretions from entering the airway and an under surface that sits over the larynx to create a seal.
The patient’s neck is flexed and head is extended (sniffing position) (Figure 1). The LMA is partially deflated and the backside of the LMA is lubricated. The shaft is grasped with the dominant hand like a pen, as near to the mask as possible. The deflated flattened mask is inserted against the hard palate downward into the mouth along the curvature of the back of the pharynx. The index finger follows the tube into the mouth to keep pressing “back” and “down” until the aperture faces the laryngeal inlet. If at any time during insertion the mask fails to stay flattened or starts to fold back, it should be withdrawn and reinserted. Another technique is to allow the dominant hand to guide the shaft and use the nondominant hand to push the tube with or without an introducer [45, 46, 47].
Technique of LMA insertion. (a) The deflated and lubricated LMA is held by the index finger and thumb of right hand. (b) The left hand stabilizes the occiput. LMA is inserted in the mouth pressed against the hard palate. (c) Using the index finger, it is advanced behind the tongue. (d) It is further pushed into the hypopharynx with the index finger. (e) After removing the index figure, the airway tube of the LMA is pushed further inside with the left hand till a resistance is felt.
Proper placement of the airway is prudent. Cuff should be inflated to achieve adequate tidal volumes with minimal leaks. The cuff inflation pressure should never exceed 60 mm Hg. Higher Cuff pressures may lead to increased pharyngeal mucosal pressures which may lead to mucosal ischemia and airway morbidities [48].
Marjot showed that intracuff pressure increased as cuff volume increases [49]. The pressure exerted on the pharynx by the SGA is usually higher than that of mucosal capillary perfusion pressure when the cuff is inflated with the recommended maximum volume of air.
However, if the cuff is deflated excessively, it may not protect the airway from soiling, due to the regurgitated fluid from the stomach [50]. Therefore. it is desirable to inflate the cuff of the SGA with minimum volume of air which provides a seal around the mask.
In case of malpositioning of the mask, it may have to be replaced or other manoeuvres may have to be tried. A partially or fully inflated SGA cuff may ease insertion [8, 9, 10]. Wakeling et al. claim that inserting an SGA with a fully inflated cuff causes less mucosal trauma and leads to fewer airway morbidities. If an assistant is available, he can apply a jaw thrust manoeuvre which moves the tongue forward and prevents compression of the epiglottis [14]. In case of a single operator, a tongue depressor or a laryngoscope may be used to assist insertion of the LMA [15].
Weight-based selection as per the manufacturer’s guideline is done. If unsure, check the package cover for size information. More than one size should always be available, because the correct size cannot always be predicted. Weight-based selection has given way to sex-based selection, especially in adults. The consensus seems to be that the correct size would be a size 4 for most adult women and a size 5 for most adult men [51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57]. Whatever the initial size selected, if malposition or an inadequate seal is present, a larger size LMA should be considered. Alternative formulas based on weight have been proposed [58, 59]. For children, the width of the second to fourth fingers can be matched to the widest part of the mask [60]. If repeated attempts with one type of LMA are unsuccessful, changing to another type may help.
Wait for full recovery from anaesthesia. Do not try to pull out the SGA if the patient is biting down on the shaft. Usually, patients emerge smoothly with SGAs.
It is recommended to use a bite block with the LMA in order to prevent damage to the airway tube or pilot balloon during emergence. Manufacturers usually recommend using a wad of gauze swabs rolled into a cylindrical shape and placed along the LMA. Some anaesthesiologists prefer to place the Guedel’s airway. The LMA should never be removed if patient is in a light plane of anaesthesia as it may precipitate a laryngospasm.
SGAs have been conventionally classified based on the following characteristics by Miller [61].:
Whether it is inflatable or anatomically pre-shaped
Where in the hypopharynx it provides a seal
Whether or not the sealing effect is directional and
Whether or not oesophageal sealing occurs
In recent years, devices with oesophageal sealing (Second Generation SGAs) have gained popularity due to presence of a gastric port which allows drainage of stomach contents and reduces the incidence of regurgitation and aspiration pneumonitis.
Modern classification of SGAs is given in Table 1.
The airway sealing pressure or the oropharyngeal leak pressure (OLP) is the pressure at which gas leak occurs around the device. It indicates the degree of airway protection. After the successful placement of airway device, OLP can be determined by turning off the ventilator and closing the adjustable pressure limiting valve of the circuit. A fixed gas flow of 3 L/min is started and the pressure allowed to rise.
There are various methods of assessment of OLP [62].:
Audible noise over the patient’s mouth
Auscultation just lateral to the thyroid cartilage for an audible noise
Manometer stability test- The fresh gas flow is set at 3 l/minute of oxygen and the adjustable pressure limiting valve of the circle system is closed. As the pressure from the breathing system increases, the aneroid manometer dial is observed to note airway pressure at which the dial attains stability and no further rise in pressure is seen. A maximum pressure of 40 cm H2O is allowed.
Correct placement of the LMA can be checked by a simple test. A soap bubble solution is placed over the tip of the drain tube. If the tip of the LMA is in the laryngopharynx, bubbling or bursting of soap solution column will occur during positive pressure ventilation.
The original Laryngeal Mask Airway (cLMA, Intavent Direct, Maidenhead, UK) was the first SGAs introduced into clinical practice. It was invented by Dr. Archie Brain in the United Kingdom 1981 and was introduced into clinical practice in 1988.
In 1992 a task force was commissioned by the ASA to establish practice guidelines for management of difficult airway scenarios. In 1993, the ASA published the algorithm for difficult airways. They stressed on an early attempt at LMA insertion in case of inadequate face mask ventilation. cLMA has revolutionised anaesthetic practice ever since [63].
The cLMA consists of the following parts (Figure 2):
Curved airway tube (shaft)
Pilot tube
Elliptical mask
Classic LMA.
The angle between the mask and shaft is 30°. The machine end of the shaft has a standard 15-mm adapter. Two flexible vertical bars at the junction of the shaft and mask prevent obstruction of the ventilating lumen by the epiglottis (Figure 3). Reusable devices are constructed of medical grade silicone designed to provide an oval seal around the laryngeal inlet and act as a sleeve joint at the upper oesophagus. The single use devices have a cuff constructed of polyvinyl-chloride.
Classic LMA in-situ.
The classic laryngeal mask is available in eight sizes, as shown in Table 2.
Oesophageal sealing | Pharyngeal sealer | Perilaryngeal sealers |
---|---|---|
None (1st generation) | VBM Laryngeal Tube (VBM, Germany) | LMA Classic (Teleflex, USA) |
Cobra PLA (Pulmodyne, USA) | LMA Unique (Teleflex, USA) | |
LMA Flexible (Teleflex, USA) | ||
AuraOnce LMA (Ambu, Denmark) | ||
Aura-i LMA (Ambu, Denmark) | ||
Air-Q ILA (Mercury Medical, USA) | ||
Gastric channel (2nd generation) | Combitube (Covidien-Nellcor USA) | LMA ProSeal (Teleflex, USA) |
Rusch Easy Tube (Teleflex, USA) | LMA Supreme (Teleflex, USA) | |
VBM LTS II (VBM, Germany) | LMA Guardian (Teleflex, USA) | |
King LTS-D (Ambu, Denmark) | LMA Protector (Teleflex, USA) | |
AuraGain LMA (Ambu, Denmark) | ||
i-gel (Intersurgical, UK) | ||
Gastric channel + self-energising mechanism of seal | Baska mask (Baska Versatile Laryngeal Mask Pvt. Ltd., Australia) |
Classification of supraglottic airways.
LMA: laryngeal mask airway, ILA: intubating laryngeal airway, LTS: Laryngeal Tube Suction, LTS-D: Laryngeal Tube Suction disposable, PLA: perilaryngeal airway.
Mask size | Patient weight | Maximum cuff volume of air (ml) |
---|---|---|
1 | Neonates/infants up to 5 kg | 4 |
1.5 | Infants 5–10 kg | 7 |
2 | Infants/children 10–20 kg | 10 |
2.5 | Children 20–30 kg | 14 |
3 | Children 30–50 kg | 20 |
4 | Adults 50–70 kg | 30 |
5 | Adults 70–100 kg | 40 |
6 | Large adults over 100 kg | 50 |
Available classic LMAs.
Although the cLMA is used in a large number of cases requiring airway management, it has some limitations
It has a moderate pharyngeal seal (∼20 cm H2O)
It may be associated with pulmonary aspiration of regurgitated fluid
First generation SGAs have only a single lumen for ventilation. There is risk of regurgitation of gastric contents and aspiration with positive pressure ventilation. To combat this risk, a separate channel was incorporated into this design to allow for gastric drainage and provide better seal. Several modifications of the Classic LMA were done and lead to the invention of second-generation SGAs.
A second-generation SGA is one with design features (higher oropharyngeal seal pressures and oesophageal drain tubes) specifically intended to reduce the risk of aspiration [33].
The Proseal LMA™ (Teleflex®, USA) designed by Dr. Archie Brain, is based on the cLMA. It was introduced in the year 2001. In comparison to the cLMA, it has a larger and deeper bowl without aperture bars, second drainage tube placed lateral to the airway tube that ends at the tip of the mask, posterior extension of the mask cuff, integral silicone bite block, and an anterior pocket for seating an introducer or finger during insertion.
The pLMA has four main components (Figure 4):
Mask
Inflation line with pilot balloon.
Airway tube
Drain tube.
Parts of Proseal LMA.
The mask conforms to the contours of the hypopharynx. The mask has a main cuff that seals around the glottic aperture. The rear cuff pushes the mask anteriorly which helps to increase the seal. A pilot balloon with valve is used to inflate or deflate the device.
A drain tube (DT) passes parallel and lateral to the airway tube. It continues to enter the cuff bowl and terminates at the mask tip. Cuff tip lies at the origin of the upper oesophageal sphincter if device is positioned correctly. The wire reinforced airway tube prevents collapse and terminates with a standard 15 mm connector [7]. The pLMA can also be used for FOB guided intubation.
Sizes 3 to 5 were introduced in 2000 and sizes 1½-2½ in 2004. Sizes 1½-2½ have no dorsal cuff. Device properties and recommendations for use are given in Table 3. The pLMA is reusable and recommended product life is 40 sterilisations. Not all protein material can be removed by routine cleaning of laryngeal masks and this raises theoretical concerns over cross-infection risk, hence steam autoclaving is the recommended method of sterilising this device.
Mask size | Patient weight | Maximum cuff volume of air (ml) | Gastric tube size (French) | Largest ETT ID (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Neonates/infants up to 5 kg | 4 | 8 | 3.5 |
1.5 | Infants 5–10 kg | 7 | 10 | 4 |
2 | Infants/children 10–20 kg | 10 | 10 | 4.5 |
2.5 | Children 20–30 kg | 14 | 14 | 5 |
3 | Children 30–50 kg | 20 | 16 | 6 |
4 | Adults 50–70 kg | 30 | 16 | 6 |
5 | Adults 70–100 kg | 40 | 18 | 7 |
Available Proseal LMAs.
The pLMA is accompanied by a cuff deflator (Figure 5) and insertion tool (Figures 6 and 7). The cuff deflator assists complete deflation and flattening the device tip before insertion to improve insertion success.
PLMA cuff deflator.
pLMA with insertion tool.
Insertion tool.
LMA Supreme™(Teleflex®, USA) is a second generation, single use, SGA device which facilitate ease of placement and in-situ airway stability. It forms an effective seal first with the oropharynx (oropharyngeal seal) and a second seal with the upper oesophageal sphincter (the oesophageal seal). This devise is designed incorporating features of a cLMA, pLMA, and LMA Fastrach [64, 65, 66]. SLMA delivers measured oropharyngeal leak pressures up to 37 cm H2 O [67].
The SLMA has following components (Figure 8):
Modified cuff
Elliptical airway tube
Drain tube
Integrated bite block
Inflation line with pilot balloon
Fixation tab
Parts of LMA supreme.
The device is preformed and anatomically shaped. The stiffness of SLMA is intended to guide the airway into the correct position during insertion (Figure 9). This also eliminates the need for placing the clinician’s fingers into the patient’s mouth. Also, rotational mal-positioning of the airway becomes unlikely owing to this feature. The integrated bite block reduces the potential for damage to, or obstruction of the airway tube in the event of biting. The airway also has a fixation tab designed to facilitate easy fixation and improve drain tube position. These improvisations render it suited for inexperienced users in an emergency situation.
LMA supreme in-situ.
Primarily, the SLMA has been recommended for securing airway in routine and emergency surgical procedures. It may also be used to secure an immediate airway when tracheal intubation is precluded by lack of available expertise or equipment, or when attempts at tracheal intubation have failed.
There is increasing evidence that suggests that it may be used for airway rescue in emergency situations and in hostile environments, particularly when tracheal intubation may be challenging or may delay oxygenation [68, 69, 70].
Size 1 to 5 are commercially available (Table 4). A weight-based size selection is suggested by the manufacturer. The cuff is inflated with air as recommended for that specific size. The intra-cuff pressure should never exceed 60 cm H₂O. The cuff should be inflated with just enough air to achieve a seal sufficient to permit ventilation without leaks, if no manometer is available.
Mask size | Patient weight | Maximum cuff volume of air (ml) | Gastric tube size (French) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Neonates/infants up to 5 kg | 5 | 6 |
1.5 | Infants 5–10 kg | 8 | 6 |
2 | Infants/children 10–20 kg | 12 | 10 |
2.5 | Children 20–30 kg | 20 | 10 |
3 | Children 30–50 kg | 30 | 14 |
4 | Adults 50–70 kg | 45 | 14 |
5 | Adults 70–100 kg | 45 | 14 |
Available supreme LMAs.
Some studies advocate an anatomical-related size selection method. The patient’s thyromental distance is measured by the palm side of patient’s hand. If it is four fingers wide (index, middle, ring and little fingers), they suggest size 4 SLMA; If it is three fingers wide (index, middle, ring fingers), they suggest size 3 SLMA [71].
The Guardian laryngeal mask airway™ (GLMA) (Teleflex®, USA) is a new disposable silicone SGA device. The cuff forms a seal with the glottis for ventilation, and with the hypopharynx for airway protection. The gastric drainage port helps to suction the stomach contents. Also, it has a port for suctioning material from the hypopharynx. The pilot balloon valve with pressure logo indicates visual intracuff pressure (Yellow <40 cmH2O, Green 40–60 cmH2O and Red >60 cmH2O) (Figure 10). A study suggests that it provides sealing pressures as high as 32 cm H2O [72, 73].
LMA guardian.
The LMA-Protector™ (Teleflex®, USA) is a novel SGA made of medical-grade silicone (Figure 11). In comparison to other devices made of polyvinylchloride, it is more flexible and less traumatic. Its fixed, anatomically curved shape is elliptical in cross section and aids easier insertion. It has two separate drain channels. At the machine end, they begin as the male and female suction ports. The channels then enter a chamber behind the cuff bowl. At the patient end, the chamber ends at the tip of the cuff. The device is flexible and stays in place if the patient’s head is mobilised. A built-in bite block reduces the potential for damage to, or obstruction of the airway tube in the event of biting. Additionally, the LMA-Protector™ is available with a pilot balloon or the integrated Cuff Pilot™. The Cuff Pilot™ enables constant visualisation of intracuff pressure inside the mask cuff that provides easier adjustment and is colour coded for inflation pressure [74].
LMA protector cuff pilot.
It is commercially available in size 3, 4 and 5. The manufacturer recommends using a size 4 device for normal adults. After insertion, the device is fixed in place and inflated to the recommended pressure. There should be a minimum of a 1 cm gap between the fixation tab and the patient’s upper lip. The cuff should be inflated with sufficient air to prevent a leak with positive pressure ventilation, but it must not exceed either a pressure of 60 cm H2O or the specific device cuff volume maxima. If no manometer is available, inflate with just enough air to achieve a seal sufficient to permit ventilation without leaks. It provides high first attempt and overall insertion success rate. It helps rapidly achieve effective ventilation with reliable airway seal. Additionally, it acts as a conduit for FOB guided intubation [75, 76].
The AuraGain™ (Ambu®, Denmark) is intended for use as an alternative to a face mask for achieving and maintaining control of the airway during routine and emergency anaesthetic procedures. The gastric channel of AuraGain™ may be used as a conduit for passing a gastric tube into the stomach for removal of air and gastric fluids.
It is intended for use as a conduit for an endotracheal tube in “can’t intubate – can’t ventilate” scenarios. It may also be used to establish a clear airway during resuscitation in profoundly unconscious patients with absent glossopharyngeal and laryngeal reflexes who may need artificial ventilation [77].
The parts of AuraGain are as follows (Figures 12 and 13):
Inflatable Mask
Inflation line with pilot balloon.
Airway tube with integrated bite block
Gastric channel
Ambu AuraGain.
FOB guided intubation.
The mask is designed to conform to the contours of the hypopharynx with its lumen facing the laryngeal opening. When correctly inserted, the distal tip of the cuff rests against the upper oesophageal sphincter. It is anatomically shaped with an integrated bite block.
The AuraGain™ comes in eight different sizes for use in patients of different weight (Table 5). This device is meant to be used only once. Studies suggest that AuraGain™ provides adequate sealing of the airway [78, 79, 80].
Mask size | Patient weight | Maximum cuff volume of air (ml) | Gastric tube size (French) | Largest ETT ID (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Neonates/infants up to 5 kg | 4 | 6 | 3.5 |
1.5 | Infants 5–10 kg | 7 | 8 | 4 |
2 | Infants/children 10–20 kg | 10 | 10 | 5 |
2.5 | Children 20–30 kg | 14 | 10 | 5.5 |
3 | Children 30–50 kg | 20 | 16 | 6.5 |
4 | Adults 50–70 kg | 30 | 16 | 7.5 |
5 | Adults 70–100 kg | 40 | 16 | 8 |
6 | Adults more than 100 kg | 50 | 16 | 8 |
Available Auragain LMAs.
The i-gel® (Intersurgical®, UK) is the innovative second generation supraglottic airway device from Intersurgical launched in 2007. Made from a medical grade thermoplastic elastomer, i-gel has been designed to create a non-inflatable, anatomical seal of the pharyngeal, laryngeal and perilaryngeal structures whilst avoiding compression trauma.
The igel has the following parts (Figure 14):
Soft non-inflatable cuff
Gastric channel
Epiglottic rest
Buccal cavity stabiliser
Airway tube
Gastric tube
Parts of i-gel.
A horizontal line (Adult sizes 3,4 and 5 only) at the middle of the integral bite-block represents the correct position of the teeth. The soft design of the i-gel is able to retain its shape to facilitate ease of insertion. In a known difficult or unexpectedly difficult intubation, for intubating the patient, by passing an ETT through the device under fibre optic guidance.
Size selection is done on a weight basis (Table 6). However, individual anatomical variations should always be considered. Patients with cylindrical necks or wide thyroid/cricoid cartilages may require a larger size i-gel than would normally be recommended on a weight basis [81, 82].
Mask size | Patient weight | Largest ETT ID (mm) | Gastric tube size (French) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Neonates 2-5 kg | 3 | NA |
1.5 | Infants 5–12 kg | 4 | 10 |
2 | Infants/children 10–25 kg | 5 | 12 |
2.5 | Children 25–35 kg | 5 | 12 |
3 | Children, Small adult 30–60 kg | 6 | 12 |
4 | Adults 50–90 kg | 7 | 12 |
5 | Adults >90 kg | 8 | 14 |
Available i-gel LMAs.
The i-gel can be used in difficult or unanticipated difficult intubations. Owing to its ease of insertion, it can quickly establish and maintain a clear airway in a pre-hospital setting [83, 84]. In a study it was observed that hemodynamic parameters, ease of insertion and postoperative complications were comparable among the i-gel, pLMA and cLMA but airway sealing pressure was significantly higher with i-gel [85].
A modification of this device is the i-gel O2. It contains a supplementary oxygen port for passive oxygen administration. It may be utilised for cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The i-gel O2 Resus Pack is a resuscitation pack provided by the manufacturer. It contains the i-gel O2 LMA, an airway support strap to fix and secure the device in place, a suction tube (12 Fr) and a pack of lubricant. The Resus Pack is available in three adult sizes (3, 4 and 5). The presence of a colour coded hook ring on the LMA allows easy identification of the size during resuscitation.
The Combitube® (Covidien-Nellcor®, Pleaseton, USA) is a single use, double-lumen tube that combines the features of a conventional ETT with those of an oesophageal obturator airway.
The Combitube® has the following parts (Figure 15):
A large proximal balloon cuff seals the hypopharynx
A ventilating, proximal lumen terminates at side ports overlying the laryngeal inlet
A distal lumen and its smaller balloon cuff terminate in and seal the upper oesophagus (in >90% of insertions)
Combitube.
The device commonly enters the oesophagus on insertion. Ventilation is achieved through multiple proximal apertures situated above the distal cuff (Figure 16). Both the proximal and distal cuffs have to be inflated to prevent air from escaping through the oesophagus. If the tube enters the trachea, ventilation is achieved through the distal lumen.
Combitube in-situ.
Combitube® is commercially available in two sizes (Table 7). It has a major advantage over conventional ETT as it can be inserted without head and neck movement, which may be an important consideration in trauma patients [86]. Situations where ETT placement is not immediately possible, it is used for emergency airway control [87]. The Combitube® has been used effectively in cardiopulmonary resuscitation [88, 89]. It has been used successfully in difficult airway situations owing to severe facial burns, trauma, upper airway bleeding and vomiting where there was an inability to visualise the vocal cords [90, 91, 92].
Patient’s height | Combitube size |
---|---|
4 to 6 feet tall | 37 French |
5 feet and above | 41 French |
Available combitube.
The King Laryngeal Tube Suction-D
Parts of the LTS-D (Figures 17 and 18):
Proximal cuff.
Distal cuff
Inflation line with pilot balloon
Ventilation holes
Drain tube
Parts of LTS-D.
LTS-D drain tube.
The Proximal cuff stabilises the device and seals the oropharynx. Distal cuff blocks entry of the oesophagus, reducing the possibility of gastric insufflation. Multiple distal ventilatory openings and bilateral ventilation eyelets facilitate air flow. The device has a curvature of 60 degrees. Sealing pressures of 30 cm H20 or more are achievable.
Size selection is done on a weight basis (Table 8). The slim profile allows easy insertion; thus, it can be considered for airway management in patients with restricted mouth opening. Since insertion is relatively easy and guarantees a clear airway in most patients on the first attempt extensive training is not necessary [93].
Size | Patient weight | Maximum cuff volume of air (ml) | Colour of Connector |
---|---|---|---|
0 | Neonates<6 kg | 15 | TRANSPARENT |
1 | Infants 6–15 kg | 40 | WHITE |
2 | Children 15–30 kg | 60 | GREEN |
3 | Small Adult 30–60 kg | 120 | YELLOW |
4 | Medium Adult50–90 kg | 130 | RED |
5 | Large Adults >90 kg | 150 | VIOLET |
Available LTS-D tubes.
It can be used during spontaneous or controlled ventilation. The LTS-D has been recommended as an emergency device to be used in cases of difficult intubation and cannot intubate, cannot ventilate situations while one is preparing to perform a surgical airway [94, 95, 96]. A modification of this device, the Intubating Laryngeal Tube Suction-D(iLTS-D
The Baska Mask® (Baska Versatile Laryngeal Mask Pty Ltd., Australia) has been designed by Australian anesthesists, Kanag and Meenakshi Baska. It obviates the need of an orogastric tube and replaces this with a sump and two drains. It brings together features of PLMA, SLMA, SLIPA and i-gel. The biggest advantage of Baska mask lies in the fact that cuff deflation or inflation is not required prior to insertion [97].
Parts of the Baska mask® (Figures 19 and 20):
Self-sealing variable pressure cuff
Insertion tab
Integrated bite block
Airway tube
Suction attachment
Sump area
Baska mask-anterior.
Baska mask-posterior.
It is made of medical grade silicone. It differs in several ways from the conventional LMA, including; a cuff-less self-sealing membranous bowl which inflates and deflates with each positive pressure inspiration and expiration respectively, an inbuilt “tab” that permits to increase its angulation for easy negotiation of the oropharyngeal curve during placement, a bite block. It has a dual high flow suction drainage system. The distal aperture at oesophageal end is aspirated using two vents running along the entire length of the stem. One tube is connected to high pressure suction whereas the other is left open.
Size selection is given below (Table 9). Zundert
Mask size | Patient | Colour coded connector |
---|---|---|
1 | Neonates | PURPLE |
1.5 | Infants 1–2 yrs | ORANGE |
2 | Children 2-5 yrs | DARK BLUE |
2.5 | Large child or small female | WHITE |
3 | Large female or small man | GREEN |
4 | Average adult man | YELLOW |
5 | Large man | RED |
Available Baska LMAs.
The Air-Q® Blocker™ ILA (Cookgas® LLC, Mercury Medical, USA) was introduced by Daniel Cook in 2005. It is a disposable, anatomically shaped device ideal for use in pre-hospital and critical care settings.
Parts of the Air-Q® Blocker™ ILA (Figure 21):
Inflatable cuff with elevation ramp
Built up mask heel
Airway tube
Integrated bite block
Blocker Channel
Thethered Colour Coded connector
Air-Q blocker.
The Air-Q® Blocker™ airway outlet is keyhole-shaped. The anatomical shape facilitates ease of insertion. The soft blocker channel accepts naso-gastric tube to suction stomach contents. Alternatively, a blocker tube may be inserted through the blocker channel and helps to suction the pharynx or suction and block the upper oesophagus. The tethered colour coded connector avoids misplacements. In a known difficult or unexpectedly difficult intubation, it may be used as a conduit for intubation. The elevation ramp directs ETT midline and upward toward the laryngeal inlet. The Air-Q Removal Stylet helps easily remove the Air-Q® Blocker™ after intubation without ETT dislodgement.
Size selection is done on a weight basis (Table 10). It is available in three sizes. Device placement is easy and offers less resistance. The major advantage of the device design is that conventional PVC endotracheal tube can be passed through it without the use of conventional laryngoscope. It is useful in delivery of anaesthesia, resuscitation, critical care and difficult airway management in and out of hospital. It has a self-pressurising cuff which inflates to adequate pressure during positive pressure ventilation. This prevents airway trauma and morbidity associated with excessive cuff inflation [100].
Mask size | Patient ideal body weight(kg) | Internal cuff volume (ml) | Cuff inflation volume (ml) | Largest ETT ID (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
2.5 | 30–50 | 12 | 2–3 | 6.5 |
3.5 | 50–70 | 18 | 3–4 | 7.5 |
4.5 | 70–100 | 25 | 4–5 | 8.5 |
Available air-Q blocker LMAs.
The LMA® Gastro™ Airway with Cuff Pilot™ Technology (Teleflex®, USA) is the first SGA designed to enable active management of the airway while facilitating direct endoscopic access via the integrated endoscope channel. It is a soft, disposable, anatomically shaped device made up of silicone.
Parts of the LMA® Gastro™ Airway (Figure 22):
Inflatable cuff
Gastric drain tube or Endoscope channel
Silicone airway tube
Integrated bite block
Adjustable holder and strap
Cuff pilot
Gastro LMA.
Being anatomically shaped, it conforms to the patients’s airway creating a better seal. Cuff Pilot™ Technology prevents cuff over inflation and reduces airway morbidity. The gastric channel provides as a conduit for passage of gastro-duodenoscope.
Size selection is done on a weight basis (Table 11). It is available in three sizes. Moderate to deep sedation if often required for endoscopic procedures. This can lead to hypoxemia and warrants the need of rescue airway. LMA® Gastro™ can be successfully employed as a primary airway technique for such procedures [101].
Mask size | Patient weight (kg) | Maximum intracuff pressure (cm H2O) | Maximum endoscope size (mm) |
---|---|---|---|
3 | 30–50 | 60 | 14 |
4 | 50–70 | 60 | 14 |
5 | 70–100 | 60 | 14 |
Available gastro LMAs.
The first clinically useful SGA was introduced more than 3 decades ago.
The clinical utility of various SGAs has significantly increased over this period. Different designs have specific advantages in different clinical scenarios. Insertion is easy to learn, and with adequate training nonphysicians are capable of securing an airway.
The use of SGAs for expanded indications has been described in many ways. The expanded spectrum of indications including airway instrumentation, surgeries in prone position, paediatric age group and use in critical care settings. The position of SGAs for rescue airway management is prominent in guidelines issued by various authorities. SGAs continue to be an important mode of rescue ventilation in patients in “can’t ventilate can’t intubate” scenarios. The ability to aspirate gastric contents renders them a safe alternative to the conventional ETTs. The ability to act as a conduit for intubation in elective and emergency patients is a valuable rescue technique.
Knowledge about the indications and contraindications of using an SGA is prudent for its appropriate use. SGAs with enough documented evidence of safety and efficacy should be used. Increasing recognition of an SGA’s applications should expand its role in airway management for the anesthesiologist.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
SGA | Supraglottic Airway |
LMA | Laryngeal Mask Airway |
ETT | Endotracheal Tube |
OT | Operation Theatre |
FOB | Fibreoptic Bronchoscopy |
CPR | Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation |
ID | Internal Diameter |
mmHg | millimetres of mercury |
L | Litre |
Min | Minute |
mm | millimetre |
cmH2O | centimetre of water |
Kg | kilogramme |
ml | millilitre |
The research on carbonaceous mesophase can be traced back to the 1960s, when Books and Taylor found there was liquid-crystalline phase (i.e., mesophase spheres) in the thermal conversion of carbonaceous feedstocks, which opens a new era in the research of liquid-phase carbonization and the development of carbon material industry [1]. Up to now, carbonaceous mesophase has been studied for more than 50 years and has always been the research hotspot and focus in the field of carbon materials [2, 3, 4, 5]. Mesophase pitch has long been recognized as a liquid crystal in a defined temperature range (e.g., 200–400°C) and exhibits both lyotropic and thermotropic nature, which is different from ordinary polymers and isotropic pitch [2]. It is well known that the mesophase pitch with a nematic liquid crystal structure possesses an easily graphitizable characteristic and can be preferentially aligned under mechanical force shearing after melting; thereby it is regarded as a basic raw material for preparing high-performance carbon and graphite materials with controllable structure of forming an ordered graphite, which provides a feasible route to prepare graphite-like materials [2]. In addition to the high carbon yield and potential price advantage (owing to the relatively low cost of carbonaceous raw materials) of mesophase pitch, it has become a high-quality precursor material for fabricating high-performance and multifunctional carbon materials as shown in Figure 1, such as mesophase pitch-based coke, needle coke, high-power graphite electrodes, mesocarbon microbeads (MCMBs), mesophase pitch-based carbon foam, mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers with high modulus and thermal conductivity, good binder and impregnating agent for high-thermal conductivity carbon-based composites, etc. Therefore, there is no doubt that mesophase pitch occupies a pivotal and irreplaceable position in various fields, such as defense, military, aerospace, cutting-edge technology, high-end industrial manufacturing, etc. [2, 3, 5].
\nMain promising applications of carbonaceous mesophase as an excellent precursor for making a wide variety of industrial and engineering carbon products.
The formation of mesophase pitch is a phase inversion process (transformed from isotropic to anisotropic), which is a result in which the pitch precursor undergoes thermal decomposition and thermal polycondensation to a certain extent. Nowadays, either thermal polycondensation of commercial coal-tar pitch and petroleum pitch (or even their certain soluble fractions) or catalytic polymerization of some aromatic substances is commonly used to prepare the carbonaceous mesophase [5]. It needs to be emphasized that carbonaceous precursors for the preparation of high-performance mesophase pitch are very crucial. Although commercial coal-tar pitch or petroleum pitch or heavy oil is very cheap and easy to obtain, these feedstocks are normally a complex mixture including with some heteroatoms and inorganic ash (~0.2 wt.%), which makes a spinnable mesophase pitch difficult to prepare [6, 7, 8]. So far, it is still very hard to massively produce cheap mesophase pitch with high quality, especially for continuously melt spinning high-performance carbon fibers. In recent 30 years, small model aromatic compounds (such as naphthalene, methylnaphthalene, anthracene, etc.) have been widely used to synthesize spinnable mesophase pitch by catalyzing with superacid, HF-BF3. The obtained naphthalene-derived mesophase pitch possesses characteristics of high purity, controllable molecular structure, and ideal physical property [3, 9, 10, 11]. However, the severe corrosion problem and potential operating risk of using HF-BF3 as a catalyst will unfortunately limit its widespread use (and such a mesophase pitch product named “AR” as shown in Figure 2(a) is now no longer available from, e.g., Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Company).
\nOptical photographs of (a) pellet and (b) block-shaped carbonaceous mesophase pitch derived from naphthalene.
In the meantime, a mild catalyst AlCl3 has been selectively used to prepare the mesophase pitch from the simple molecules and achieve the anticipated catalytic polymerization effect in spite of a trace of residual catalyst (e.g., 300–1000 ppm) inevitably intermingled in the mesophase pitch [3, 12, 13, 14]. Figure 3 shows the flow diagram of catalytic thermal polymerization of naphthalene molecule to prepare carbonaceous mesophase pitch as shown in Figure 2(b) by a two-step reaction process at a liquid-phase carbonization temperature of 350–450°C for a certain period of time. It could be concluded that some carbonaceous precursors (e.g., naphthalene) have undergone four stages of liquid-crystalline sphere development and transformation and finally formed a bulk liquid-crystalline mesophase from an isotropic matrix as illustrated in Figure 4 under a suitable reaction condition (i.e., reaction temperature and time) [2, 15, 16]. The general four-stage conversion of liquid crystals during the whole process is diagramed as follows: (I) generation of optically anisotropic spheres in isotropic matrix, (II) growth of anisotropic spheres in isotropic matrix, (III) coalescence of anisotropic spheres in isotropic matrix, and (IV) deformation and disintegration of anisotropic coalesced spheres to form bulk liquid-crystalline mesophase.
\nFlow diagram of catalytic thermal polymerization of naphthalene molecule to form carbonaceous mesophase pitch ((LT) a low temperature of ~200°C and (MT) a mid temperature of ~430°C).
Schematic illustration of the formation and development process of bulk liquid-crystalline mesophase under a suitable reaction condition (scale bar in PLM micrographs is 100 μm).
However, it has been demonstrated that the formation, development, and transformation of liquid-crystalline anisotropic spheres (i.e., nucleation, growth, coalescence and deformation and orientation) in an isotropic pitch matrix are unconcerted and inhomogeneous during the process of liquid-phase carbonization as shown in Figure 5 [16]. Furthermore, it is not easy to obtain a 100 vol.% anisotropic mesophase pitch (i.e., bulk mesophase) both with a fine flow optical texture and an acceptable softening point less than 300°C for subsequent fiber spinning. This mainly depends on the carbonaceous precursors (e.g., molecular unit size, the flatness of molecules and the chemical reactivity, etc.) and the suitable thermal reaction conditions adopted [2, 15, 16].
\n(a) Polarized light microscope (PLM) micrograph of the naphthalene-based synthetic pitch and (b) SEM image of broken surface of the pitch-derived coke showing an unsynchronized and inhomogeneous conversion of liquid-crystalline anisotropic spheres.
Mesophase pitch consists of a large variety of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and maintains the molecular ordering (i.e., optical anisotropy), which is an important precursor for high-performance industrial carbon materials. Characterizing the structures and properties of carbonaceous mesophase plays a significant role in its quality control, process optimization, and applications [5, 17, 18]. Only through effective measurement of the molecular weight distribution and quantitative description of the structural characteristic as well as the multi-scale evaluation of the thermophysical nature will the understanding, controllable preparation, and applications of carbonaceous mesophase be updated. The common instruments used for characterizing carbonaceous mesophase are as follows: Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR), elemental analyzer, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), flight mass spectrometer (MS), polarized light microscope, capillary rheometer, X-ray diffractometer, Raman spectrum, thermogravimetric, differential scanning calorimetry, etc.
\nThe carbonaceous mesophase pitch prepared by AlCl3 catalytic thermal polymerization of naphthalene has a relatively high aromaticity (the aromatic index is about 0.70) and a regular planar molecular structure constructed by a number of naphthenic structure, as well as a relatively large molecular weight of ~2600 g/mol, consisting of mesogen units (a ladder-shaped molecular structure) formed by ~20 naphthalene molecules through thermally induced aromatic growth [3, 10, 11] according to the analyses of Figures 6–8. The suitable softening point (260–280°C) and appropriate H/C mol ratio (0.52–0.60), as well as high liquid-crystalline mesophase content (100 vol.%) and ideal fine flow texture as displayed in Figures 9 and 11, are the significant characteristics of such carbonaceous mesophase. The analysis results of other characterizations are not shown here (refer to previous work [2, 3, 10, 11, 15, 18]).
\nFTIR patterns of (a) naphthalene pitch and (b) its derived mesophase pitch.
\n1H-NMR spectra of the soluble fractions from (a) naphthalene pitch and (b) its derived mesophase pitch.
MS spectra of (a) naphthalene pitch and (b) its derived mesophase pitch.
Typical PLM micrographs of the (a, b) as-received, (c) melted, and (d) melt-stirred naphthalene-based AR mesophase pitch.
The as-received liquid-crystalline AR mesophase pitch as shown in Figure 9(a,b) possesses a streamline “fibrous” texture with highly preferred orientation visible via orthogonal observation by rotating the object stage of the PLM. Following melting and melt-stirred treatments at 320°C as shown in Figure 9(c,d), respectively, the optical texture of the melting pitch is nearly maintained, and the conformation and orientation of the macromolecules in the melt-stirred pitch are disrupted to become partially disordered or turbulent (severely deformed) depending upon the degree of stirring [19]. The purpose of this thermo-stirring treatment is to investigate the influence of liquid-crystalline texture of mesophase pitch precursors on the morphology, microstructure, and physical properties of resulting carbon fibers as shown in Figure 10.
\nSchematic of the microstructure evolution from mesophase pitch precursor to transverse texture-controlled carbon fibers as degree of melt-stirring increases.
It can be found that the as-prepared naphthalene-based mesophase pitch as being transmitted from the reaction autoclave to a metal plate at a molten status exhibits good wire-drawing performance and ideal viscoelastic property and the unwittingly drawn wires (i.e., large-diameter pitch fibers) possess an orderly liquid-crystalline texture as shown in Figure 11, which is closely related to its plastic flowing behavior and low apparent viscosity upon melting as shown in Figure 12. This is favorable for pitch melt spinning and other rheology applications [5].
\n(a) Optical photograph of a naphthalene-based synthetic pitch with good wire-drawing performance and (b) PLM micrograph of the drawn pitch fiber.
Typical (a) molten flow curve of distance-temperature and (b) viscosity-temperature curve of naphthalene-based AR mesophase pitch.
It is well known that pitch-derived coke is mainly used to make carbon and graphite electrodes equipped within electric arc furnaces for steelmaking, and mesophase pitch-derived coke (or needle coke) has an overwhelming advantage to produce graphite electrodes with high and ultrahigh power [5, 20].
\nIt can be clearly seen that mesophase pitch-derived coke exhibits a well-oriented texture as shown in Figure 13(a,b), which is closely related to the formation and development of flow-type liquid crystalline in carbonaceous mesophase products during the process of delayed coking [5]. In contrast, coarse-grained mosaic texture is presented in the coke derived from commercial coal-tar pitch as shown in Figure 13(c,d) [16, 20]. Thus it can be concluded that the carbonaceous feedstocks have a significant influence on the optical texture and microstructure of resulting coke, which depends on the development and evolution of carbonaceous mesophase during the liquid-phase carbonization process.
\n(a, c) Optical photographs and (b, d) PLM micrographs of mesophase pitch-derived coke (a, b) and coal-tar pitch-derived coke (c, d).
As a special type of carbon material, MCMB has some outstanding physical and chemical properties that other carbon materials do not have due to its unique spherical morphology and lamellar structure. Therefore, MCMB can be widely applied to various fields, such as high-performance liquid chromatography column materials, high-specific surface area activated carbon materials, high-efficiency lithium ion battery anodes, high-density and high-strength graphite materials, etc. [5, 21].
\nUnder suitable thermal reaction conditions, homogeneous liquid-crystalline spheres with an identical diameter of ~10 μm which appeared in the optically isotropic pitch matrix can be achieved as shown in Figure 14(a), which is closely related to the effective control of the polymerization degree of naphthalene molecules. Through subsequent separation, infusibilization, and carbonization treatments, uniform-sized MCMBs as shown in Figure 14(b) can be easily obtained by starting with a simple naphthalene molecule.
\n(a) PLM micrograph of anisotropic liquid-crystalline carbonaceous spheres generated from naphthalene-based synthetic pitch and (b) SEM image of homogeneous MCMBs derived from the spherical liquid crystals.
Recently, many researchers have used mesophase pitch as a raw material to prepare porous carbon materials (e.g., ultrahigh surface area activated carbon, mesoporous carbon, and hierarchical porous carbon) with controlled microstructure and morphology [22, 23]. The large specific surface area, rich pore structure and excellent adsorption performance of porous carbon materials provide excellent supporting characteristics for various transition metal and precious metal catalysts. Porous carbon support can resist the severe corrosion in harsh environments such as acid, alkali and salts, and greatly improve the adsorption performance and catalytic efficiency, and thus has broad applications [24].
\nMesophase pitch-based carbon foam is a new type of porous carbon material prepared by foaming mesophase pitch as shown in Figure 15. Owing to its low density, high thermal and electrical conductivity, fire resistance, microwave absorption, noise reduction, low thermal expansion coefficient, chemical resistance, etc., carbon foam is extremely suitable for heat transfer systems, such as aerospace vehicles and satellites, rocket launching platforms, large heat exchangers, and computers in chemical plants [25, 26, 27]; therefore, such carbon foam sees promising application prospects.
\n(a) Optical photograph and (b) PLM micrograph of carbon foam derived from naphthalene-based mesophase pitch.
Mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers firstly reported by Singer in 1978 are the most successful high-end product for the development and application of carbonaceous mesophase, which are derived from spinnable mesophase pitch by melt spinning, oxidative stabilization, and carbonization and graphitization treatments [28]. The inherent alignment structure of liquid crystal molecules is preserved within the as-spun pitch fibers. Upon high-temperature graphitization, the graphite crystals are preferentially oriented along the fiber axis, so the final fibers have super high Young’s modulus (up to a theoretical value of graphite, 1000 GPa) and excellent axial electrical (as low as 1.0 μΩ m in electrical resistivity) and thermal conductivity (exceeding 1000 W/m K). Thus they are now being widely used in aviation, aerospace, nuclear, and other high-tech fields, in which polyacrylonitrile-based carbon fibers have a certain limitation [3, 5, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. At present, only the United States (Cytec Industries Incorporated) and Japan (Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation and Nippon Graphite Fiber Corporation) have mature manufacturing technology ranging from the precursor materials to the final products (i.e., mesophase pitch, high-performance carbon fiber continuous filaments, and carbon fiber composites). The morphology of commercial carbon fibers usually includes three types of forms, i.e., continuous filament, chopped fiber, and ground fiber powder.
\nThe round-shaped carbon fibers with different diameters and large-sized ribbon-shaped carbon fibers (sectional width ~2 mm, thickness ~10 μm) as shown in Figure 16 can been successfully prepared from the AR mesophase pitch owing to its good spinnability. It is worthy to point out that most large-diameter carbon fibers with a radial transverse texture are inclined to spit in the subsequent high-temperature heat treatment. The ribbon-shaped carbon fibers can efficiently solve the crack problem and maintain their shape and structure without any damage. The carbon crystalline structure and layered orientation parallel to the ribbon main surface are obviously better than those of round fibers. The axial electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity of the round and ribbon fibers graphitized at 3000°C are measured to be as low as 1.1–1.30 μΩ m and about 900–1000 W/m K at room temperature [19, 34, 35, 36].
\n(a, c) Optical photographs and (b, d) SEM micrographs of round- (a, b) and ribbon-shaped carbon fibers (c, d) derived from naphthalene-based AR mesophase pitch.
Mesophase pitch-based carbon (graphite) fibers are often used as ideal functional fillers for preparing various carbon-based composites with high thermal conductivity [5, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41], which can be widely utilized in the field of thermal management [32, 33]. The thermal conductivity of these carbon-based composites depends not only on the conduction performance of carbon fibers themselves and their loading amount, as well as laying or weaving architecture in the composites, but also on the physical properties of matrix materials involved (i.e., the resin, mesophase pitch, or pyrolytic carbon).
\nIn the previous work, the mesophase pitch-based graphite fiber (long filament) reinforced one-dimensional (as shown in Figure 17(a)–(c)) and two-dimensional ABS resin composites with a large size of 10 cm × 10 cm x 0.3–2 cm can reach a high thermal conductivity of ~500 W/m K [37, 38]. However, the thermal conductivity of composites reinforced by shortcut carbon fibers and milled fiber powders as shown in Figure 17(d,e) is only 10–20 W/m K, which can be used as heat paste or thermal grease for interfacial heat dissipation. Using various mesophase pitch-based graphite fibers (i.e., round-shaped and ribbon-shaped fibers) as a reinforcing filler and the same mesophase pitch as a binder, ultrahigh thermal conductivity (700–900 W/m K) of the one-dimensional C/C composites as shown in Figures 18 and 19 could be realized [39, 40]. However, it is disadvantage to use phenolic resin as a binder to prepare high-thermal-conductivity materials owing to its non-graphitizable nature (i.e., a typical hard carbon) as shown in Figure 20. By comparison, the mesophase pitch-derived carbon after high-temperature treatment exhibits good crystallinity, high graphitization degree, and orderly stacked graphene sheets as shown in Figure 18(d), which is very important to improve the directional thermal conductivity performance. It is worth noting that the pyrolytic carbon with a highly oriented texture deposited on the mesophase pitch-based graphite fibers as shown in Figure 21 is also found to markedly increase the thermal conductivity of C/C composites [41].
\n(a) Optical photograph, (b–d) PLM micrographs, and (e) SEM image of ABS resin composites reinforced by unidirectional (b, c) and disordered (d, e) mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers ((b, c) are, respectively, imaged perpendicular and parallel to the fiber axis).
(a) Optical photograph, (b) PLM micrograph, and (c)–(e) SEM images of unidirectional carbon/carbon composites reinforced by mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers using mesophase pitch as a binder ((b)–(d) are imaged perpendicular to the fiber axis, and (e) is imaged parallel to the fiber axis).
(a) Optical photograph, (b, c) PLM orthogonal micrographs, and (d) SEM image of unidirectional carbon/carbon composites reinforced by mesophase pitch-based ribbon fibers using mesophase pitch as a binder.
(a) PLM micrograph and (b) SEM image of unidirectional carbon/carbon composites reinforced by mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers using phenolic resin as a binder.
(a) Optical photograph, (b) PLM micrograph, and (c) SEM image of unidirectional carbon/carbon composites reinforced by mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers using pyrolytic carbon as a “binder.”
It is interesting to note that mesophase pitch is a promising binder (due to its good flow orientation performance in the molten state, easily graphitizable characteristic, etc.) for large-scale fabricating natural flake graphite-molded blocks by using the cheap and available natural graphite flakes as a raw material. The prepared graphite blocks with a high bulk density of 1.9 g/cm3 possess a highly preferred structural orientation perpendicular to the hot-pressing direction as shown in Figure 22 and a high thermal conductivity of 500–600 W/m K in plane two-dimensional direction [42, 43].
\n(a) Optical photograph, (b) PLM micrograph, and (c) SEM image of natural flake graphite-molded blocks perpendicular to the hot-pressing direction using mesophase pitch as a binder.
It is well known that carbon materials are important materials for the preparation of various batteries. From ancient dry batteries to today’s high-efficiency fuel cells, as well as new high-energy storage batteries being developed, pitch-based carbon materials are playing an increasingly important role. Mesophase pitch is an easily graphitizable carbonaceous precursor. After high-temperature heat treatment, its three-dimensional stack structure is very regular, and mesophase pitch can be transformed into a high-crystalline graphite. The necessary energy of intercalating lithium ions into the carbon layers is relatively low, and thus such material has a large lithium insertion depth and reversible capacity [44, 45], especially carbonaceous mesophase-derived coke after spheroidizing and coating treatments as shown in Figure 23(a) which can significantly improve the cycle stability and service life of the battery.
\nTypical (a) SEM image of carbonaceous mesophase-derived spherical coke used as Li-ion battery anodes and (b) TEM image of carbonaceous mesophase-derived graphene with a relatively large size.
By the same token, using the easily graphitized mesophase pitch-derived carbon as a raw material, a large-sized graphene (or a few layers of graphene sheets) with uniform thickness and good transparency as shown in Figure 23(b) can be successfully prepared through a special technique (i.e., molten salt ion intercalation stripping), which can realize the size and thickness control of carbon layers. The preparation method seems to be very simple and easy to operate and thus will have a good prospect.
\nIn addition to being used as a high-quality raw material for the above-mentioned carbon materials, carbonaceous mesophase can also be used to prepare some novel and value-added carbon materials such as miracle graphene [46], carbon quantum dots [47], good binder for high-performance magnesia carbon bricks [48], fluorinated pitch [49], etc.
\nIn this chapter, the preparation, characterization, and applications of naphthalene-based carbonaceous mesophase are reviewed. With the continuous advancement of preparation techniques and characterization methods, the understanding of the molecular structure, molecular weight, molecular weight distribution, aggregation texture, and rheology property of mesophase liquid crystals will be deepened, and finally the comprehensive understanding of the carbonaceous mesophase (including the formation mechanism, molecular dynamic law and high-efficiency control) from molecular and micro and macro scales could be realized, which will maximize the performance of carbonaceous mesophase-derived carbon products with desirable performance, multi-versatility, and high added value, thus to promote the theoretical foundation of carbonaceous mesophase and accelerate its broad applications in various fields.
\nThe authors would like to thank professor Xuanke Li for his good suggestion and professional advice. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 91016003 and 51372177), the Hubei Provincial Department of Education Science Research Project (Grant No. Q20141104), the Key Laboratory of Hubei Province for Coal Conversion and New Carbon Materials (Grant No. WKDM201701), and the China Scholarship Council Fund (201808420114).
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192923,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. 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Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3507,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3607,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1347,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82319",title:"Traumatic Optic Neuropathy",slug:"traumatic-optic-neuropathy",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104731",abstract:"Traumatic optic neuropathy (TON) is a specific neurological sequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It has a different mechanism than other most neurologic complications of head trauma and its consequences can be devastating. The damage can be from direct penetrating trauma or bone fracture injuring the optic nerve directly or secondary to indirect blunt trauma (usually causing traction). The diagnosis of TON is based on the clinical history and examination findings indicative of optic neuropathy, especially the presence of defective pupillary light response. TON can cause only mild vision loss but, in some cases, severe vision loss is present. Imaging findings can support the diagnosis, and provide information on the mechanism as well as treatment options. The treatment options include observation alone, systemic steroids, erythropoietin, surgical decompression of the optic canal, or combination. The evidence base for these various treatment options is controversial and each treatment has its side effects and risks. Poor prognostic factors include poor visual acuity at presentation, loss of consciousness, no improvement in vision in the first 48 hours, and evidence of optic canal fractures on neuroimaging.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Ainat Klein and Wahbi Wahbi"},{id:"82203",title:"Resting-State Brain Network Analysis Methods and Applications",slug:"resting-state-brain-network-analysis-methods-and-applications",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104827",abstract:"Resting-state fMRI has been widely applied in clinical research. Brain networks constructed by functional connectivity can reveal alterations related to disease and treatment. One of the major concerns of brain network application under clinical situations is how to analyze groups of data to find the potential biomarkers that can aid in diagnosis. In this paper, we briefly review common methods to construct brain networks from resting-state fMRI data, including different ways of the node definition and edge calculation. We focus on using a brain atlas to define nodes and estimate edges by static and dynamic functional connectivity. The directed connectivity method is also mentioned. We then discuss the challenges and pitfalls when analyzing groups of brain networks, including functional connectivity alterations, graph theory attributes analysis, and network-based statistics. Finally, we review the clinical application of resting-state fMRI in neurorehabilitation of spinal cord injury patients and stroke patients, the research on the mechanism and early diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases, such as multiple system atrophy, as well as the research on brain functional network alteration of glioma patients.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Yunxiang Ge and Weibei Dou"},{id:"82099",title:"Recent Advances in the Development of Biofluid-Based Prognostic Biomarkers of Diffuse Axonal Injury",slug:"recent-advances-in-the-development-of-biofluid-based-prognostic-biomarkers-of-diffuse-axonal-injury",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104933",abstract:"Even though head injury is a silent pandemic of the century producing immense social and economic impact, predictive models have not been established to develop strategies promoting the development of reliable diagnostic tools and effective therapeutics capable of improving the prognosis. Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is a type of traumatic brain injury (TBI) that results from a blunt injury to the brain. Discovering biomarkers for DAI have been a matter of debate and research. A number of studies have reported biomarkers that are correlated with severity of TBI but no conclusive and reproducible clinical evidence regarding the same has been put forward till now. Additionally, many DAI biomarkers have limitations so that they cannot be generalized for universal applications. The properties of these biomarkers should be extensively researched along with the development of novel biomarkers to aid important clinical decisions for the benefit of the society. This chapter summarizes the existing biofluid-based biomarkers, critically examines their limitations and highlights the possibilities of a few novel biomolecules as prognostic biomarkers of DAI.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Vinu V. Gopal, Rinku Raj Mullasseril and Goutam Chandra"},{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). 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He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/163683",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"163683"},fullPath:"/profiles/163683",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()