Tumescent solution.
\r\n\t1. Emphasizing the unique power of the molecular docking method in new drug discovery;
\r\n\t2. Demonstration of how the molecular docking technique has led to the discovery of new molecules in cancer therapy, proteasome, and STAT3 inhibition, and the treatment of Alzheimer's disease;
\r\n\t3. Underlining the importance of molecular docking-based modeling methods in the various branches of biotechnology
\r\n\tWe hope that this book will be a common point where researchers working in the fields of life sciences and drug development will eventually meet.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-468-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-467-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-469-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8c918a1973786c7059752b28601f1329",bookSignature:"Dr. Erman Salih Istifli",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",keywords:"Protein-Ligand Interaction, Lead Discovery, Molecular Recognition, Enzyme-Ligand Interaction, Mutant Enzymes, Alanine Screening, Proteasome Inhibitors, Signal Transducers, Transcription Activators (STATs), DNA Recognition Motifs, Neoplastic Cells, Amyloid-Beta Proteins",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A multidisciplinary researcher working in the fields of cytogenetics, molecular genetics, and bioinformatics-based molecular modeling (currently on the structural biology of COVID-19 and the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease). Dr. Istifli previously joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany where he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179007/images/system/179007.JPG",biography:"Dr. Erman Salih İstifli received his Ph.D. from Biology Department of Cukurova University, Insitute of Science and Letter. In his doctoral study, Dr. İstifli focused on the elucidation of the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of a commonly used anticancer agent (antifolate) on human lymphocytes. During his period of doctoral research, he joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany, and he focused there on investigating the molecular cytogenetic causes of some human rare diseases. During these studies, he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R) responsible for intelligence and obesity. He was assigned as an expert and rapporteur on eight candidate projects in the Marie-Sklodowska Curie-Actions Innovative Training Networks in 2016. In 2017, he completed the online theoretical and practical course 'Introduction to Biology - The Secret of Life', run by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) on the edX platform. In April 2019, within the framework of Erasmus+ staff mobility program, he gave seminars on 'DNA microarrays and their use in genotoxicity' at Tirana University in Tirana, Albania. He is a published author of several articles in journals covered by the SCI and SCI-E, and has manuscripts in other refereed scientific journals. He currently serves as a referee in several journals covered by the SCI and SCI-E. His studies mainly fall into the field of genetic toxicology. He continues his current research on the structural biology of COVID-19 as well as identification of novel plant-based hit compounds in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease.",institutionString:"Çukurova University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83630",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",body:'Tumescent liposuction is a cosmetic surgical procedure that consists of a suction-assisted lipoplasty that removes unwanted fat deposited under the skin. Liposuction has its beginnings in 1921, with the Parisian surgeon Charles Dujarrier who was interested in body shaping and fat removal. In 1970s, the technique evolved with various doctors such as Shrudde, Kesserling and Meyer, the Fischers, and many more. The technique was again modified in 1977 by the French surgeon, Yves Gerard Illouz, who added hyaluronidase and saline solution to try to emulsify the fat and facilitate its aspiration, later called the wet technique [1, 2, 3]. It was not until the mid-1980s that the American dermatologist, Klein, described the tumescent technique, in which considerable amounts of sodium chloride solution, local anesthetic, epinephrine, and bicarbonate were infiltrated in the fatty tissue to expand and increase its turgor in order to create a level to facilitate the suction and reduce blood losses [4]. During tumescent liposuction a variable amount of crystalloid solution is infused, including dissolved epinephrine to thicken the subcutaneous fat layer in order to remove the highest possible amount of fat, thus decreasing blood loss to amounts as low as 1% of all the aspirated volume. Lidocaine can be added to the solution to produce local anesthesia during and after the procedure.
Although liposuction appears to be easy and harmless, it is not a trivial procedure because it can potentially involve serious complications like deep vein thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary embolism (PE), pulmonary edema, fat embolism, hypothermia, and even death [3, 5]. A painful recovery is also possible. Large-volume liposuction needs special care to avoid hypothermia, keep an appropriate fluid balance and DVT/PE prophylaxis.
This chapter focuses on large-volume liposuction done under general anesthesia, the most important technical aspects and literature data regarding risks, complications, and anesthesiological considerations.
According to the infiltration techniques for liposuction, this procedure can be classified into four categories [6]:
Dry technique: In which the aspiration cannula is inserted directly into the space from which the fat will be removed without any infiltration of the tissues. The estimated blood losses range from 20 to 45% of the aspirated volume.
Wet technique: In relation to the expected amount of aspirated volume, 200–300 ml of solution is injected in each area to be treated. Blood losses are calculated from 4 to 30% of the volume aspirated.
Super wet technique: The amount of infiltrated solution (calculated in 1 ml for each ml of the aspirated estimate) is equal to the amount of fat removed. Blood losses are calculated at 1% of the volume aspirated.
Tumescent method: A large amount of solution (estimated at 3–4 ml per ml expected to be aspirated) is injected into the fatty tissue, seeking to increase the space occupied by the fat, in addition to giving it a firm and turgid consistency (Figure 1). Blood losses are calculated at 1% of the aspirated volume.
Abdomen infiltrated with 6 liters of tumescent solution. Note the pale coloration of the skin secondary to the effect of injected adrenaline.
Liposuction can also be classified into two types according to the aspirated volume: large volume (>4 liters aspirated) and low volume (<4 liters aspirated). From here we must always keep in mind that the higher the volume aspirated, almost inevitably a greater amount of tumescent solution will have to be infiltrated in the dermoclysis. As this volume of infiltration increases, so does the risk of causing pulmonary edema, for which in these conditions the management of intravenous fluids must be very cautious, always tending to the restriction both in the transoperative period and in the first hours of postanesthetic recovery (Figure 2).
The left image shows little blood compared to the image on the right with a large amount of blood in the liposuction container.
According to the surgical instruments used, liposuction is called power-assisted, laser-assisted, or ultrasonic-assisted lipoplasty. Manual liposuction using different sizes of syringes is a technique that is still used for small areas.
Currently, the most used solution to generate the tumescence is the one described by Klein [4, 7], and a more reasonable variant—which we prefer to use but little is known—is the one proposed by Hunstad [8, 9], as seen in Table 1.
Klein solution | Hunstad solution |
---|---|
1000 mL isotonic saline solution | 1000 mL Ringer’s lactate solution |
50 mL, 1% lidocaine | 50 mL lidocaine 1% |
1 mL (1: 1000 epinephrine) | 1 mL (1: 1000 epinephrine) |
12.5 mL (8.4% sodium bicarbonate) |
Tumescent solution.
In the tumescent solution described by Klein, the local anesthetic was diluted in isotonic saline solution. However, when isotonic saline solution is used as a diluent, if the patient is not under anesthesia, a burn sensation will be reported as the solution is infiltrated. It is reasonably recommended that when using this solution, the acidic pH of the 0.9% saline solution should be neutralized with bicarbonate, which in addition reduces pain; by increasing the pH, it also increases the proportion of non-ionized lipid soluble lidocaine, which favors a faster entry into the nerve cell where lidocaine acts. When lactate Ringer’s solution is used, this burning sensation does not occur upon infiltration, and the sodium load is reduced. It should be noted that the dose of lidocaine and epinephrine should be regulated according to the maximum doses to be considered as safe.
Regarding the local anesthetics used, there are reports with articaine or prilocaine. Liposuction done with up to 38.2 mg/kg bodyweight of articaine HCl produced plasmatic concentrations as high as 1719–7292 ng/mL, without symptoms of systemic toxicity which could be explained by the rapid hydrolysis through the plasmatic esterases. These data show that articaine is safe for infiltration during liposuction [10]. The groups that have reported the use of prilocaine have not detected elevated levels of it in plasma or methemoglobinemia [11, 12], although Yildirim et al. described a patient with 40% methemoglobinemia that developed 8 h after liposuction was performed with almost 1000 mg of prilocaine [13]. In our surgical facility, the most used local anesthetic is lidocaine, and even though for other applications when used in association with epinephrine, the maximum limit is established at 7 mg/kg. In the specific case of the tumescent solution for liposuction, the safety range is 35–55 mg/kg [14, 15]. We prefer to stay at the lower limit of 35 mg/kg in order to be more cautious, given that since the surgical team does not keep accurate control of the injected lidocaine or takes into consideration possible drug interactions or special conditions of the patient. The concentrations of lidocaine vary according to the vascularity of the area in which the liposuction is to be performed. In more sensitive or vascularized areas such as the chest and abdomen, the concentration or amount of local anesthetic mass can be increased and decreased in less sensitive areas such as the thighs.
Lidocaine toxicity is in function if the peak plasma concentration is reached, which will depend on several factors such as the total amount of mg/kg, as well as its rate of absorption and elimination, so that the peak levels of lidocaine and its active metabolite (monoethylglycinexylidide) occur in a period as variable as 8–32 h after infiltration has been done. For this reason alone, for patients who are treated with this procedure, it is not recommended to do it in an outpatient setting, because the maximum concentrations of lidocaine and its active metabolite will most often take the patient at home with little vigilance.
Lidocaine is eliminated from the body by diethylation in the liver by isoenzyme groups 1A2 and 3A4 of cytochrome p450. Thus, all drugs that inhibit isoenzyme 3A4 and cytochrome P450 can affect the metabolism of lidocaine. For this reason, lidocaine doses should be reduced in patients who use medications that interfere with the cytochrome P450 system or that affect the hepatic blood flow. The factors that can modify the systemic absorption of lidocaine need to be considered. Obviously, the reached concentration of the drug, the degree of vascularity of the infiltrated tissue, the concomitant use of vasoconstrictor drugs, and the infiltration rate [3] are very important.
The adequate use of epinephrine in the tumescent solution theoretically allows blood loss to be 1–2% of the total volume aspirated. The maximum recommended total dose of epinephrine is 0.07 mg/kg. Vasoconstrictors are used to reduce blood circulation in the tissues, which helps to slow the absorption of local anesthetics. Adrenaline is the most commonly used vasoconstrictor; the recommended concentration for the tumescent solution ranges from 0.25 to 1 mg/Lt, depending on the tissue vascularity in question. In more vascularized tissues, the recommended concentration is 1 mg/L to be decreased to 0.5 mg/L in body areas with less vascularization (Figure 3). If it is anticipated that this maximum dose will be exceeded, the procedure should be done replacing the adrenaline with other options such as 1-ornithine-8-vasopressin in concentrations of 0.01 IU/ml, with the disadvantage of having to use it in unheated solution with the consequent hypothermia of the patient.
Infiltrated back. Note the changes in skin circulation due to the tumescent solution, with a marked delay in capillary refill.
Although it is well established that liposuction is not a treatment for obesity, more often than desired, the obese patient is programed for this type of procedure, and there are usually other associated comorbidities such as high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, ischemic heart disease, DVT, and obstructive sleep apnea. If despite recognizing that liposuction is not a reasonable treatment for obesity, if in any case it is decided to do this procedure, the minimum required is that, in the case of hypertension and diabetes, these conditions should be well controlled (it is advisable to postpone patients who have recently changed medications or doses in order to avoid unpleasant outcomes). If the risk of DVT, consider pharmacological thromboprophylaxis apart from mechanical prophylactic measures.
It is common that this type of patients is using recognized or unrecognized (natural remedies) medications and “herbal aids” to lose weight. This type of drugs ranges from amphetamines, thyroid hormones and ephedrine and a fairly large list of herbs and teas that if we take the care to inquire about it (identify them and look for their pharmacological effects), we will find that at least they alter the coagulation system or facilitate the interactions with epinephrine (see Chapter 1). Therefore, the patient should be instructed to suspend all this type of medications and naturopathic remedies at least 2 weeks before surgery. Needless to say, it is a contraindicated procedure in cocaine addicts.
With regard to laboratory tests, in our work center, it seems that it is exaggerated, but the type of patients and the procedures that are carried out have led us to request complete blood chemistry, basic metabolic panel, quantification of glycosylated hemoglobin (if the patient is diabetic), thyroid profile, coagulation times, liver function tests, pregnancy detection, serological detection of hepatitis A, B, and C, as well as detection of antibodies against HIV. If the patient presents some suspicious data, antidoping is added. All patients, regardless of their age, undergo ECG [6].
The preanesthetic medication in this group of patients is an important part of the preoperative management and should include not only sedative and hypnotic drugs but also an effective scheme that prevents the possibility of emesis and postoperative pain with neuropathic characteristics, which is secondary to multiple nervous fiber trauma of medium and small caliber. A typical preanesthetic scheme is lorazepam, dexamethasone, ondansetron, gabapentin, or pregabalin. A nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory analgesic can be added.
While liposuction of large volumes can be done with any anesthesia technique, we strongly recommend the use of general anesthesia. The anesthetic induction is done in the usual way, being propofol the most used drug. For muscular relaxation for endotracheal intubation, a non-depolarizing drug with rapid action such as rocuronium or atracurium, although vecuronium is probably the most used muscle relaxants due to its safety and low cost. For the maintenance of anesthesia, desflurane, sevoflurane or isoflurane alone or in combination with opioids can be used. Ketofol have been recommended by several authors. Muscle relaxation is optional during the surgery.
In our experience, which is worth taking into consideration, since in the last 8 years, we have accumulated an average of 200 large-volume liposuctions per year (with the peculiarity that it is the same surgeon and the same anesthesiologist). We usually premedicate patients with ranitidine, metoclopramide, ondansetron, and the prophylactic antibiotic of the surgeon’s choice. Induction is with fentanyl 3–4 mμ/kg and vecuronium to facilitate orotracheal intubation (usually 4–6 mg) and propofol 2 mg/kg. We continue with inhalatory anesthesia with low flows, in general terms only use oxygen 350 to maximum 400 mL/minute, and desflurane given its faster response to modify the desired CAM. As approximately 60–70% of the time, the procedure will be done with the patient facing down, more when it includes lipoinjection in the buttocks. The patient is intubated orotracheally with a spiral reinforced cuffed tracheal tube (like Sheridan Spiral-Flex®) properly fixed. We never relied on a laryngeal mask; no matter the discussion, it will never approach the security provided by an endotracheal tube. Due to the situation of changes in the patient’s position, experience is necessary in turning the patient from supine to the ventral position and ventral to the supine, protecting the cervical spine and ensuring that the endotracheal tube does not move. It is necessary to have protection devices for pressure points, which allows us to keep the patient upside down, taking care of pressure points on the nose and eyes fundamentally (Figure 4) [16].
Proper mechanical thromboprophylaxis by compression stockings and intermittent pneumatic compression system in lower limbs.
The patient scheduled for liposuction at least qualifies as a moderate thromboembolic risk, so all of them must have compression stockings and intermittent pneumatic compression systems installed, both during surgery and during all the time that they remain in the clinic or at least until they start ambulation. In special cases of higher risk, pharmacological thromboprophylaxis with low-molecular-weight heparin is necessary.
As for the monitoring equipment, beyond the required pulse oximetry, ECG with automated analysis of the ST segment, noninvasive blood pressure measurement every 5 minutes, capnography, and analysis of inhaled and exhaled gases, if available. As for temperature monitoring is useful to keep the record in two channels, central and peripheral temperature, since the isolated reading of the peripheral is of little use, it is more advisable to have both readings and be aware of the gap between the two. Although we have neuromuscular relaxation monitor, given the type of surgery, the low doses of the neuromuscular blocking agents injected for the tracheal intubation and its pharmacokinetic profile, at the end of the surgery, have no residual effects. BIS or entropy monitor can be very useful, given that the hemodynamic variations of the patients are not rare as a result of the adrenergic stimuli due to the infiltrated epinephrine and that they do not necessarily have to do with the need of changing the anesthetic depth (Figure 5).
Hyperemia is seen in the areas of the face where the device for protecting the nose and eyes rested, as well as adequate eye occlusion.
One of the reasons to use general anesthesia is because through endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation, it is easy to control the respiratory function more efficiently. In this sense, spirometry has great importance. If you do not use spirometry with these types of procedures, you could say that you ventilate blindly, considering the almost obliged obesity of many of these patients, in which their thoracic dynamics differ with just the change to ventral position. Normally, we ventilate the patients with volume-controlled mode, calculating their tidal volume between 6 and 7 mL/kg, and always keep a sequential record of the peak pressure reached with these volumes. In many patients, with only the change to ventral position, the peak pressure increases between 2 and 4 cm H2O, values that increase even more when the tumescence is completed either from the back or the abdomen. The vast majority of patients tolerate it adequately, but between 5 and 10% present a peak pressure increase that forces us to consider that all the extra effort that the ventilator is generating is what helps meet those required volumes. A patient with upper spinal block, in ventral position, sedated and with a nasal cannula, definitely cannot meet the required ventilatory work. Sometimes it is better to change to a pressure-controlled mode, usually lowering to maximum pressures of 18–20 cm H2O, but always observing the expiratory volume, so that it is sufficient to maintain an adequate reading of CO2ET, maintaining adequate alveolar ventilation without the significant increase in airway pressure that can be generated in volume-controlled mode (Figures 6 and 7).
Observe the adequate anesthetic depth (entropy readings) despite the rise in blood pressure secondary to epinephrine infiltration.
Increase of blood pressure during the infiltration of the solution for tumescence in a hypertensive patient. In the upper part of the figure in yellow, we can see the current loop of spirometry, produced by the decrease in thoracic compliance, compared with the reference white loop before infiltration.
As mentioned before, it is mandatory to supervise the cumulative dose of lidocaine to avoid systemic toxicity; it must be taken in mind that although it is being used within the limits recommended as safe, it must be considered that its enzymatic metabolism depends on cytochrome P450, which is also responsible for the metabolism of other drugs. This could cause the 3A4 subfamily of cytochrome P450 to be saturated and alter the metabolism of lidocaine. Midazolam competes in its metabolism in this subgroup, which could decrease the elimination of lidocaine, and with its effects, midazolam may mask the toxicity symptoms of lidocaine up until the onset of cardiovascular collapse. Other drugs that inhibit the 3A4 subfamily of cytochrome P450 are listed in Table 2 [17, 18]. As it is observed, the list is quite extensive, making it difficult to have in mind all these possible interactions, the reason why we recommend the online use of the system of detection of interactions and undesirable side effects “epocartes.”
Propofol | Methylprednisolone | Amiodarone |
---|---|---|
Flunitrazepam | Dexamethasone | Verapamil |
Diazepam | Itraconozole | Atenolol |
Triazolam | Ketoconazole | Labetalol |
Paroxetine | Miconazole | Pindolol |
Carbamazepine | Fluconazole | Propranolol |
Fluoxetine | Isoniazid | Metoprolol |
Sertraline | Clarithromycin | Diltiazem |
Nefazodone | Chloramphenicol | Nicardipine |
Terfenadine | Erythromycin | Timolol |
Methadone | Tetracycline | Nadolol |
Danazol | Cimetidine | Nifedipine |
Thyroxine | Quinidine | Pentoxifylline |
Drugs that inhibit the 3A4 subfamily of cytochrome P450.
For safety reasons, tumescent liposuction of large volumes is a surgery in which patients must stay at least 1 night hospitalized in an environment that guarantees their monitoring and safety. Often, there are patients who want extensive liposuction that can be as much as 30% of their total body surface, the remaining 70% will stay on the infiltrated tissues, and from there it will be reabsorbed, with the potential for fluid overload. Although the perioperative management of liquids during liposuction remains an unresolved controversy, especially in liposuction of large volumes, the current trend is to decrease the administration of liquids and sodium to avoid fluid overload, pulmonary edema, and congestive heart failure.
A recent study was done in China by Wang et al. [19], who retrospectively reviewed 83 medical records of patients who underwent extensive liposuction under intravenous monitored sedation with propofol 1–2 mg/kg/h and remifentanil 1–7 μg/kg/h. The intraoperative fluid ratio was 1.66 for extensive liposuction. These authors did not find cases of pulmonary edema, congestive heart failure, or other important complications. The average diuresis in the operating room, the recovery room, and in the surgical floors was 1.35, 2.3, and 1.4 mL/kg/h, respectively. The administration of intravenous fluids during liposuction decreased approximately 300–500 mL. The total volume of intravenous injection was also reduced to less than 1500 mL when the patient was in the recovery room and on the floor of the hospital. The Colombian Consensus recommends to consider the effect of dermoclysis of the tumescent solutions that are injected to the patients [20].
The liposuction removes approximately 30% of the infused tumescent solution, so for each liter of infiltrated tumescent solution, 700 mL are absorbed, so they should be considered as part of the fluids administered to the patient.
Another piece of information that can be used as a guide is to administer intravenous crystalloid solutions from 0.1 to 0.25 mL per mL of aspirate [21, 22].
Liposuction risks and complications are undervalued and underreported. When analyzing the medical literature related to the subject, it is always necessary to take into consideration the context from which the experiences are taken, since it is very different to perform liposuction of low volumes than liposuction of high volumes. In this way, there are interesting publications [23] but refer to cosmetic surgery performed in the office, for which the following possible contraindications are mentioned:
Liposuction >5 liters
Tumescent solution >5 liters
Liposuction of large volumes with a second procedure
Multiple procedures including abdominoplasty
Anticipated blood loss >500 mL in adults
Duration of surgery >6 h
Risks associated with tumescent infiltration and liposuction include DVT/PE, fatty embolism, anemia, perforation of the abdominal wall, pleural perforation, infection, fluid overload, pulmonary edema, hypothermia, and toxicity by local anesthetics and epinephrine. It is quite important to consider the necessary care during changes in position (ventral decubitus to prone decubitus) to minimize hemodynamic changes when patients are turned around and protect certain areas to avoid pressure injuries, corneal injuries, neural damage, and even blindness after anesthesia surgery. A recent report [24] mentioned the five more frequent serious complications of liposuction: thromboembolic disease, fat embolism, pulmonary edema, lidocaine intoxication, and intraabdominal visceral lesion. These events are easily preventable by simple measurements and safety protocols. The literature is full of reports of complicated patients during or after liposuction, and it is enough to mention some of these complications to encourage specialized care and stay within the recommended guidelines.
Abdominoplasty is the plastic surgery procedure with the highest incidence of death secondary to PE. In addition, it must be considered that if the abdominoplasty is associated with liposuction of large volumes, the risk of PE increases. It is estimated that the rate of thromboembolism if these procedures are combined increases 6.6 times. The rate of nonlethal PE was 8.8% in patients who had an abdominoplasty with wide resection, combined with liposuction with surgical times of more than 140 minutes [25]. The causes that increase the risk of PE are the mechanical factors that favor blood stagnation in the lower extremities, such as the surgical position, abdominal compression, and the use of bandages and garments in the postoperative period [26]. In a survey conducted by the American Society of Plastic and Esthetic Surgery, a mortality of 1 for 47,415 liposuctions was reported, 1 for 7314 if liposuction was combined with other procedures, and 1 for 3281 when liposuction had been combined with abdominoplasty; this is 14 times greater than with liposuction alone [27]. Ibarra et al. [20] contributed to the elaboration of the Consensus of the Colombian Society of Anesthesiology and Resuscitation (SCARE) and of the Colombian Society of Plastic Surgery on the recommendations for the management of low-risk elective patients. Within this consensus, the following measures are mentioned: prevention of DVT, comfortable position (legs in partial flexion of knees and extremities), intermittent pneumatic compression during surgery and until discharge. Elastic compression stockings from the preoperative period until ambulation are mandatory (Figure 8).
Comparison of spirometry loops, the basal with a peak pressure of the airway of 15 cm of water, and the second obtained once the patient’s back has been infiltrated, rising to 22 cm of water.
Consider the use of low-molecular-weight heparin every 12 h until ambulation is normal. The following should be considered for patients with increased risk of DVT: patients with a history of previous episode of DVT, patients undergoing procedures lasting more than 5 h, patients with liposuction of large volumes (>5 liters), patients who undergo combined procedures that include abdominoplasty, patients who arrive in cities of high altitude (>2000 m asl) 2 or less days before surgery, patients traveling in the immediate preoperative or aspire to travel with a duration of 4 h or more within the first week of the postoperative period, and the patients who undergo gluteal lipoinjections.
Morales and his group studied the prophylactic effect of rivaroxaban and apixaban in patients undergoing liposuction of large volumes and other body contouring procedures, finding that their thromboprophylactic effects and side effects are similar to each other and to low-molecular-weight heparin [28].
Anemia is a frequent postoperative complication in patients undergoing liposuction, especially in liposuction of large volumes. The use of vasopressors in the tumescent solutions that are injected into the fatty tissue at the beginning of this procedure decreases bleeding due to vasoconstriction, although there are some areas such as the torso and neck where bleeding is usually more abundant. Cansancao et al. [29] administered 10 mg/kg of intravenous tranexamic acid preoperative and postoperative vs. placebo in patients undergoing liposuction. The volume of blood loss for every liter of lipoaspirate was 56.2% less in the tranexamic group compared with the control group (p < 0.001). Hematocrit levels at day 7 postoperatively were 48% less in group 1 compared with group 2 (p = 0.001). Furthermore, a 1% drop in the hematocrit level was found after liposuction of 812 ± 432 ml in group 1 and 379 ± 204 ml in group 2. The authors concluded that tranexamic acid could allow for aspiration of 114% more fat, with comparable variation in hematocrit levels. Although erythropoietin has been used to improve anemia after liposuction and decrease the frequency of hemotransfusions, its usefulness has not been demonstrated [30]. It is advisable to check the hematocrit value before discharging the patient; in our patients, the hemoglobin values obtained by co-oximetry have a good correlation with the values obtained by the laboratory.
Take care of possible drug interactions including natural products and anabolic steroids. Clarify in informed consent the high risk of interaction of substances such as cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy, and other recreational drugs, with anesthetic and vasoactive medications. In suspected cases, antidoping and toxicology tests can be done [20].
Liposuction of large volumes is associated with important hemodynamic alterations: an increase in the cardiac index, heart rate, mean arterial pressure of the pulmonary, ejection volume index, and right ventricular work index are observed as well as a decrease in mean arterial pressure. Epinephrine, which is usually used at considerable doses during liposuction, may be responsible for tachycardia and increased cardiac index. The decrease in mean arterial pressure and systemic vascular resistance is probably due to the effects of general anesthesia and opioids in the transoperative period, but also the reduction of peripheral vascular resistance may be due to the dominant action of the epinephrine on the beta2 receptors of skeletal muscle vessels, where an increase in blood flow is observed.
There is an increased risk of hypothermia in patients of large volume liposuction since there are large areas of body surface exposed to temperature loss. If the anesthesiologist does not insist, the nursing staff tends not to adequately heat the dermoclysis solutions, or if the surgeon has no experience or does not care about hypothermia, he/she can make the procedure excessively long, without considering that regardless of the type of anesthesia, this will always help to facilitate hypothermia. It is necessary to maintain the temperature of the operating room, even in hot climates in no less than 25°C or 77°F, even if it goes against the surgeon’s comfort and other operating room staff. We must bear in mind the complications that hypothermia can cause, such as cardiac dysrhythmias, coagulopathies, oliguria, and electrolyte imbalance and an important increase in the consumption of oxygen during the chill phase. Both the hemodynamic changes and the tendency to hypothermia persist at least in the first 24 h of the postoperative [31].
Fat embolism and fat embolism syndrome are another serious complication whose incidence is not known, but apparently has increased [32]. Fat embolisms are fat drops that enter the circulatory system, typically after trauma, that may or may not lead to the development of fat embolism syndrome, a rare and ill-defined diagnosis that can cause multiorgan failure and death. Fat embolism syndrome is defined as the entry of fat into the blood circulation with a clinical pattern characterized by hypoxemia, respiratory failure, neurological deterioration, and petechiae that occur in the appropriate clinical context; it is a continuum of fat embolism [33, 34, 35]. A study in 30 Wistar rats showed that there was an increased risk of systemic fat embolism in the animals that underwent liposuction-lipoinjection compared to those who only underwent liposuction (3/10 vs. 6/10, respectively). Fat embolism was not detected in rats that were only anesthetized [36]. There is no specific treatment for fat embolism syndrome, therefore prevention is so important as well as prompt detection, and supportive therapy are critical. Most patients with fat embolism or fat embolism syndrome are undiagnosed or misdiagnosed, so their mortality is very high. Most of these cases are diagnosed at autopsy [34].
The literature is full of varied reports of complicated patients during or after liposuction, and it is enough to mention some of these complications to encourage specialized care and stay within the recommended guidelines. There is a wide spectrum on liposuction complications: pleural and lung injury, bilothorax, bowel herniation, hematoma, seroma, lymphedema, and abdominal wall injury with damage to intra-abdominal viscera such as the liver, biliary tract, intestinal, or bladder perforation necrotizing fasciitis, blindness, and coronary fat embolism [37, 38, 39].
The main risk factors for the development of complications are deficient standards of hygiene, infiltration of multiple liters of wetting solution, prompt postoperative discharge, and selection of unfit patients, lack of surgical anesthesia experience, and early identification of developing complications [40].
Postoperative analgesics are extraordinarily mandatory in the professional management and prevention of acute and chronic pain after liposuction. It is usually started from the beginning of the surgery with an infusion with 300 mg of ketorolac, 300 mg of tramadol in 100 mL/2 mL/h, considered as basal analgesic scheme. It is also valid to resort if necessary to some rescue strategies, in which the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effect of hyperbaric oxygenation therapy can be considered. This therapy is routinely provided to all of our patients in the next 4 to 5 days after their procedure [41, 42].
The use of hyperbaric oxygenation therapy (Figure 9) has also reduced the need for pharmacological thromboprophylaxis, since it has been shown that hyperbaric oxygen by the action of nitric oxide decreases the expression of intracellular adhesion molecules (ICAM-1), a factor that participates in favoring thrombus formation [43]. In addition, another of the already proven actions of hyperbaric oxygen that contribute to diminish the possibility of venous thrombosis formation is its capacity to favor the expression of fibrinolytic factors [44]. In this way in the last 8 years, with an average of 200 liposuctions performed per year, we have only resorted to the use of low-molecular-weight heparin in 2 patients, one of them had a history of deep vein thrombosis 3 years before liposuction, and the other patient was an exceptional case, since for traumatic reasons the patient was paraplegic for 5 years before her surgery.
Partial view of the Hyperbaric Center at Buenrostro Clinic of Plastic Surgery and Hyperbaric Medicine in Tijuana México.
Currently there are many controversies in the selection and better management of patients undergoing liposuction, especially in tumescent liposuction of large volumes. Meticulous selection of each patient is the basis of success, as well as a strategy of prophylaxis of catastrophic events such as thromboembolism, fat embolism, anemia, fluid overload, and infections, among others. Anesthesia is a determining factor and although various anesthesia techniques can be used, we propose general anesthesia as a safe procedure. Hyperbaric oxygenation is an unexploited resource that requires further study in this field.
We thank Dr. Victor Whizar-Lugo for his support in updating this chapter.
None.
The tallgrass prairie once covered 170 million acres in North America, but only about 4% remain [1, 2, 3, 4]. The tall and mixed grass prairie systems have been in decline since European settlement, with human encroachment, population expansion, and overgrazing with insufficient recovery times contributing to the loss of native prairie acres [3, 4, 5]. In addition, the loss of natural disturbances, such as fire and grazing with bison, has decreased native plant presence and diversity in remnant prairie sites [3, 4, 6]. Other threats to this resource include fragmentation, as smaller parcels provide less continuity, and due to more isolated populations, an increase of deleterious genes in a community that reduce fitness [7]. The introduction of non-native species, either purposefully introduced or encroachment from neighboring areas, often dominate the ecosystem [8]. In South Dakota, non-native species are estimated to be present on 82% of its 9.7 million ha of rangeland, and account for at least 25% of the relative canopy cover on 22% of these areas.
Kentucky bluegrass (
Management practices are needed that reduce invasive species competitiveness and enhance growth and productivity of native species [11, 18]. Spring burns remove thatch layers, allowing up to 40% more sunlight to reach the soil surface [17], which increases soil temperatures, provides more direct light to small plants that could be stunted by shading, and removes or sets back growth of cool-season species, thus reducing competition from larger more vigorous plants. Hulbert [19] reported that thatch removal and exposing the soil surface to light resulted in an increase of warm season species vegetative and reproductive productivity regardless of how the thatch was removed (e.g. clipped or burned). Native warm season grass biomass had greater response to burning (98% biomass increase) than to soil warming (8% biomass increase) [16]. Therefore, prescribed burns often are used to influence prairie species composition.
Timing of prescribed burns can be crucial in influencing species outcome. For example, long-term studies (>54 yrs) of annual Flint Hills (Kansas) burns report that late spring burns (May 1) increased later season biomass of warm-season grasses including big bluestem and Indiangrass (
A second method of influencing grassland composition is adding or withholding nutrients, with or without prescribed burns [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Burning changes nutrient cycling [26, 27]. Supplemental N application rates and timings can influence species composition and forage production in range and pastures. For example, ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) applied at 10 or 20 g/m2 was used alone or combined with annual burns [28]. When fire was not used and N was added, forbs increased and exceeded grass production, but had little impact on total overall biomass. In treatments that were burned and received N, C4 grasses dominated and total biomass increased by 68% [28]. However, the N rate needs to be closely monitored, as anthropogenic N deposition, principally through rainfall and attributed to industrialization, urbanization, and increased fertilizer use [29, 30, 31], has doubled the input of available N on the Earth’s surface in the recent past [31]. Adding too much N, as little as 2.5 [30] to 10 [32] kg N ha−1 yr.−1, can reduce native plant species numbers [32] especially those adapted to low soil N [33]. High soil N reservoirs present, especially early in the growing season, may lead to greater non-native plant invasion [34], as these plants tend to acquire and use N more efficiently, thus increasing their biomass and density [35] with a decline of native species growth. Once non-natives establish, a cascade of events may occur that render reversal to the original native community difficult, if not impossible. First, competition for water and other resources further reduces native species density, biomass, and species richness of a site [35]. This is followed by reduction in native species growth, which depletes the native seedbank and, finally, subtle changes of soil biological and chemical properties may occur that hinder repopulation by native plants [36].
Herbicides have also been used, alone and in combination with burns and N application, to control smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass and manipulate native vegetation restoration [37, 38, 39, 40, 41]. Herbicide type, application timing, and rate have been examined in several studies. For example, Bahm et al. [38] used herbicides (imazapic, imazapyr, sulfosulfuron) alone or in combination with spring and fall applications to target smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass. Herbicide treatments were compared to a fall burn or non-treated control. They reported that burn alone did not reduce either grass species, but spring or fall applications of most herbicides reduced smooth brome from 64% cover to 10% cover after 3 years of treatment. Although Kentucky bluegrass was more recalcitrant than smooth brome in several studies [38, 39], native grass cover or species richness increased in treatments. Others have reported greater control of smooth brome with atrazine applied in spring [40] although native grasses were less injured with a fall application of glyphosate [41].
Prescribed burns with modest applications of fertilizer have been shown to sustain and increase native grass species biomass and forage production, improve wildlife habitat, and decrease the need for weed management in more southern, western, and northern U.S. regions [8, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 40, 41]. However, fewer studies have been performed in the Northern Great Plains [38, 39] where soils, plant composition, rainfall, and temperatures widely differ. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of combinations of burn, herbicide application (fall or spring), and N application (spring, summer, or fall) on non-native cool season grass competition and biomass, and native warm season grass biomass.
Two sites were used in this experiment, one in far-eastern South Dakota at Volga (N 44°23′1.53“, W 96°57’29.39”) and a more western site (100 km west and 50 km south of Volga) at Artesian (N 44°5.80′, W 97°54.56′). Both sites have hot summers with temperatures exceeding 32°C, periodic summer droughts, and cold (air temperatures as low as −40°C) snowy winters.
The Artesian site, located in Sanborn County was used for cut hay and pasture. The soil type was predominantly Houdek-Dudley complex (fine-loamy, mixed Typic Argiustolls and fine, mixed Typic Natrustolls) with a 0–9 percent slope [42] and is glacial till loamy claypan with thin uplands and wet meadows. The plots were in upland positions. The dominant species were Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome, with big bluestem, sideoats grama, and little bluestem present in plot area.
The Volga site, in Brookings County, was located on a heavily cool-season grass infested remnant prairie surrounded by pasturelands and was rotationally grazed. The soil mapping unit was a Buse-Poinsett complex (fine-loamy, mixed Typic Calciudolls and fine-silty, Calcic Hapludolls) [42] that has an ecological description as a thin loamy soil. Plots were located at the summit and shoulder-slope positions in an area with a 2–10 percent slope, although shallow marshes and wet meadows were also present at the site. Dominant grass species prior to treatment included smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass. Big bluestem and sideoats grama were present, but not abundant, in the pretreatment survey of vegetative composition.
The experimental design was a randomized split-block (12 by 6 m) split-plot with four replications. The main effect treatments were fire, N, and herbicide application with each main plot split into four subplots (6 by 3 m). Plot areas were selected and established in fall 2009 (Location 1) and fall 2010 (Location 2). Location 1 plots were treated in the fall of 2009 with herbicide or N in the appropriate plots, and then in spring 2010 with the remaining treatments (designated as YR1). Location 1 plots at the Artesian site were subdivided in fall 2010 with half the plot ‘recovering’(RECOVERY) from the 2010 treatment (i.e. no further treatment), and the other half treated (in fall 2010, when appropriate, and spring 2011) for a second year with the same treatment (YR2). Location 2 plots were a repeat in time of the YR1 treatments (Volga and Artesian).
The two main fire treatments were 1) not burned or 2) burn in the spring. The fire main plots were then divided into four subplots with treatments of N: (1) no N applied; or N applied at 25 kg N ha−1 as NH4NO3 (2) in October prior to burn; (3) in April prior to burn, to stimulate cool season grass growth to maximize injury, or (4) in June after the burn to stimulate warm season species growth.
The spring burn was conducted between April 21 to May 9 (2010 and 2011) and depended on vegetative development, dryness, and wind speed for safety. The fires were started with a drip-torch and back burned or using a weed burner. Water was applied around the plot edges, and a fire crew was present on plot perimeters with spray equipment to contain the fire within a plot area. Thatch depths at Volga averaged 22 cm (±6), and 15 cm (± 1) in 2010 and 2011, respectively, just prior to the burn. At Artesian, thatch depths were 4 cm (±2) (2010 YR1), 13 cm (±3) (2011 YR2), and 15 cm (±3) (2011 YR1). Fire temperatures [monitored by placing four slides painted with Tempilaq thermopaints (LA-CO Industries, Elk Grove, IL, USA) at the soil surface per plot] ranged from 79 to 343°C (average = 219°C) at Volga and from 79 to 325°C (average = 198°C) at Artesian.
The nitrogen block was split into four treatments. The treatments were no N, 25 kg N ha−1 as NH4NO3 applied in April or June, and a double treatment, 25 kg N ha−1 applied first in October and then the following April.
The herbicide treatment was glyphosate (applied with ammonium sulfate and nonionic surfactant). The main herbicide treatment plot was divided into subplots based on times of herbicide and N application (base rate of 25 kg N ha−1). The treatments were herbicide October/no N; herbicide May/no N; April N followed by (F/B) herbicide May; herbicide May F/B June N. The October glyphosate rate was 1.5 kg ai ha−1 applied after warm season grass senescence but prior to killing frost. The April/May rate was 0.38 kg ai ha−1 applied after cool season grass emergence, but prior to emergence of warm season grasses.
At both sites, baseline vegetative biomass was collected during the peak of warm-season growth (late August/early September) in 2009 prior to treatment application. Vegetation samples were cut at soil surface in three 0.25 m2 quadrats per main plot. Samples were dried at 32°C until constant weight and separated into functional groups of native grasses, non-native species (mostly grasses), and forbs, and weighed.
After spring treatments, visual cover assessments of warm season grass, cool season grass, and forb were evaluated twice during 2010 and 2011: at the peak of cool season grass growth (mid/late June) and at the peak of warm season grass growth (late August/early September). The percentages of bare-ground and litter were estimated. At the Artesian site, all plots [YR1, Location 1 and 2; YR2 and Recovery (Location 1)] were sampled with vegetation cut from a 0.25 m2 quadrat after both cool and warm season grass peak growth assessments. At the Volga site, species cover at peak cool season grass development was visually assessed. Vegetative sampling occurred in the YR1 Location 1 and 2 plots at peak warm season growth in August of each year. These vegetation samples were dried, separated into functional groups as described above, and weighed.
PROC MIXED and PROC GLM [43] were used to analyze the data by site, location, and sampling date to calculate the difference of least mean square and determine differences among treatments. To determine if treatments over time accelerated warm season grass growth and decreased cool season non-native grass growth, repeated measure ANOVA was used in SAS with a PROC MIXED statement. This analysis helped determine variation among samples, variation among sample timing, and residual variation [44]. The repeated measures design uses the control from each sampled subject and has been called within-subjects ANOVA or randomized-blocks ANOVA [45]. The null hypothesis for this study was
In 2009, prior to the October N treatment, the average temperatures for the growing season were about 2°C below the 30 yr (1971–2001) average, whereas precipitation ranged from 4 to 8 mm above the 30 yr average for June, July, and August [46]. Growing degree days (base 10°C) from 15 April to 15 September were 5% above the 30 yr normal of 1240 GDD in 2010 and 5% below normal for 2011. Precipitation from January through August totaled 483, 940, and 454 mm for 2009, 2010, and 2011, respectively, compared with the 30 yr average of 428 mm.
Temperatures and rainfall for 2009 were near the 30 yr average of 1154 GDD and 439 mm, respectively [46]. The 2010 and 2011 seasons were warmer and wetter than the 30 yr average. GDD for 15 April to 15 September for 2010 and 2011 were about 10% above the 30 yr average each year. January through August precipitation for 2010 and 2011 was much greater than the 30 yr average and totaled 720 (+64%) and 568 (+30%) mm, respectively.
In August 2009 during visual assessment at warm season peak growth, warm and cool season grass canopy covers were similar, each occupying about 50% of the canopy. Biomasses of these functional groups were similar and averaged 145 g m−2 (± 82) for warm season grasses and 179 g m−2 (± 88) for cool season grasses. In April 2010 before spring treatments, baseline visual cover assessments were similar among blocks, with warm season and cool season grass covers estimated at 30 and 65%, respectively. However, warm and cool season grass biomasses were similar and averaged 123 (± 73) and 96 g m−2 (± 62), respectively.
Due to differences in precipitation between 2010 and 2011 (i.e. 2010 had 150% more rainfall than 2011), Location 1 and 2 data were analyzed by year. The cool and warm season grass biomass in late June 2010 (peak cool season biomass) averaged 181 (± 74) and 41 (± 9) g m−2 in control plots (Figure 1A). Fire alone and April N FB fire reduced cool season biomass to about 30 (±6) g m−2, whereas cool season biomass averaged 107 (±12) g m−2 in the October N FB fire and fire FB mid-June N treatments (Figure 1A). A visual example of the plots pre- and post-fire is provided in Figure 2. Glyphosate applied in May alone or FB June N reduced cool season biomass. Warm season biomass was greater than the control in all glyphosate treatments, expect when FB June N application. Nitrogen treatments applied in April or June N averaged 388 (±25) g m−2 of cool season grass biomass, twice as much compared with control plots.
Cool and warm season grass biomass by treatment and year in June [(A) 2010; (C) 2011] and August [(B) 2010; (D) 2011] samplings after a single year of treatment at Artesian, SD.
Example of a fire plot at Artesian, SD, (A) Prefire in April, with cool season invasive grasses present (B) during fire treatment, (C) about two weeks post-fire, (D) native warm season grass growth, August sampling, 2010.
At the peak of warm season grass (August 2010) (Figure 1B), warm season and cool season grass biomass in control plots averaged 173 and 149 g m−2, respectively. Fire alone or in combination with any N treatment increased warm season grass biomass by at least 120% and decreased cool season biomass by about 50%. The April N FB glyphosate had the greatest warm season biomass of any treatment and averaged over 450 g m−2. Other herbicide treatments had warm and cool season grass biomass that was similar to the control. The June N treatment increased both warm and cool season biomass and April N had similar warm season biomass to the control but also increased cool season grass biomass.
In June 2011, the fire treatments reduced cool season grass biomass, except when N was applied the previous October (Figure 1C). Glyphosate treatments, except for April N FB glyphosate, also had a cool season biomass reduction. The N treatments alone, however, stimulated cool season grass growth and did not stimulate growth of warm season species. Unlike 2010 when warm season growth showed an increase at the August sampling with many treatments, most treatments had greater cool season biomass with all N treatments having the greatest amounts (Figure 1D). The yearly differences between the treatments were partly due to the lower rainfall in 2011 and a heavy infestation of the biennial, sweet clover [
After two consecutive years of fire treatment at location 1, when sampled in August (peak of warm season species growth) (Figure 3A), October N F/B spring fire had the least cool season grass biomass, (reduced by 37%) and the greatest warm season biomass. Glyphosate applied in May had the greatest warm season grass biomass of all the treatments. Applying N in April FB May glyphosate resulted in less warm season grass biomass. When N followed glyphosate application, cool season grasses, rather than warm season, appeared to be stimulated. Nitrogen alone resulted in greater cool season grass biomass even in August.
Cool and warm season grass biomass in August sampling after two consecutive years of treatment (A), and in recovery plots (treated in 2010) for June (B) and August (C) of 2011.
In the June sampling, most plots had high amounts of cool season grass and low warm season grass presence (Figure 3B). In the August sampling, warm season grasses in all fire plots, except fire FB June N, had greater warm season and less cool season grasses (Figure 3C). The glyphosate and nitrogen treatments had greater warm season grass biomass than the control, but little reduction in cool season grass biomass.
Baseline data collected in the fall of 2009 (for Location 1 plots) and 2010 (for Location 2 plots) had visual cover estimations for warm season grass species at 35%, cool season grass species 65%, and 5% forbs.
At location 1 (2010 treatments), visual assessments of canopy cover were similar among the control and all treatments at the June sampling date (data not shown). Warm season grass biomass was 50 to 150% greater in fire treatments and had better cool season grass control in 2011 than 2010 (Figure 4A and B). Warm season grass biomass in the glyphosate and N treatments were similar to the control. Cool season grass biomass at the August 2010 sampling was reduced by all fire treatments, but all other treatments in 2010 and all treatments in 2011 had cool season grass biomass that was almost equal to the control.
Cool and warm season grass biomass by treatment sampled in August of 2010 and 2011 after the first year treatment at Volga, SD site.
After two years of treatment, visual cover assessments in all treatments were similar to the control. Biomass differences from the control were seen as an increase in warm-season grass species when October N was followed by the spring fire treatment (+1613%, P < 0.05), although cool season grass biomass did not differ from the control. Recovery plots at Volga did not show any differences from the control for either estimated cover or biomass.
The introduction of cool season non-native aggressive grasses to the Northern Great Plains has reduced the warm season native grass component of the tallgrass prairie. In this study, fire, herbicide, and nitrogen treatments, alone and in combination with different application timings were used to examine the response of both the cool season invasive species and the warm season desired species with one year of treatment, two consecutive years of treatment, and the recovery response of the grasses if only treated one year. At both Artesian and Volga, the dominant native species was big bluestem, with lesser amounts of sideoats grama, and blue grama. These species have been reported to benefit from late spring burns [21] and our study agrees with those findings.
Prescribed burns removed the litter layer, allowed soil warming, and increased light reaching the soil surface, with concomitant increases in plant growth, all reported to increase warm season species growth [16]. In three out of the four first year plots, spring burns with or without N increased warm season species biomass as observed in August of the treatment year. The exception was Artesian 2011 first year plots, when sweet clover dominated all plots at both the June and August samplings. April N FB glyphosate increased warm season grass biomass in August 2010 but this response was not as pronounced in 2011. Warm season grasses at the both sites benefited from the two consecutive years of fire, but in Artesian, October N FB fire or fire FB June N was best, whereas at Volga, fire with no N was the best treatment. However, because litter depth is typically less after the first year of fire, lethal heat (>60°C) [47] at the soil surface tends to be longer if fire return times are biennial rather than annual [48]. Glyphosate applied for two consecutive years also aided in warm season grass growth. However, N alone would not be recommended, as cool season grasses dominated in all these plot areas. Recovery plots treated only with fire had increased warm season species biomass compared with control areas at both sites. Nitrogen application either before or after the fire treatment did not benefit warm season grass growth.
Vinton and Goergen [49] reported that smooth brome has a competitive advantage over native tallgrass species due to increased efficiency to cycle N. This characteristic may increase the persistence of smooth brome due to N deposition due to anthropogenic factors. Throughout this experiment, the application of N alone at any timing increased cool season grass biomass.
We were hopeful that cool season species would be more prone to fire or herbicide injury following either October or April N application. Increased injury to the cool season species (as observed by decreases in cool season biomass) only was observed in a few select treatments. In addition, the N added after fire or herbicide was, in theory, supposed to invigorate the warm season grass growth, as cool season grass growth should have been slowed, leaving the N for the late emerging species. However, adding N in June had limited success in increasing warm season grass growth, as observed at the Volga site in both years.
Warm season grass growth had the most consistent positive response to fire, which also helped reduce the cool season non-native grass species. The application of fire, however, is not without risk, needs to be carefully utilized, and only applied when weather conditions are optimal and with trained personnel. There may be other considerations when using prescribed burns [50] and local fire officials, neighbors, and state agencies may need to be consulted and notified the day of the burn [51]. Nevertheless, prescribed burns may provide land managers and producers a simple and inexpensive way to reinvigorate the tallgrass prairie in eastern South Dakota. Location, soil type, species present, land use history, timing, temperature, and duration of fire [21, 22, 23, 48, 52], and the presence and number of active buds on the perennial grass tillers [24, 53, 54] are components that influence the restoration of areas to warm season native grasses, or maintain the continued presence of the cool season invasive species. Two years of consecutive treatment was more effective for warm season grass restoration than a single year, as seen by the rapid return of cool season grasses in the recovery plots. In addition, at times, a setup fall treatment of nitrogen or non-selective herbicide applied prior to the spring treatment may benefit warm season grass response, although these management options need further study.
Partial funding provided by SDSU Ag Experiment Station, NCR-SARE – 2010 Graduate Student Award, and USDA/CSREES Grassland grant #2008-38415-19596. Project field work was conducted by former master degree graduate student Ms. Shauna Waughtel-Johnson. Thanks to Dr. Michelle Ohrtman for help with data analysis.
IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
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\\n\\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
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\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
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\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
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\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
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\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
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\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
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\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
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\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
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\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
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It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]},{id:"74032",title:"Wavelets for EEG Analysis",slug:"wavelets-for-eeg-analysis",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter introduces the applications of wavelet for Electroencephalogram (EEG) signal analysis. First, the overview of EEG signal is discussed to the recording of raw EEG and widely used frequency bands in EEG studies. The chapter then progresses to discuss the common artefacts that contaminate EEG signal while recording. With a short overview of wavelet analysis techniques, namely; Continues Wavelet Transform (CWT), Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), and Wavelet Packet Decomposition (WPD), the chapter demonstrates the richness of CWT over conventional time-frequency analysis technique e.g. Short-Time Fourier Transform. Lastly, artefact removal algorithms based on Independent Component Analysis (ICA) and wavelet are discussed and a comparative analysis is demonstrated. The techniques covered in this chapter show that wavelet analysis is well-suited for EEG signals for describing time-localised event. Due to similar nature, wavelet analysis is also suitable for other biomedical signals such as Electrocardiogram and Electromyogram.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Nikesh Bajaj",authors:[{id:"326400",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikesh",middleName:null,surname:"Bajaj",slug:"nikesh-bajaj",fullName:"Nikesh Bajaj"}]},{id:"70067",title:"Analytic Prognostic in the Linear Damage Case Applied to Buried Petrochemical Pipelines and the Complex Probability Paradigm",slug:"analytic-prognostic-in-the-linear-damage-case-applied-to-buried-petrochemical-pipelines-and-the-comp",totalDownloads:2681,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In 1933, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov established the system of five axioms that define the concept of mathematical probability. This system can be developed to include the set of imaginary numbers by adding a supplementary three original axioms. Therefore, any experiment can be performed in the set \n\nC\n\n of complex probabilities which is the summation of the set \n\nR\n\n of real probabilities and the set \n\nM\n\n of imaginary probabilities. The purpose here is to include additional imaginary dimensions to the experiment taking place in the “real” laboratory in \n\nR\n\n and hence to evaluate all the probabilities. Consequently, the probability in the entire set \n\nC\n=\nR\n+\nM\n\n is permanently equal to one no matter what the stochastic distribution of the input random variable in \n\nR\n\n is; therefore the outcome of the probabilistic experiment in \n\nC\n\n can be determined perfectly. This is due to the fact that the probability in \n\nC\n\n is calculated after subtracting from the degree of our knowledge the chaotic factor of the random experiment. Consequently, the purpose in this chapter is to join my complex probability paradigm to the analytic prognostic of buried petrochemical pipelines in the case of linear damage accumulation. Accordingly, after the calculation of the novel prognostic model parameters, we will be able to evaluate the degree of knowledge, the magnitude of the chaotic factor, the complex probability, the probabilities of the system failure and survival, and the probability of the remaining useful lifetime; after that a pressure time t has been applied to the pipeline, which are all functions of the system degradation subject to random and stochastic influences.",book:{id:"7751",slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis"},signatures:"Abdo Abou Jaoude",authors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"163",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81892",title:"Perspective Chapter: Lattice Solitons in a Nonlocal Nonlinear Medium with Self-Focusing and Self-Defocusing Quintic Nonlinearity",slug:"perspective-chapter-lattice-solitons-in-a-nonlocal-nonlinear-medium-with-self-focusing-and-self-defo",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104824",abstract:"The fundamental lattice solitons are explored in a nonlocal nonlinear medium with self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity. The band-gap boundaries, soliton profiles, and stability domains of fundamental solitons are investigated comprehensively by the linear stability spectra and nonlinear evolution of the solitons. It is demonstrated that fundamental lattice solitons can stay stable for a wide range of parameters with the weak self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity, while strong self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearities are shortened the propagation distance of evolved solitons. Furthermore, it is observed that when the instability emerges from strong quintic nonlinearity, increasing anisotropy of the medium and modification of lattice depth can be considered as a collapse arrest mechanism.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mahmut Bağcı, Theodoros P. Horikis, İlkay Bakırtaş and Nalan Antar"},{id:"80350",title:"A Comparison of the Undetermined Coefficient Method and the Adomian Decomposition Method for the Solutions of the Sasa-Satsuma Equation",slug:"a-comparison-of-the-undetermined-coefficient-method-and-the-adomian-decomposition-method-for-the-sol",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101817",abstract:"This chapter will talk about the mathematical as well as numerical aspects of the Sasa-Satsuma equation that is the extended nontrivial version of nonlinear Schrödinger’s equation. The exact solution will be found out by the undetermined coefficient method. After that, the Adomian decomposition method is secure numerical simulations of computed analytical solutions. The error plots are given to see the accuracy of the results.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mir Asma"},{id:"79127",title:"Soliton Like-Breather Induced by Modulational Instability in a Generalized Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",slug:"soliton-like-breather-induced-by-modulational-instability-in-a-generalized-nonlinear-schr-dinger-equ",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100522",abstract:"We consider the nonlinear Schrödinger equation modified by a rational nonlinear term. The model appears in various studies often in the context of the Ginzburg-Landau equation. We investigate modulational instability by means of a linear stability analysis and show how the nonlinear terms affect the growth rate. This analytical result is confirmed by a numerical simulation. The latter analysis shows that breather-like solitons are generated from the instability, and the effects of the nonlinear terms are again clearly seen. Moreover, by employing an auxiliary-equation method we obtain kink and anti-kink soliton as analytical solutions. Our theoretical solution is in good agreement with our numerical investigation.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Saïdou Abdoulkary and Alidou Mohamadou"},{id:"79040",title:"Traveling Wave Solutions and Chaotic Motions for a Perturbed Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation with Power-Law Nonlinearity and Higher-Order Dispersions",slug:"traveling-wave-solutions-and-chaotic-motions-for-a-perturbed-nonlinear-schr-dinger-equation-with-pow",totalDownloads:92,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100396",abstract:"This chapter aims to study and solve the perturbed nonlinear Schrödinger (NLS) equation with the power-law nonlinearity in a nano-optical fiber, based upon different methods such as the auxiliary equation method, the Stuart and DiPrima’s stability analysis method, and the bifurcation theory. The existence of the traveling wave solutions is discussed, and their stability properties are investigated through the modulational stability gain spectra. Moreover, the development of the chaotic motions for the systems is pointed out via the bifurcation theory. Taking into account an external periodic perturbation, we have analyzed the chaotic behavior of traveling waves through quasiperiodic route to chaos.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mati Youssoufa, Ousmanou Dafounansou, Camus Gaston Latchio Tiofack and Alidou Mohamadou"},{id:"78957",title:"Resonant Optical Solitons in (3 + 1)-Dimensions Dominated by Kerr Law and Parabolic Law Nonlinearities",slug:"resonant-optical-solitons-in-3-1-dimensions-dominated-by-kerr-law-and-parabolic-law-nonlinearities",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100469",abstract:"This study investigates the optical solitons of of (3+1)-dimensional resonant nonlinear Schrödinger (3D-RNLS) equation with the two laws of nonlinearity. The two forms of nonlinearity are represented by Kerr law and parabolic law. Based on complex transformation, the traveling wave reduction of the governing model is derived. The projective Riccati equations technique is applied to obtain the exact solutions of 3D-RNLS equation. Various types of waves that represent different structures of optical solitons are extracted. These structures include bright, dark, singular, dark-singular and combined singular solitons. Additionally, the obliquity effect on resonant solitons is illustrated graphically and is found to cause dramatic variations in soliton behaviors.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Khalil S. Al-Ghafri"},{id:"78793",title:"Nonlinear Generalized Schrödinger’s Equations by Lifting Hamilton-Jacobi’s Formulation of Classical Mechanics",slug:"nonlinear-generalized-schr-dinger-s-equations-by-lifting-hamilton-jacobi-s-formulation-of-classical-",totalDownloads:97,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100068",abstract:"It is well known that, by taking a limit of Schrödinger’s equation, we may recover Hamilton-Jacobi’s equation which governs one of the possible formulations of classical mechanics. Conversely, we may start from the Hamilton-Jacobi’s equation and, by using a lifting principle, we may reach a set of nonlinear generalized Schrödinger’s equations. The classical Schrödinger’s equation then occurs as the simplest equation among the set.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Gérard Gouesbet"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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