Fibronectin, IGF-1, and PgE2 content in aqueous humour of patients with the senile and complicated cataracts
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He has more than 96 SCI publications, he acted as an academic editor, reviewer, and he holds several registered patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Researcher in enteric health, most notably probiotics and their relationship to nutrition and disease protection in poultry as well as the design of avian enteric inflammation models for the study of the impact of diet and microbiome on growth and development.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"My research focuses mainly on apicomplexan parasites, such as Toxoplasma Cryptosporidium, Eimeria, and minor on nematodes. Prof.Alali has more than 30 publications and he acts as a reviewer in many journals.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"209746",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"El-Ashram",slug:"saeed-el-ashram",fullName:"Saeed El-Ashram",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/209746/images/system/209746.png",biography:"Dr. Saeed El-Ashram is a professor at Foshan University, China, and Kafrelsheikh University, Egypt, and a research professor at Zhaoqing Dahuanong Biology Medicine Co., Ltd., China. Dr. El-Ashram\\'s research focuses on parasitic diseases. He has more than 100 journal publications to his credit. He is currently an academic editor and reviewer and holds several registered patents. The primary focus of his research is to understand how the animal immune system recognizes and responds to parasitic infections with and/or without a microbial community. Some are the causative agents of significant diseases in humans, such as toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis, alveolar echinococcosis, and fascioliasis. Others are a substantial financial burden to food producers because of the effects these parasites have on domestic animals, for example, coccidiosis and cryptosporidiosis (livestock and poultry).",institutionString:"Foshan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Foshan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73465/images/system/73465.jpg",biography:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias received his DVM and MS in Veterinary Sciences from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), and his Ph.D. from Texas A&M University. 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His research is focused on poultry gastrointestinal models to evaluate the beneficial effects of functional foods to enhance intestinal health and disease resistance.",institutionString:"University of Arkansas at Fayetteville",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Arkansas at Fayetteville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"437285",title:"Dr.",name:"Firas",middleName:null,surname:"Alali",slug:"firas-alali",fullName:"Firas Alali",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/437285/images/17927_n.jpg",biography:"Academic reviewer for many journals.\r\nAssociate Professor at University of Kerbala, Iraq. Firas Alali works at the Department of Veterinary Parasitology of Veterinary Medicine college, Kerbala University. 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Sufficient to mention that in developed countries the frequency of vision loss due to glaucoma is steadily at the level of 15-20% of the total number of all blind subjects [Nesterov A.P., 2008].
It is considered long-established that among various clinical-and-anatomical manifestations of the glaucomatous process the anterior open-angle glaucoma is the most frequently diagnosed form.
The severity of course of anterior open-angle glaucoma and especially the unfavourable outcomes of the disease are mainly connected with those unsolvable problems faced by ophthalmologists at the study of pathogenesis of primary and secondary glaucomas. Precisely this circumstance is the “insurmountable” obstacle in pathogenetic therapy, thus limiting the entire complex of medical interventions within the early symptomatic therapy with underlying local application of hypotensive means aimed to decrease intraocular pressure.
To a known extent, the interpretation of aspects of pathogenesis in case of anterior open-angle glaucoma is connected to the fact that this type of glaucoma is rather frequently associated with the cataract and pseudoexfoliative syndrome.
At present the etiopathogenetic links engaged in induction and the course of anterior open-angle glaucoma are conditionally divided into general and local ones.
Heredity, general type changes in specific integrative systems of the organism (CNS, endocrine, immune and cardiovascular) are among the general factors bringing forth disorders of the hematoophthalmic barrier and the increase of intraocular pressure.
Amongst the local factors relatively persistent elevation of intraocular pressure, primary dystrophic and atrophic changes, including age-related shifts in the cornea, ciliary body and the trabecular meshwork, which cause the infringement of hydrodynamic and hydrostatic properties of the aqueous humour, are considered.
As mentioned by A.P. Nesterov (2008) chronologically occurring processes, which might be conditionally subdivided into 2 stages, are engaged in the pathogenesis of glaucomas in anterior and posterior chambers of an eye. At the first stage mechanisms bringing forth the increase of intraocular pressure are triggered in the anterior chamber of an eye. At the second stage mechanisms localized in the posterior part of the eye chamber are initiated and in the long run become the cause of atrophy of the visual nerve. At that, the “glaucomatous process” firstly originates in the anterior chamber of an eye, while the dystrophic and atrophic processes in the visual nerve are resulting from the exposure to high intraocular pressure.
During the last years, rather informative evidences were obtained to discuss the role of biologically active substances produced
We did not set the problem to analyze the current state of the art on the role of general pathogenetic factors engaged in induction and the course of anterior open-angle glaucoma.
The currently available data of scientific publications and results of our own investigations devoted to the role of
Nowadays the role of TGFβ produced in post-barrier membranes of an eye is considered to be of no less importance for realization of processes ensuring the drainage function of the eye anterior chamber-associated immune deviation (ACAID)
To our mind, during the last years rather informative data signifying in favour of pleotropic potencies of TGFβ-2 produced in post-barrier membranes of the eye.
In particular, in a post-surgery period in patients operated for complicated and senile cataracts
TGFβ-2 high level was also revealed in cells of the trabecular meshwork of patients with open-angle glaucoma [
Literature data is available [
Processes reflecting the specific precise stages of TGFβ-2 and IGF-1 activity in post-barrier membranes of the eye are the subject of a wide discussion. Furthermore, the study on mechanisms of their direct and/or mediated interaction in processes ensuring the drainage function of an eye is mainly emphasized.
In the organism of mammals, the post-barrier membranes of an eye also serve as a source of both cytocines. IGF-1 and its receptors, IGF-IR, were found in epitheliocytes of lens and cornea, epitheliocytes of retina meshwork, Muller\'s cells [
According to C. Stefan et al. (2008), cells of the trabecular meshwork of the anterior angle of the eye chamber might serve as the source of TGFβ-2 synthesis.
S.H. Chung and associates used human lens epithelial cells (HLE B-3) to reveal the role of IGF-1 in processes of TGFβ-2 mediated fibronectin accumulation in lens cells [
J.A. Ko et al. (2009) studied the role of IGF-1 in intrercellular regulation in cultured fibroblasts and human corneal epitheliocytes. According to authors, the presence of epitheliocytes in the culture medium enhanced N-cadherin expression in fibroblasts. Similar effect of corneal epitheliocytes was also simulated by IGF-1, but not fibroblasts growth factor or epidermal growth factor. The authors conclude that IGF-1 produced in epitheliocytes regulates N-cadherin positive expression in corneal fibroblasts.
There is an opinion that IGF-1 and IGF-2 regulate the processes of proliferation and apoptosis in corneal epitheliocytes [
The analysis of above mentioned scientific publications signifies to the important role of
As known, prostaglandins play an important role in integrative activity of the mammalian organism, in particular, in regulation of immunogenesis, hemostasis, non-specific resistance at the organism level [
However, until present the probability of prostaglandins synthesis in post-barrier membranes of an eye seems still disputable.
There are only sporadic communications related to the mentioned aspect; an attempt was made to reveal Е1, Е2 and F2α prostaglandins in post-barrier membranes of an eye and in the aqueous humour.
It is considered established that prostaglandins increase intraocular pressure and infringe the function of hematoophthalmic barrier [
According to C.B. Toris and associates, numerous prostaglandin-dependent effects in post-barrier membranes of an eye are realized according to the receptor mechanism associated at the level of mRNAs [
Prostaglandin-dependent receptors in post-barrier eye membranes were revealed not only in humans, but also in rats, mice, rabbits, pigs and monkeys. Considering the vasoactive properties of prostaglandins, as well as their role in sustaining the drainage function of an eye, the sysnthetic analogs of prostaglandins are widely applied in ophthalmological practice for treatment of glaucoma [
Therefore, it is no excluded that Е2 prostaglandins might participate in maintenance of the drainage function and, appropriately, the intraocular pressure as well; similar mechanisms of prostaglandins functioning in post-barrier membranes of the eye are realized exceptionally according to the receptor mechanism.
Taking into account the abovementioned, an assumption might be proposed according to which
Fibronectins are a group of cold-insoluble glycoproteids with the molecular mass 400.000–450.000 D localized both on the surface of connective tissue cells and in the extracellular matrix. The following functionally active domains were revealed in fibronectin structure: NH2 terminal domain includes sites of fibrin binding; then collagen and heparin binding domains and domain ensuring cells adhesion are localized; at COOOH-cone there is one more heparin binding domain [
Currently the sources of fibronectin synthesis in the post-barrier membranes of an eye are disputable as well. According to H.B. Hindman et al. (2010), corneal keratocytes might be considered as probable sources of fibronectin synthesis. This fact was revealed under cultivation of keratocytes localized in the anterior and posterior parts of cornea. Furthermore, in the process of cultivating corneal cells of fibroblastic line the authors established TGFβ-1-dependent activation of keratocytes, in which a marked activation of fibronectin synthesis occurred. Simultaneously, Thy-1 secretion increases in the same keratocytes. According to D. Karamichos et al. (2010),
C. Stefan et al. (2008) use the immune enzyme assay to determine TGFβ-2 and fibronectin concentration in aqueous humour of patients with anterior open-angle glaucoma. The authors revealed a significant increase of TGFβ-2 concentration in this cohort of patients and draw a conclusion that TGFβ-2 produced in post-barrier membranes of the eye should be considered as a “special” cytokine that increases fibronectin concentration in the trabecular meshwork; moreover, it might be considered as a local pro-fibrotic factor.
Sporadic, though rather informative, evidences are available according to which the trabecular meshwork localized in the angle of an anterior chamber of the eye serves as the possible source of fibronectin synthesis. In particular, R.J. Wordinger et al. (2007) studied the probable mechanisms of synthesis of the biologically active substances by trabecular meshwork cells. As known, the cells of trabecular meshwork synthesize and excrete “bone morphogenic protein” – BMP-4. The authors, under conditions of trabecular cells cultivation studied the synthetic potencies thereof at addition of BMP-4 and TGFβ-2 to the culture media. The study results demonstrated that TGFβ-2 treated cells of the trabecular meshwork launched an intense synthesisn of fibronectin, while BMP-4, if additionally introduced to TGFβ-2 containing media, blocked this induction of fibronectin.
Mentioned authors studied the expression of BMP-4 family gens in normal and glaucomatous cells of the trabecular meshwork. Under the influence of these receptors the levels of TGFβ-2 and BMP anatagonist, protein gremlin, significantly increased. The authors succeeded to establish that gremlin blocked the negative impact of BMP-4 towards TGFβ-2 induction of fibronectin.
Another result obtained by the same authors is of no less importance: gremlin introduced in the medium
The analysis of rather informative data obtained by mentioned authors allows to draw a conclusion, according to which the trabecular meshwork of an angle of anterior chamber of the eyes should not considered as an object that passively ensures the drainage function thus sustaining optimally stable levels of the intraocular pressure.
To our mind, the drainage function of trabecular meshwork is an active process and the leading role here belongs to “secretory” cells of the meshwork predominantly functioning according to the autocrine mechanism. At dysfunctions of trabecular meshwork cells, especially in case of open-angle glaucoma, the synchronous activity of these cells is infringed; this latter might enhance their specific medatory function – in view of the increased synthesis of fibronectin. Precisely, fibronectin depositions and the subsequent intensification of fibroblastic processes
According to D. Fleenor et al. (2006), TGFβ-2 treatment of segments of trabecular meshwork cells of the angle of anterior chamber of the eye resulted in modulation of multiple gens regulating the structure of extracellular matrix. In the trabecular meshwork cells TGFβ-2 brings forth an increased secretion of fibronectin. TGFβ-2 action to cells of the trabecular meshwork was blocked by inhibitors of receptor type 1 TGFβ. In perfusion anterior segments of human eyes TGFβ-2 treatment increased the intraocular pressure and elution of fibronectin. In our opinion the authors come to the rather reasonable conclusion: TGFβ-2 influence on intraocular pressure might be “leveled” by TGFβ-2 -mediated receptors type 1 through prevention of TGFβ-2 stimulating effect to cells of the extracellular matrix.
According to mentioned authors, understanding these inter-mediatory and receptor interactions, which occur at the site of trabecular meshwork of an angle of anterior chamber of the eye, would then allow to develop new efficient approaches for treatment of glaucoma.
There is an opinion [
Fibronectin concentration in aqueous (intraocular) humour of patients with cataracts and glaucomas, according to K.S. Kim et al. (1992), widely varies from 5
The aspects related to fibronectin sources in post-barrier membranes of the eye are also discussed. An assumption was made that at primary glaucomas relatively high concentrations of fibronectin accumulate in the anterior chamber of an eye, as it cannot escape the drainage pathways. There are quite opposite data, according to which in patients with the open-angle glaucoma fibrinogen concentration in the aqueous humor significantly did not differ from that of aqueous humor of patients with cataracts [
Study results obtained by the abovementioned authors allow to draw a conclusion that induction of MMP-3 in the trabecular meshwork of glaucomatous eyes might decrease fibronectin formation in aqueous humor excretion pathways, thus decreasing the resistance of liquid outflow into the anterior chamber of an eye.
The analysis of publications relevant to the role of
At present, aspects related to studies on “endocrine homeostasis” in post-barrier membrane of an eye at both norm and pathology are the subject of a wide discussion in ophthalmology. The available publications are not numerous; furthermore, they are of a rather statement-of-the-fact character [
The autopsy material (vitreous body and blood serum of healthy subjects with fatal injury) was subject to immune enzyme assay for determination of progesterone, estradiol, thyroxine, triiodothyronine, thyrotropic hormone, luteinizing hormone, follitropin, cortisol and prolactin [
The results obtained by mentioned authors testify in favour of the local synthesis of certain hormones in eye membranes and tissues.
It should be specially noted that regional neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying the induction of primary open-angle glaucoma have not been sufficiently studied yet. In this aspect the role of
As known, in peripheral “epithelial” tissues sodium and water transport are regulated by corticosteroids, 11-β-hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase (11-β-HSD), its isoform (11-β-HSD1), due to which there occurs formation of cortisol molecule from cortisone. Considering this latter, some researchers [
There is an opinion, according to which merely 11-β-HSD1 ensures receptor Nf-dependent mechanisms through the ciliated epithelium, thus regulating the level of intraocular pressure [
Molecular mechanisms underlying the biological action of glucocorticosteroids in eye membranes were also studied. Specifically, in the experiment, under conditions of cornea transplantation the influence of glucocorticosteroids (SEGRA) was studied to the labeled synthesis of anti- and pro-inflammatory cytokines. The application of glucocorticosteroids brought forth more efficient engraftment. Moreover, the terms of engraftment correlated with the low expression of cytokines, especially IL-I [
A. Southren et al. (1979) performed experiments in rabbits and revealed endoplasmatic reception of glucocorticoids in corneal cells and the ciliary body. Translocation of cortisol from the surface of the cell nucleus occurred within 30 minutes after injection. As to authors, this mechanism is a stereotype for glucocorticoids towards other sensitive tissues.
It is important to note the following phenomenon as well. Similar translocation was not observed when experimental animals were administered testosterone, estradiol and progesterone. At the same time, different membranes and liquid media of the eye possess different ability of affinity to glucocorticoids and their realization (accumulation and excretion).
In 1977, B. Kasavina et al. (1977) studied cortisol distribution in sclera, ciliary body, cornea, iris, lens capsule, vitreous body and the aqueous humour. Radionuclide methods of investigation allowed to reveal that tissues and media of the eye have different intensity of cortisol absorption and excretion. According to authors, the sclera, ciliary body, and lens capsule served as target tissues for cortisol.
It is rather difficult to interpret issues relevant to pathogenesis of primary open-angle glaucoma, as this type malady is frequently associated with cataract and pseudoexfoliative syndrome.
In particular, according to D.S. Krol (1968; 1970), among the randomly selected contingent the pseudoexfoliative syndrome was observed in 6.2% subjects above 50, in 24% patients with senile cataract and in 47% patients with open-angle glaucoma. P.P. Frolova and G.Kh. Khamitova (1984) provided similar data, according to which pseudoexfoliative syndrome was diagnosed in 5.8% examined persons above 40. Furthermore, the higher the age, the more frequent was pseudoexfoliative syndrome encountered: at the age of 40-48 years old in 1% patients, at 50-59 – in 6.4%, at 60-69 – in 12.5%, above 70 – in 36.8%. It is especially important that among persons with pseudoexfoliative syndrome glaucoma was diagnosed in 35% cases, while cataracts made 69%.
According to clinical observations of A.P. Nesterov (2008) in persons with the pseudoexfoliative syndrome glaucoma originates 20 time more often than in the general population of the same age group. According to the author, approximately in 50% patients with open-angle glaucoma symptoms of pseudoexfoliative syndrome are revealed. The type of glaucoma associated with the pseudoexfoliative syndrome is called “pseudoexfoliative glaucoma”.
Nowadays, amongst the mechanisms of cataract induction and course, an importance is attributed to local immunepathological disorders, which all in all are defined as “anterior chamber associated immune deviation (ACAID) [
In pathogenesis of the primary open-angle glaucoma the specific gravity of regional immunepathological disorders, which are pathognomonic for cataracts, are open for a special discussion, because data of available scientific publications are scarce, fragmentary, sometimes contradictory and inconsistent.
At the same time, to our mind, it is rather expedient to perform studies at which in case of complicated cataracts associated with glaucoma and pseudoexfoliative syndrome the subject matter would be the entire specter of biologically active substances produced in eye membranes, which were earlier considered by us as pathogenetic factors of open-angle glaucoma. Such scientific and methodical approach is rather substantiated, as it will allow to answer the question: to what extent the processes of impaired synthesis of fibronectin, IGF-1, PgE2 and cortisol in eye membranes are engaged in mechanisms of primary open-angle glaucoma, namely: in pathogenesis of impaired drainage function and increase of intraocular pressure.
Under our observation there were 960 patients with the senile and complicated cataracts operated at “Shengavit” Medical Center within a period of 2008-2012. The degree of lens opacity was assessed according to Emery colorimetric classification and generally accepted classification of cataracts proposed by Buratto. Undoubtedly, the state of lens capsule, folding, presence of elements of fibrous filaments, pseudoexfoliative deposits on the anterior surface of the capsule, lens subluxation to some degree, were taken into consideration together with classification of phakodonesis suggested by Pashtaev. Actual expressiveness of the pseudoexfoliative syndrome was considered based on the classification proposed by Yeroshevskaya.
All operated patents were divided into three groups.
The studied groups of patients involved civil contingent: residents of Yerevan and different provinces (marzes) of Armenia; age range was from 40 to 82 years.
The first group included patients with senile cataract. The second group was made up of patients with the complicated cataract on the background of existing anterior open-angle glaucoma, with initial and developed stages of the glaucomatous process. The third group involved patients with complicated cataract on the background of existing pseudoexfoliative glaucoma and pseudoexfoliative syndrome.
The analyses were performed using the main clinical laboratory methods accepted in ophthalmology.
Irrespective of the cataract degree and stage, all patients underwent microaxial Phacoemulsification ‒ Microincision Cataract Surgery (MICS) through 2.2
The methodical procedure of extracting aqueous humour was used intra-operatively under conditions of sterility. The corneocentis was done by insulin syringe through the limb; 0.1-0.2
All the operated patients were under intense observation and got the appropriate post-operative treatment and medical rehabilitation. We observed the patients in the early post-operative period.
Unfortunately, rather low amounts of isolated aqueous humour (0.1-0.2
The content of fibronectin, IGF-1, PgE2 and cortisol in aqueous humour was determined with the use of appropriate kits (DRG-International Inc., USA). The immune enzyme assay was performed on the automatic spectrophotometer “Stat-Fax 3200” (USA) in the absorbance wavelength range 420-450
Determination of potassium, sodium and calcium ions was done according to ion-selective method of analysis with use of Kone-microlyte analyzer (Finland).
The obtained results were exposed to statistical analysis using Student’s criteria and application of SPSS-13 programme (one Sample T-Test and Paired Sample T-Test).
The results of immune enzyme assay for fibronectin, IGF-1, and PgE2 in aqueous humour of patients with the senile and complicated cataracts are presented in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
I | \n\t\t\t11.26±0.99 | \n\t\t\t1.10±0.18 | \n\t\t\t43.05±4.13 | \n\t\t
II | \n\t\t\t20.71±2.37 p1<0.0005 | \n\t\t\t2.50±0.46 0.0005<p1<0.005 | \n\t\t\t66.11±7.40 0.0005<p1<0.005 | \n\t\t
III | \n\t\t\t33.83±5.97 p1<0.0005 0.025<p2<0.05 | \n\t\t\t2.60±0.39 0.0005<p1<0.005 p2"/>0.4 | \n\t76.64±7.78 p1<0.0005 0.10<p2<0.25 | \n
Fibronectin, IGF-1, and PgE2 content in aqueous humour of patients with the senile and complicated cataracts
Notes: p1 –indices of groups II and III compared to indices of the study group I; p2 – indices of group II compared to indices of the study group III.
As obvious from the Table, in patients with cataracts on the background of primary open-0angle glaucoma (study group II) the level of fibronectin in aqueous humour 1.8 times exceeded analogous level in aqueous humour of patients with senile cataracts. In those cases when cataract was observed on the background of pseudoexfoliative glaucoma (study group III) the highest indices of fibronectin were determined in the aqueous humour; these indices were 3.0 and 1.6 times higher compared to those in patients of groups I and II, appropriately.
A similar regularity was traced upon revealing shifts in PgE2 and IGF-1 content in aqueous humour of patients in study groups I and II. Thus, the level of PgE2 in aqueous humour of the study group II patients 1.5 times exceeded PgE2 level in aqueous humour of the study group I patients. In study group III PgE2 high levels were also determined (compared to the study group I), being similar to those revealed in aqueous humour of the study group II patients. As obvious from the Table, in the aqueous humour of patients in study groups II and III we recorded approximately the same IGF-1 indices, which exceeded similar values in aqueous humour of study group I patients 2.27 and 2.36 times, correspondingly.
Table 2 presents the results of immune enzyme assay for determination of cortisol in the aqueous humour of patients with senile and complicated cataracts.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t|
I | \n\t\t12.90±0.64 | \n\t\t56.90±4.15 | \n\t
II | \n\t\t23.38±1.46 р<0.0005 | \n\t\t64.84±7.28 0.1<р<0.25 | \n\t
III | \n\t\t30.4±1.56 р<0.0005 | \n\t\t50.70±6.91 0.1<р<0.25 | \n\t
Cortisol content in blood serum and aqueous humour of patients with the senile and complicated cataracts
Note: p – indices of complicated cataracts as related to indices of senile cataracts.
As obvious from Table 2, in patients of study group II the level of cortisol in aqueous humour markedly increased (as compared to hormone levels determined in aqueous humour of patients with the senile cataract – control group). Thus, the level of cortisol in aqueous humour of patients with cataract on the background of primary open-angle glaucoma was 1.8 times higher compared to norm. The highest indices of cortisol were observed in aqueous humour of patients of the study group III. In particular, cortisol levels in aqueous humour of patients with the senile cataract on the background of primary open-angle glaucoma and pseudoexfoliative glaucoma increased 2.3 times. The results of immune enzyme assays performed on aqueous humour were compared with cortisol levels in blood serum of the same cohort of patients. As demonstrated by the research findings, the level of cortisol in blood serum of patients of all the 3 study groups was almost similar and within the range of cortisol determined in actually healthy subjects. This latter, though indirectly, signifies in favour of the local synthesis of cortisol in the eye membranes, the cells of which apart from their main functions ensure processes of
The next stage of our investigation involved biochemical analysis with the use of ion-selective method aimed to determine ions of sodium, potassium and calcium in the aqueous humour of patients with senile and complicated cataracts.
Table 3 presents results of analyses performed on the aqueous humour of patients with senile and complicated cataracts.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
I | \n\t\t5.00±0.21 | \n\t\t133.3±14.4 | \n\t\t0.99±0.06 | \n\t
II | \n\t\t2.30±0.26 р<0.0005 | \n\t\t177.6±17.2 0.025<р<0.05 | \n\t\t1.99±0.18 р<0.0005 | \n\t
III | \n\t\t1.92 ±0.28 р<0.0005 | \n\t\t196.7±18.2 0.005<р<0.01 | \n\t\t2.40±0.26 р<0.0005 | \n\t
K+, Na+ and Ca++ content in aqueous humour of patients with senile and complicated cataracts
Note: p – indices of complicated cataracts as related to indices of senile cataracts
As obvious from Table 3, the levels of K+, Na+ and Ca++ in aqueous humour of patients with senile cataracts were similar to those in actually healthy cohort of subjects (we compared indices of ions in aqueous humour of patients with senile cataracts with the indices indicated in monograph of A. Pirie and R. van Heyningen (1968)). In aqueous humour of patients with cataract on the background of primary open-angle glaucoma low level of potassium ions was determined, it was 2.2 times lower than the level in aqueous humour of patients from the study group I. The lowest indices of potassium ions were recorded in the study group III, i.e., at cataracts on the background of pseudoexfoliative glaucoma. Thus, the level of potassium ions in aqueous humour of this study group decreased 2.15 times.
Unlike the shifts in potassium content in the aqueous humour of patients from study groups II and III, regarding the increase of sodium and calcium ions content a diametrically opposite picture was observed in the same groups. The content of sodium ions in the study group II increased 1.3 times, in the study group III – 1.5 times, compared to corresponding indices in aqueous humour of patients with senile cataracts.
Similar tendency was also observed on calcium ions content in aqueous humour of patients from study groups II and III. Thus, the level of calcium ions in aqueous humour of patients with cataracts on the background of primary open-angle glaucoma was 2.0 times above the control (group I), while in patients with cataracts on the background of pseudoexfoliative glaucoma it was 2.4 times higher.
We considered purposeful to present interpretation of our research findings of immune enzyme assay for determination of fibronectin, IGF-1, PgE2, and cortisol in the aqueous humour of patients with cataracts associated with primary open-angle glaucoma and pseudoexfoliative glaucoma taking into account data of scientific publications relevant to sources for the synthesis of mentioned substances in specific eye membranes and their possible biological effects realized at the level of inter-cellular relations in different cell populations of the eye.
In line with this, first of all, we considered the essential role that is related to the biological activity of TGF2 produced in cornea and trabecular meshwork of an eye in mechanisms of inter-cellular relations
It is considered to be generally accepted that in case of senile and complicated cataracts processes of TGFβ-2 synthesis are markedly intensified in the cornea and trabecular meshwork [
The proposed statement, to a known extent, is also confirmed by the available literature data relevant to the biological activity of TGFβ-2 – in the aspect of its selective modulatory impact to the processes of fibronectin and PgE2 synthesis and secretion in the eye membranes.
As known, keratocytes of the cornea and trabecular meshwork cells of the eye serve as the main sources of fibronectin synthesis
The IGF-1 elevated level revealed in aqueous humour of patients with the complicated cataracts should be considered as a factor hindering drainage function of trabecular meshwork and thus facilitating the increase of intraocular pressure. It is not excluded that similar mechanism functions in association with fibronectin-dependent mechanisms underlying the disturbed drainage function of the trabecular meshwork in the senile and, moreover, in the complicated cataracts.
Literature data [
In the light of our own and literature data, the role of TGFβ-2 in mechanisms of ACAID induction and withdrawal should be considered from qualitatively new positions. No doubt, the immunomodulatory effect of TGFβ-2\n\t\t\t\t
The analysis of our own research results in the context of available publications allows to consider the important role of TGFβ-2 and IGF-1, which are produced in cornea and trabecular meshwork, in mechanisms ensuring the drainage function of an eye.
The facts of detection of receptors to PgE2in cells of trabecular meshwork and sclera allow possibility of PgE2 participation in processes of intraocular pressure regulation.
The high level of PgE2 found by us in aqueous humour allows possibility of its participation in processes of the impaired drainage function and increase of intraocular pressure at cataracts proceeding on the background of primary open-angle glaucoma pseudoexfoliative glaucoma.
The following phenomenon of no less importance should specially mentioned: high levels of fibronectin IGF-1 and PgE2 in the aqueous humour of patients under study were pathognomonic for the course of the primary open-angle glaucoma and not for cataracts, as in this latter case all the indices studied in aqueous humour were much lower than analogous indices at senile non-complicated cataract.
Our research revealed a direct correlation dependence between the high level of cortisol, on the one hand, and the content of sodium and calcium ions, on the other hand. Based on the results obtained a conclusion might be drawn that the increase of intraocular pressure in persons with complicated cataracts on the background of glaucoma is mostly conditioned by impairment of ion transfusion between the ciliary body and aqueous humour and the processes of cortisol “hyperproduction” by hormone-producing cells in post-barrier membranes of the eye.
This chapter deals with one of the urgent problems of modern ophthalmology: revealing the mechanisms underlying induction of primary open-angle and pseudoexfoliative glaucoma. Till nowadays the problem remains rather actual, as the issue is open to discussion: what are the regional mechanisms underlying the disorders in functions of the trabecular apparatus of the angle of anterior chamber of an eye and in the increase of intraocular pressure at the mentioned disease case.
One of severe complications of glaucoma is the steady persistent increase of intraocular pressure that is fraught with compression of the head of optic nerve that results in its partial or complete atrophy with the partial and/or complete sight loss. Currently, the majority of specialists engaged in clinical and experimental ophthalmology are inclined to the opinion that the increase of intraocular pressure is not the consequence of general hemodynamic disorders resulting from the permeability increase in hematoophthalmic barrier, but rather originates from pathological processes occurring in the membranes and chambers of an eye.
In line with the modern views, processes underlying the increased intraocular pressure originate in the eye structures as such: in connective-tissue, epithelial and endothelial cells of the ciliary body, cornea, retina, lens, trabecular apparatus of the angle of the anterior chamber of an eye. These cells possess selective secretory activity in the aspect of producing a number of biologically active substances exerting direct and/or indirect action to the processes regulating intraocular pressure.
Moreover, numerous pathological processes proceeding in case of primary open-angle glaucoma at the site of eye membranes are fraught with the infringement of chamber humour osmolarity; furthermore, one of mechanisms increasing the volume of aqueous humour and not infrequently hindering its outflow is the impaired K+/Na+ balance in favour of the accumulation of this latter in the anterior chamber of an eye.
Available literary data of the last 30 years which discuss mediatory functions realized by cells of fibroblastic, epithelial and endothelial line in a ciliary body, cornea, retina, lens, a trabecular network formed a basis for carrying out the research directed at clarification of a role of
The drainage function of trabecular meshwork of an angle of the anterior chamber of an eye is an active process, in which the leading role belongs to secretory cells of this network. As it was specified above, secretory cells of the trabecular meshwork develop TGFβ-2, fibronectin and an insulin-like growth factor -1, PgЕ2. It is not excluded that the mentioned substances play an important role in ensuring drainage function of a trabecular meshwork, and thus, to a certain extent, in maintenance of an optimum level of the intraocular pressure.
For this reason, high indices of fibronectin and IGF-1 found in aqueous humour of patients with primary open-angle glaucoma testify in favor of hypersecretion of mentioned cytokines by cells of a trabecular meshwork. The presence of fibronectin and insulin-like growth factor-1 high concentrations at the primary open-angle glaucoma, and also at pseudoexfoliative glaucoma, testifies to violation of drainage function of a trabecular meshwork of an angle of the anterior chamber of an eye; this latter, to a certain extent, preconditions the high level of intraocular pressure. At the same time, the specific weight of fibronectin and insulin-like of growth factor -1 in hypertension formation in the aqueous humour is far from being equivalent, as on the one hand, fibronectin level in aqueous humour of patients from investigated groups II and III 10 times exceeds concentration of insulin-like growth factor-1 in the same liquid, on the other hand, as known, the weight of soluble fibronectin makes 440.000-150.000 D, while the mass of insulin-like growth factor-1 is 7.649 D [
Thus, on the basis of the analysis of literary data and carried-out own research it is possible to conclude that at glaucomas the infringement of drainage function and increase of intraocular pressure is in many respects caused by high concentration of fibronectin and, partially, insulin-like growth factor-1 in the intraocular liquid.
As it was noted above, the content of PgЕ2 considerably increases in aqueous humour of patients with primary open-angle glaucomas and pseudoexfoliative glaucomas.
There is scanty literature about the synthesis of prostaglandins in eye membranes. Local synthesis of prostaglandins is found out only in cells of crystalline lens that was proved by research of O. Nishi et al. (1992) in model experiments
It is not excluded that the high content of PgЕ2 in aqueous humour is fraught with an increase of intraocular pressure at glaucomatous patients, as according to [
It is known that ionic balance in liquid media of an organism (blood, spinal, gingival, synovial and intraocular liquids) is a necessary condition for maintenance of the osmotic pressure.
The anterior and posterior chambers of an eye are main depots; water makes about 93% and a very insignificant share make proteins. It is considered established that the delay of outflow of aqueous humour or its intensive more “production” promotes considerable elevation of pressure inside an eye.
Thus, one of the factors leading to increase of intraocular pressure at glaucomas is the increase of osmolarity of intraocular liquid.
It is considered to be established long ago that at anterior open-angle glaucoma in aqueous humour there are serious impairments in its ionic structure that was shown by disorders in functioning of sodium ‒ potassium pomp, with the superfluous accumulation of sodium ions.
In our research as demonstrated by the results of ion-selective analysis, at primary open-angle glaucomas and pseudoexfoliative glaucomas rather high indices of ions of sodium and calcium and low indices of potassium were determined in aqueous humour, as compared with the indices defined in aqueous humour of patients with senile not complicated cataracts.
The similar imbalance, being shown as superfluous accumulation of sodium and calcium in aqueous humour, complicates normal outflow of aqueous humour from the anterior chamber of an eye that, in its turn, is fraught with the increase of intraocular pressure.
Without considering the questions connected with mechanisms of shifts found by us regarding electrolytes content in aqueous humour (that was not an actual problem of the present research), nevertheless we consider expedient to discuss some aspects connected with the fact established by us on impaired ionic balance between eye membranes and the intraocular liquid.
Firstly, the increase of Na+ and Ca++ levels observed by us in aqueous humour should be considered from positions of the broken ionic balance between specific membranes of an eye and intraocular liquid, and not as a result of the general disorder of electrolytes composition in blood of experimental animals, because the level of studied electrolytes in blood serum was within the limits of control values.
Secondly, the high level of a cortisol found by us in aqueous humour can serve one of possible causes of infringement of the ionic balance. This assumption appears very reasonable, as it is known that high concentrations of cortisol in separate membranes of an eye lead to ionic imbalance in connection with enhanced inflow of ions of sodium in aqueous humour that results in an increase of intraocular pressure.
Thirdly, it is not excluded that realization of hormonal and cytokine-dependent processes conditioned by regional shifts in the content of cortisol, prolactin, fibronectin, insulin-like growth factor-1 at cataracts proceeding on the background of primary open-angle glaucoma and pseudoexfoliative glaucoma, is caused by activation of calcium-dependent reactions in secretory cells of eye membranes.
It is considered established that the pseudoexfoliative syndrome represents itself as a provoking factor for development of the open-angle glaucoma, the course of which has a progressing character and is characterized by high resistance to carried-out medicamentous therapy and an unfavourable forecast [
One of severe complications at development of a pseudoexfoliative syndrome is cataract as well [
The impairment of immunological tolerance (of immunological privileges of an eye – ACAID) acts as an initiating factor for development of pseudoexfoliative syndrome [
It is not excluded that in pathogenesis of pseudoexfoliative syndrome emergence are also involved the local hormonal-mediatory mechanisms connected not with the operational intervention, but rather with infringement of processes of synthesis and secretion of such cytokines as TgFβ-2, IGF-1 and, first of all, fibronectin in cornea, ciliary body and trabecular meshwork of synthesis.
At a pseudoexfoliative syndrome essential physical and chemical changes occur in aqueous humour: the concentration of proteins considerably raises, including fibronectin as well [
On the basis of the analysis of literary data, it is possible to come to conclusion, according to which TGFβ-2 developed in eye membranes plays far not the last role in pathogenesis of primary open-angle glaucoma, including pseudoexfoliative glaucoma as well. So, at glaucomas of TGFβ-2 stimulates synthesis of such cytokines as insulin-like growth factor-1 and fibronectin in cornea, ciliary body and a trabecular meshwork of an angle of the anterior chamber of an eye. Their high levels found by us in aqueous humour testify to possible violation of drainage function of the trabecular meshwork that is fraught with an increase of intraocular pressure.
In conclusion, in the form of generalized schemes 1 and 2 the possible pathogenetic links engaged in the induction and a course of primary open-angle glaucoma, including pseudoexfoliative glaucoma as well, are presented to attention of ophthalmologists. The specific subject matter is regional disorder that is fraught with impairment of secretory activity of the polypotent cells localized in various eye membranes, which besides the main functions produce a number of biologically active substances of the cytokine, hormonal and mediatory nature.
At anterior open-angle glaucoma (see schemes 1 and 2) the synthesis of fibronectin in cells of the trabecular meshwork is considerably activated which is caused by the stimulating influence of fibroblasts transforming growth factor (TGFβ-2). Realization of this effect, to a certain extent, is caused by blocking of inhibitory effect of a bone morfogenic protein (BMP-4) towards the activity of TGFβ-2 due to which the stimulating effect of the latter on processes of fibronectin intra-cellular synthesis is realized. It is not excluded that at the same time there occurs blocking of inhibitory effect of TGFβ-1 on domain of heparin (Hep-2) responsible for synthesis of fibronectin in a cell.
Further, as a result of fibronectin “hyper production”, there is a deposition of fibronectin in extracellular matrix (EM) owing to which, as a result of drainage function impairment in trabecular meshwork, there proceeds an increase of intraocular pressure.
It is not excluded that in the conditions of physiological activity of trabecular meshwork cells the processes of intra-cellular synthesis of fibronectin are regulated according to cytokine mechanisms in realization of which, on the one hand, TGFβ-2 serves as a stimulating factor, on the other hand, this stimulating effect is adjusted due to gremin (G) and BMP-4 produced in trabecular meshwork cells. It is precisely the coordinated activity of aforementioned cytokines, TGFβ-2, G and BMP-4, that strictly supervises the balanced synthesis of fibronectin cells by trabecular network cells in the conditions of norm.
The specified Scheme 1 was constructed by us upon the analysis of the modern data concerning a role fibronectin, which is produced in keratocytes and cells of a trabecular meshwork, in violation of the drainage function of an eye at glaucomas and complicated cataracts [
In addition, due to analysis of the modern scientific data in the aspect of our own research findings we propose a summary scheme (Scheme 2) that presents the role of
The role of trabecular meshwork cells of the anterior chamber angle of an eye in mechanisms of fibronectin-dependent drainage function impairment and the increase of intraocular pressure at anterior open-angle glaucoma
The role of mediators and hormones in mechanisms of intraocular pressure increase at complicated cataracts: cataracts on the background of primary open-angle glaucoma and pseudoexfoliative glaucoma
As obvious from Scheme 2, regional factors engaged in mechanisms of drainage function impairment and intraocular pressure increase might be conditionally divided into 2 categories. Secretory processes associated with dysfunction of cornea and trabecular meshwork cells (in the aspect of their targeted synthesis of TGFβ-2 should be related to category 1. Category 2 should embrace hormonal disorders, impairment of the regional ionic homeostasis and destructive processes, mechanisms of which are not sufficiently studied until present. In the given scheme we consider only 1 point of application that is affected by the influence of all the above mentioned factors: as a “target” here serves the trabecular meshwork of the anterior chamber of an eye with impaired drainage function that eventually rings to an increase of intraocular pressure. As evident from Scheme 2, in case of anterior open-angle glaucoma the regional TGFβ-2 dependent mechanisms are engaged, being conditioned by its stimulating influence to secretory cells of some eye membranes: in the aspect of their “excessive” synthesis of fibronectin and IGFβ-2, which cumulate both in stroma of the trabecular meshwork and in the aqueous humour finally resulting in block of drainage system and an increase of intraocular pressure. The hyperproduction of PgE2 in secretory cells of trabecular meshwork, sclera and, probably, the lens, also brings forth impairment of the drainage function. In impairment of drainage network functions a definite role is also devoted to
This is the U.S. story—from the birth of health insurance responding to genuine human need in the depths of the Great Depression in the 1930s—to the opulence of a massive corporatized industry today exploiting that need all the way to the bank. How do we explain that turn-around? This chapter has four goals: (1) to bring some historical perspective to that question; (2) to briefly summarize how health care services are bought and paid for in the U.S.; (3) to describe how private health insurance and multi-payer financing have failed the public interest; and (4) to compare four reform alternatives currently under consideration, only one of which will bring lasting reform through universal coverage.
Some in the U.S. considered the possibility of compulsory health insurance early in the 20th century after noting that 10 European countries had adopted one or another form of it by 1913 [1]. But that idea was controversial, and the emergence of voluntary, private health insurance in this country is especially attributed to a Blue Cross plan for school teachers in Dallas, Texas, in 1929. At that time as the Great Depression took hold, the nation’s hospitals were in dire straits with more than one-third of the general hospital beds empty [2].
As the prototype upon which later Blue Cross plans were based, the Baylor plan provided free hospitalization for up to 21 days as well as coverage for operating room, laboratory and anesthesia services. The hospital assumed financial risk for hospital care without any third party and collected pre-payments. Other prepaid health insurance plans were soon to follow. The World War II years saw the start of employer-sponsored health insurance, when employers found it helpful to offer health insurance in order to recruit workers during a wartime economy with a severe labor shortage. By 1950, more than one-half of Americans were covered for the first time [3].
In the last 60-plus years, the private health insurance industry has been transformed from the quasi private-public partnership of its pioneering years to a massive industry on a corporate mission of profit over service. It has followed a conventional theory of insurance based on the concept of “moral hazard,” whereby those with insurance are expected to overuse health care services and lead to uncontrolled increases in health care costs. As a result, community rating and guaranteed coverage during earlier years gave way to experience rating as medical underwriting became the new norm. The Blues were under pressure to compromise their earlier service mission, so that one-half of the nation’s Blue Cross Blue Shield plans had consolidated and converted into for-profit companies by 2005 [4].
With some 1300 private insurers, the risk pool has fragmented into ever smaller parts as insurers work to avoid adverse selection. Medicare and Medicaid were enacted in 1965 as public plans, but recent decades have seen their increasing privatization that often ends up leaving many enrollees uninsured.
These are some of the many ways that insurers have used to extract more income at the expense of reliable and affordable coverage for enrollees:
“Denial management” became a growth industry of its own aimed at denying physicians’ and hospitals’ claims for services provided [5]. Many insurers developed ways of avoiding coverage of higher risk people in the first place. One such technique was to hold marketing meetings on the second floor of buildings without elevators to discourage less mobile and older people. Another technique was to make steep increases in premiums after receiving claims from enrollees who were sicker than expected. Denial of claims through burdensome pre-authorization of service became still another way to avoid paying expensive claims, increasingly associated with ever-changing networks. Out-of-network claims for hospital and physicians’ services became unaffordable for many enrollees; even for in-network claims, the average denial rate today is 18% [6].
Managed care grew rapidly during and after the 1990s, as a way to contain health care costs by changing from fee-for-service payment to prospective payment based upon capitation—the number of individuals enrolled in a health maintenance organization (HMO) plan. That gave insurers yet another way to profit from providing less care, and soon became known as managed
Insurers have increasingly privatized Medicare and Medicaid in recent years as ways to exploit federal funding sources. Their claims that privatization would be more efficient have been proven false by experience. Instead, they have been more restrictive in choice and coverage, increased their administrative overhead to five or six times higher than traditional Medicare, and left markets that were insufficiently profitable. They have also increased their revenues by up-coding diagnoses—claiming payment for conditions for which care was not provided [8]. Table 1 shows marked differences between privatized Medicare and traditional public Medicare by the early 2000s [9].
Privatized medicare | Original medicare |
---|---|
Experience-rated eligibility | Universal coverage |
Managed competition | Social insurance as earned right |
Defined contribution | Defined benefits |
Segmented risk pool | Broad risk pool |
Market pricing to risk | Administered prices |
More volatile access & benefits | More reliable access & benefits |
Increased cost sharing | Less cost sharing |
Less accountability | Potential for more accountability |
Less choice of provider & hospital | Full choice of provider & hospital |
Less well distributed | Well distributed |
Less efficiency, higher overhead | More efficiency, lower overhead |
Comparative features of privatized and public medicare (CAF Table 1.2, p. 14).
Source: Geyman [9].
Increasing consolidation through mergers within the private health insurance industry has taken place since the 1990s. The largest insurers today—in numeric order United Health Group, Anthem, Aetna and Cigna—collectively have a market share of 49% [10]. As a result, that level of consolidation has led to less competition, more cost sharing with higher deductibles, and less options for enrollees. United Health Group, as the largest insurer in the country, has also gained clout beyond insurance by selling technology to hospitals, managing clinical trials, distributing prescription drugs, and offering continuing medical education to physicians [11].
Before looking at the role of private health insurance in U.S. health care, it is helpful (though still confusing!) to ask who really pays for health care. The late Dr. Uwe Reinhardt, Professor of Political Economy at Princeton University and author of
Who pays for health care, and how is it paid (Figure 9.6, CAF 128).
Today’s system of paying for health care works against most of the working population through what economists call “labor income”—what people earn in their everyday jobs— that is taxed higher than “capital income” (accumulated wealth). As a result, billionaires today pay lower tax rates than their secretaries, steel workers, school teachers, and retirees [13].
These are some of the ways in which private health insurance and multi-payer financing have failed the common good in this country.
Our market-driven system, now consolidated to a small number of corporate giants, can charge what the market will bear. Predictably, the cost of medical care has doubled compared to the consumer-price index over the last 25 years [14]. Figure 2 shows the cumulative growth of the cost of premiums for employer-sponsored health insurance compared to annual average earnings of the bottom 90% over the last 20 years [15]. As a result, four in ten people with that insurance do not have enough savings to cover the deductibles and one in six have to cut back on food, take an extra job, or move in with friends or family [16]. Even when insured, many enrollees defer or avoid needed care, while many others receive high surprise medical bills that drag them into poverty, often ending them up in medical bankruptcy [17].
(Figure 7.2 MIC 104).
Predictably, increased cost sharing cuts access to care ranging from ER visits and office visits to hospital care and mental health [18]. As Dr. Veena Shankaran of the Hutchinson Cancer Research Center observes:
Private insurers have many ways to game the system at the expense of patients and taxpayers. Even after passage of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) in 2010, they discriminate against the sick by such benefit designs that limit access, high cost-sharing, restrictive drug formularies, inadequate and ever-changing networks of physicians and hospitals, and deceptive marketing practices. Meanwhile, they market new kinds of inadequate gap insurance, immune from the ACA’s requirements, that include, for example, copays for treatment and lump sum payments upon diagnosis of such conditions as cancer, heart disease and stroke [20]. Short-term plans are another way to evade the ACA’s requirements, providing very limited coverage for up to 1 year at exorbitant costs. Correctly labeled as “junk insurance,” the aptly named Golden Rule Insurance has brought big profits to its owner, the giant United Health Group [21].
Private insurers consume 15–20% of the health care dollar in bureaucracy, administrative overhead, and profits. Figure 3 shows how much higher that overhead is compared to other countries [22]. At the same time, they have received large subsidies from the federal government for many years, now about $685 billion a year [23] and projected by the Congressional Budget Office to double in another 10 years [24].
Insurance overhead in 6 countries (CAF Figure 11.2, 151).
Overpayments for privatized Medicare and Medicaid have been a bonanza for private insurers, accounting for more than one-half of their net revenue. Their fraudulent practice of up-coding, mentioned above, accounts for much of that revenue, as shown in Figure 4 [25].
(CAF Figure 4.2, 45).
Wall Street investors have much to say about what private insurers do in their unending quest for more profits. As one example, CVS Health, the parent company of Aetna, made far more money in 2021 than most other publicly traded corporations, in part because of Aetna’s jacking up premiums and cost sharing, which it will do again in 2022. When the company issued a guidance for 2022 profits of just $12 billion to $13 billion (down just slightly from that for 2021 of $12.5 to $13 billion), its share price dropped by 6%, unnerving investors, and the company proceeded to buy back its own shares to boost earnings per share. Aetna’s health insurance market has going down due to the decline of employer-sponsored health insurance, with less than one-third of businesses with 50 or fewer employees now offering health benefits [26].
Stepping back to consider all of this, Gerald Friedman, PhD, Professor of Economics at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and author of
Despite receiving long-term subsidies from the federal government, private health insurers leave their market, often with little advance notice, whenever their profits fall below expectations of their CEOs and shareholders. As just one example, at least 1.4 million people in 32 states lost their ACA coverage at the end of 2016, leaving them fewer choices than before [28].
To be effective nationally, health insurance must be compulsory in order to eliminate segmentation of risk pools, as Dr. Henry Sigerist, then Director of the History of Medicine at the Johns Hopkins University, recognized as far back as 1944:
The above account of the expensive missteps in U.S. health insurance over these many years shows how important universal coverage is to meet the needs of our population, as has been shown in many advanced countries around the world. Remarkably, a proposal was made for national health insurance by Teddy Roosevelt as a presidential candidate on the progressive ticket more than a century ago in 1912. It was rejected then and thereafter as the political debate became controlled by corporate stakeholders in the present lucrative financing “system.” With health care now accounting for more than one-sixth of the nation’s GDP, corporate power and lobbying for its continuance have continued to block reform efforts for cost containment, health care equity, and universal coverage. It has become increasingly clear that employer-sponsored health insurance has itself been a big part of the problem, as Drs. Anne Case and Angus Deaton, Professors Emeritus of Economics and Public Affairs at Princeton University recently observed:
Health care has become a front-burner issue in recent political campaigns and as we head into the 2022 and 2024 election cycles. These four reform alternatives are up for debate:
Building on the Affordable Care Act (ACA) of 2010;
Medicare for Some: increasing the numbers of insured by Medicare by lowering the eligibility age to 60, together with a public option for sale alongside private plans on the ACA’s exchanges;
Privatized Medicare Advantage for All; and
Single-payer Medicare for All.
The first three of these alternatives would leave a for-profit, multi-payer financing system in place with all of the problems described previously. The fourth alternative is the only one that can bring a not-for-profit public financing system with universal coverage for all Americans, cost containment, improved access and quality of care. There is a bill in the House of Representatives (H. R. 1976) for Medicare for All with more than 120 co-sponsors. However, the Congress is sharply divided along partisan lines, and this bill may have to wait for the forthcoming elections for the Congress to clarify its priorities.
Although much of organized medicine in the U.S. has opposed national health insurance over the years, that stance is beginning to change as so many physicians find our present multi-payer financing system such an impediment to daily medical practice. Medicare for All already has strong support among the general public, physicians and nurses. Experience and evidence over the years confirms its advantages as shown by Table 2 [31]. Had Medicare for All been in place during 2019, it is estimated that we would have saved more than $1 trillion. Figure 5 shows how those savings would have been taken place [32].
ACA | Public option | Medicare advantage for all | Medicare for all | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Access | Restricted | Restricted | Restricted | Unrestricted |
Choice | Restricted | Restricted | Restricted | Unrestricted |
Cost containment | Never | Never | Never | Yes |
Quality of care | Unacceptable | Unacceptable | Unacceptable | Improved |
Bureaucracy | Large, wasteful | Large, wasteful | Large, wasteful | Much reduced |
Universal coverage | Never | Never | Never | Yes |
Accountability | No | No | No | Yes |
Sustainability | No | No | No | Yes |
Comparison of four reform alternatives based on evidence (Table 13.1, 60 years, 160).
Medicare for all savings compared to current system, 2019 (Figure 14.2, MIC 269).
If and when Medicare for All can be enacted, it will bring a new system of national health insurance for all Americans with comprehensive benefits based on medical need, not ability to pay, together with full choice of hospitals, physicians and other health professionals anywhere in the country. Administrative simplification will drop its single-payer overhead to about 3%, one-sixth of today’s multi-payer overhead. Cost savings will be achieved through large-scale cost controls, including (a) negotiated fee schedules for physicians and other health professionals, who will remain in private practice; (b) global annual budgeting of hospitals and other facilities; and (c) bulk purchasing of drugs and medical devices. Cost sharing through deductibles and copayments will be eliminated at the point of service, and pre-authorization of services will no longer be needed. Higher priority will be given to primary care and public health, while the risk for costs of illness and accidents will be shared across our entire population of 330 million Americans.
The corporate transformation of health care in this country from a traditional service ethic to a commodity for sale in an unfettered marketplace is indeed unfortunate. Financing reform through a not-for-profit public mechanism—Medicare for All—can go a long way to restoring the traditional service ethic of health care as a moral enterprise. We shall see what the future will bring. Meanwhile, Winston Churchill gives us hope:
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\\n\\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\\n\\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\\n\\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\\n\\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\\n\\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\\n\\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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