Enlisted a few genes associated with heat tolerance in goats.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7541",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Neuroimaging - Structure, Function and Mind",title:"Neuroimaging",subtitle:"Structure, Function and Mind",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Neuroimaging provides a valuable noninvasive window into the human neural system and is used in fundamental and clinical research. Imaging techniques are essential for understanding spontaneous neural activity and brain mechanisms engaged in the processing of external inputs, memory formation, and cognition. Modern imaging modalities make it possible to visualize memory processes within the brain and to create images of its structure and function. Scientists and technologists are joining forces to pave the way for improving imaging technologies and methods, data analysis, and the application of imaging to investigate the wide spectra of neurological diseases, neuropsychological disorders, and aging. Imaging techniques are essential for the identification of biological markers of the earliest stages of neurodiseases and the development of new therapies. This book intends to provide the reader with a short overview of the current achievements in the state-of-the-art imaging modality methods, their highlights, and limitations in neuroscience research and clinical applications. The current state of in-vivo neuroimaging methods in the context of the understanding and diagnosis of mental disorders and relation to the mind is also discussed in a modern compact format, featuring the latest and most relevant research results.",isbn:"978-1-78985-806-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-805-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-108-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76733",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"neuroimaging-structure-function-and-mind",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"78ba05f58bfd6c4bf170a1f46dc39108",bookSignature:"Sanja Josef Golubic",publishedDate:"April 3rd 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7541.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6772,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:15,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 9th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 30th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 29th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 17th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 16th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"225125",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sanja",middleName:null,surname:"Josef Golubic",slug:"sanja-josef-golubic",fullName:"Sanja Josef Golubic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225125/images/system/225125.png",biography:"Sanja Josef Golubic is a senior research and teaching assistant (postdoctoral fellow) at the Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb. \r\n\r\nHer academic qualifications include a Ph.D. in cognitive neurodynamics and M.Sc. in theoretical physics. Despite a short scientific career, she has made outstanding achievements in the field of neuroscience. \r\n\r\nHer first scientific publication was nominated for the Nightingale Prize for best Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing paper in 2011. The latest highlight contributions to the field include resolving 30-years long enigma of neural network underlying auditory sensory gating; disclosing a new, fast cortical pathway which links prefrontal cortex to primary sensory areas within first 100 milliseconds after stimulation, and finally revealing a discrete individual biomarker of Alzheimer’s disease with the potential to detect the disease in its preclinical stage.",institutionString:"Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1008",title:"Radiology Diagnosis",slug:"radiology-diagnosis"}],chapters:[{id:"63297",title:"Supervised Sparse Components Analysis with Application to Brain Imaging Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80531",slug:"supervised-sparse-components-analysis-with-application-to-brain-imaging-data",totalDownloads:1042,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We propose a dimension-reduction method using supervised (multi-block) sparse (principal) component analysis. The method is first implemented through basis expansion of spatial brain images, and the scores are then reduced through regularized matrix decomposition to produce simultaneous data-driven selections of related brain regions, supervised by univariate composite scores representing linear combinations of covariates. Two advantages of the proposed method are that it identifies the associations between brain regions at the voxel level and that supervision is helpful for interpretation. The proposed method was applied to a study on Alzheimer’s disease (AD) that involved using multimodal whole-brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET). For illustrative purposes, we demonstrate cases of both single- and multimodal brain imaging and longitudinal measurements.",signatures:"Atsushi Kawaguchi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63297",authors:[{id:"254057",title:"Prof.",name:"Atsushi",surname:"Kawaguchi",slug:"atsushi-kawaguchi",fullName:"Atsushi Kawaguchi"}],corrections:null},{id:"63385",title:"Vector-Based Approach for the Detection of Initial Dips Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80888",slug:"vector-based-approach-for-the-detection-of-initial-dips-using-functional-near-infrared-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:1121,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a non-invasive method for the detection of local brain activity using changes in the local levels of oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb) and deoxyhemoglobin (deoxyHb). Simultaneous measurement of the levels of oxyHb and deoxyHb is an advantage of fNIRS over other modalities. This review provides a historical description of the physiological problems involved in the accurate identification of local brain activity using fNIRS. The need for improved spatial and temporal identification of local brain activity is described in terms of the physiological challenges of task selection and placement of probes. In addition, this review discusses challenges with data analysis based on a single index, advantages of the simultaneous analysis of multiple indicators, and recently established composite indicators. The vector-based approach provides quantitative imaging of the phase and intensity contrast for oxygen exchange responses in a time series and may detect initial dips related to neuronal activity in the skull. The vector plane model consists of orthogonal vectors of oxyHb and deoxyHb. Initial dips are hemodynamic reactions of oxyHb and deoxyHb induced by increased oxygen consumption in the early tasks of approximately 2–3 seconds. The new analytical concept of fNIRS, able to effectively detect initial dips, may extend further the clinical and social applications of fNIRS.",signatures:"Toshinori Kato",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63385",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63385",authors:[{id:"255302",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshinori",surname:"Kato",slug:"toshinori-kato",fullName:"Toshinori Kato"}],corrections:null},{id:"62309",title:"Application of ICA and Dynamic Mixture Model to Identify Microvasculature Activation in fMRI",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79222",slug:"application-of-ica-and-dynamic-mixture-model-to-identify-microvasculature-activation-in-fmri",totalDownloads:851,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The emphasis of this work is on developing novel data-processing techniques to achieve a higher spatiotemporal resolution in dynamic functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Due to partial volume effects, a pixel in fMRI may contain signals from a mixture of micro- and macrovasculature, with very different temporal characteristics. This mixture effect provides a way to separate microvasculature from macrovasculature in fMRI. A multi-component model representing a mixture of many reference functions is used to fit the time course of pixels in fMRI. The results suggest that it may be possible to separate the micro- and macrovasculature fractional contributions to pixels by this approach. Compared to the classical single-component model, the multi-component model fits the measured fMRI time course with a higher correlation coefficient and also detects voxels with low latencies more efficiently. Spatial independent component analysis (ICA) as a preprocessing step is implemented to remove major physiological noise and artifacts. The results of mixture model fitting after ICA cleaning show better results for microvasculature detection.",signatures:"Yongxia Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62309",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62309",authors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],corrections:null},{id:"64114",title:"Simultaneous Smelling an Incense Outdoor and Putting the Hands Together Activate Specific Brain Areas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81624",slug:"simultaneous-smelling-an-incense-outdoor-and-putting-the-hands-together-activate-specific-brain-area",totalDownloads:819,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mirror neurons are involved in imitation of habitual behaviors. To increase understanding of the theory of mirror neurons and the default mode network, brain activation was explored in 11 healthy adult volunteers who did or did not have a habit of putting their hands together as if praying. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) data were recorded while the participants simultaneously smelled an odor in two kinds of incenses outdoor and/or while they moved to putting their hands together. A magnetoencephalographic contour map of the recorded findings was drawn and an estimated current dipole (ECD) was set. Regardless of a habit of putting their hands together or not, the inner lobe of the frontal area, anterior area in the temporal lobe, and F5 language area in the left frontal lobe and so on were specifically activated. We used cortisol value as an index of the stress state measured in every state (before and after smelling two different incenses outdoor). These experiments suggest that simultaneous smelling an incense outdoor and the behavior of putting their hands together increased the activity of these specific areas in the human brain due to mutual interactions and enhanced interactions.",signatures:"Mitsuo Tonoike and Takuto Hayashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64114",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64114",authors:[{id:"264444",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitsuo",surname:"Tonoike",slug:"mitsuo-tonoike",fullName:"Mitsuo Tonoike"},{id:"264445",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuyo",surname:"Hayashi",slug:"takuyo-hayashi",fullName:"Takuyo Hayashi"}],corrections:null},{id:"63631",title:"Neuroimaging Reveals Heterogeneous Neural Correlates of Reading Deficit in Individuals with Dyslexia Consistent with a Multiple Deficit Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80677",slug:"neuroimaging-reveals-heterogeneous-neural-correlates-of-reading-deficit-in-individuals-with-dyslexia",totalDownloads:1076,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Neuroimaging has become a powerful way of studying in vivo brain function and structure. The aim here is to comprehensively review Reid’s fMRI study which is the first to use a multiple case approach to investigate individual differences among 18 participants with dyslexia (DPs) and 16 control participants (CPs) and to directly test the predictions of the main dyslexia theories on reading deficit. The results show that the neural correlates of reading deficit for all DPs (except one) are consistent with more than one theory, supporting a multiple deficit model. Striking individual differences between DPs were found; even if the neural correlates of reading deficit in two DPs were consistent with the same theory, the affected brain areas could differ. To make progress, research on causes of reading deficit in dyslexia would need to (1) focus on the multiple deficit model, (2) use neuroimaging to test a further refined set of brain areas (including areas hypothesised by other dyslexia theories) in longitudinal designs, (3) control the effects of co-occurring neurodevelopmental disorders, (4) use high-field MRI (including diffusion techniques), multiband fMRI and MEG with optically pumped magnetometers, (5) progress imaging genetics and (6) pursue neuroimaging intergenerational transmission of brain circuity.",signatures:"Agnieszka A. Reid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63631",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63631",authors:[{id:"255039",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",surname:"Reid",slug:"agnieszka-reid",fullName:"Agnieszka Reid"}],corrections:null},{id:"65084",title:"Imaging Tests for Predicting the Presence of Difficult Airway in Head and Neck Cancer Patients Undergoing Otorhinolaryngological Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81606",slug:"imaging-tests-for-predicting-the-presence-of-difficult-airway-in-head-and-neck-cancer-patients-under",totalDownloads:864,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Patients with head and neck cancers represent a challenge for the surgical team from many points of view, but, especially, the surgical moment where greater stress generated corresponds to the perioperative management of the airway, because in many occasions we can face unexpected situations, most of the time, incidental findings can hinder ventilation and endotracheal intubation. Gutierrez et al., in 2018, decided to study four tomography measures and their correlation in anesthesia records with airway management difficulties. Material and methods: A retrospective, observational study was carried out in 104 patients operated by head and neck cancers over a period of 36 months, only in those with access to tomographic records. Four tomographic measurements were considered and were statistically related to the extreme degrees of visualization of the glottis (Cormack III–IV) and the presence of the physical examination of Mallampati III–IV. Results: After performing a multivariate model in the group of extreme degrees of visualization of the glottis, the results were not statistically significant (p > 0.05; 95% CI: 0.030–2.31: EPI/PPW, 0.018–1.37 TB/PPW). In the Mallampati III–IV group, in the multivariate model only the VC/PPW showed clinically significant results (p < 0.05; 95% CI: 0.104–8.53). Conclusions: Tomographic measurements and the physical examination predictors could represent a useful guide in the prediction of the difficult airway in these patients.",signatures:"Juan Gutiérrez Franchi, S. Merino, P. de la Calle, C. Perrino, M. Represa\nand P. Moral",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65084",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65084",authors:[{id:"255839",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Gutiérrez Franchi",slug:"juan-gutierrez-franchi",fullName:"Juan Gutiérrez Franchi"}],corrections:null},{id:"64617",title:"Functional Brain Imagery and Jungian Analytical Psychology: An Interesting Dance?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82414",slug:"functional-brain-imagery-and-jungian-analytical-psychology-an-interesting-dance-",totalDownloads:1004,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Jung’s original neuroscience research project looked at the neurophysiological responses to the word association test (WAT) in an effort to understand ‘complexes’, those emotionally laden fixations that bother us all, and can be inferred from certain painful responses in the WAT. He measured breathing rates, skin conductance and electrocardiography, but there was no brain functional imaging technology available at the time. One hundred years later, a wide range of brain functional technologies are available, and this chapter describes two studies in which the WAT was performed under functional magnetic resonance imaging and quantitative electroencephalography conditions. In essence, a complexed response first activates the amygdala (many right-sided). This is followed in the next 3 s by bilateral brain activity in the anterior insula, the supplementary motor area and the dorsal cingulum; the premotor mirror neuron areas, the so-called resonance circuitry, which is central to mindfulness (awareness of self) and empathy (sense of the other), negotiations between self-awareness and the ‘internal other’, and has been well described by Dan Siegel. But over the following 2 s, activity shifts to the left hemisphere, seemingly the way the brain deals with a complex in the moment, possibly to dull the pain of the complexed response.",signatures:"Leon Petchkovsky, Michael Petchkovsky, Philip Morris, Paul Dickson,\nDanielle T. 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Hence, the methodology can be used in multiple applications such as probing cellular processes in live cells, developing multiple biomedical imaging modalities, material characterizations, remote sensing, etc. Hyperspectral imaging can also take advantage of deep learning algorithms to retrieve valuable information from high-dimensional data in real-time. It is worth emphasizing that hyperspectral imaging is not limited to visible light. With other available excitation sources such as X-ray, electrons, etc. new hyperspectral imaging modalities can be extended to nanometer scales.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to bring together diverse research areas of hyperspectral imaging. We hope to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in this fascinating and important field and make this book project a useful platform to allow all those working in hyperspectral imaging to be benefited from the knowledge of widely different fields.
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His research interests focus on the development of optical probes for unraveling cellular processes in live cells and characterizing functional properties of nanostructured materials. He had been an editorial board member of the Advances in Optoelectronics for twelve years, and a reviewer for about twenty scientific journals in optics, chemistry, and material sciences. 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The dynamic fMRI signal change is regulated by the local changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral blood volume (CBV), and blood oxygenation. CBF studies have suggested that a local increase in oxygen delivery beyond metabolic demand occurs in active cerebral tissue, which results in a higher concentration of oxygenated blood and a decrease in deoxyhemoglobin concentration within the microvasculature of metabolically active brain regions. Due to the four unpaired electrons, deoxyhemoglobin maintains a larger observed magnetic susceptibility effect and is paramagnetic relative to oxyhemoglobin and the surrounding brain tissue. The decrement in this paramagnetic substance in the activated brain leads to an increase in the local magnetic homogeneity and reduces dephasing of spins. This increases the T2* contrast in the activated brain and results in increases of MR signal relative to the resting state. A fast MRI data acquisition sequence known as the echo-planar imaging (EPI) sequence is commonly used to acquire fMRI signals. The physiological contributors to the fMRI signal changes include the blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) and in-flow effects such as the increase in local CBF and arterial oxygenation. The signal in the functional area reflects the local changes in the CBF and oxygen consumption rate due to the task or stimulus [1]. And finally, the quantitative fMRI image indicates the spatiotemporal mapping of the hemodynamic in response to a given task at specific brain areas.
The coupling between the BOLD hemodynamic effect and the underlying neuronal activity has been studied and emphasized recently [2, 3, 4]. The first question is whether the BOLD effect can reflect neuronal activation. Experiments have been done with both animals and humans to verify that the BOLD contrast directly reflects the neural responses elicited by a stimulus [5, 6]. The second question is how the BOLD signal reflects the underlying neuronal activation. The exact nature of the neurovascular coupling is not known yet. The studies by Logothetis suggest that the BOLD signal is more likely to reflect the input and local neuronal processing in a given area [5], whose weighted average of dendro-somatic components is measured as the local field potential (LFP). However, because of the slow-brain hemodynamics and the draining effects of vessels and veins, the BOLD activation detected in fMRI is temporally delayed and spatially blurred from the actual site of neuronal activation. The third question is then how to detect the neuronal activations from fMRI. Because of the unknown nature of the neurovascular coupling, how to detect neuronal activation remains an open question. Since neuronal activation originates in tissue subserved by the microvasculature, the detected microvasculature will be co-localized or at least closer to neuronal activation.
The fMRI BOLD effect originates within the microvasculature but also spreads into veins that drain blood from the activated brain tissue. And fMRI-based BOLD contrast consists mainly of activations in the microvasculature, large venules, and draining veins [7, 8, 9, 10]. Because the BOLD signal is largely contaminated by the signals in large veins and noise, extracting earlier microvasculature activation is difficult and several issues need to be resolved. One major problem is the compounding effects from the physiological cardiac and respiratory noise, random noise, and also the contamination of head and vessel motion artifacts [11]. The percentage signal changes triggered by the stimuli typically is 1–10% in 1.5–3 T scanners [7]. Averaging scans for all events can improve signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in fMRI by canceling random noise. Low-pass and high-pass filtering for the data can also improve SNR by removing the slow physiological processes such as subject habituation, learning or fatigue, subject motion, machine calibration drift, and scan-to-scan baseline variability [12]. However, artifacts in fMRI are often correlated with the signal of interest. Thus, classical average and filtering methods are not very effective. Noise-removing methods that are based on the intrinsic structure of the measured signals are more effective.
Another challenge is the partial volume effect (PVE) within one fMRI voxel. Because of the relatively large size of the voxel at the scale of mm compared to the size of veins and microvasculature, a mixture of micro- and macrovasculatures is present in the activated voxel with different temporal characteristics. Since the actual site of neuronal activity could be masked by signals from macrovasculature, a technique to separate micro- and macrovasculature within a voxel would be of great significance to fMRI to improve spatial specificity as well.
The vascular contributions to the BOLD signal depend on magnetic field strength as well as on data acquisition methods. Many previous works have been done to enhance the detection of microvasculature. In Chen and Ugurbil [13], a higher field at 7 T was used to increase the relative contribution of microcomponent to the BOLD signal. In spin-echo fMRI [14], large vessel contributions were suppressed because the 180° radiofrequency (RF) pulse in spin-echo (SE) sequence refocused the dephasing effect of the static field inhomogeneity around large vessels. A fast response that may be attributed to an increased oxygen consumption had been observed [15, 16]. This fast dip might be more sensitive to microvasculature. Also, previous approaches to separate the microvasculature have relied upon post-processing techniques that utilize the fact that the phase of the MR signal often reflects the presence of larger vessels in a voxel [17, 18]. Thus, larger vessels could be removed in the frequency domain or K-space. Our group has presented a study of segmenting fMRI pixels into microvasculature, venules, and large veins using intensity, phase, and temporal delay as features [17].
Independent component analysis (ICA) was first applied to fMRI in 1998 by McKeown et al. using INFORMAX [19] and has been shown to be superior to principle component analysis (PCA) in determining the spatial and temporal extents of task-related activation. ICA can also be used to identify the nontask-related components, such as physiological noise and movement artifacts. Initially, ICA methods assumed that the sources were naturally occurring sources and mostly had a super-Gaussian probability density function. Later on, the super-Gaussian assumption was expanded to a combination of super-Gaussian and sub-Gaussian distribution assuming that the source distribution was either sub-Gaussian or super-Gaussian [20]. Recently, a mixture density model for the sources has been proposed that enables the unknown sources to have a flexible density distribution [21]. The advantages of ICA over PCA, the correlation of spatial ICA and temporal ICA to fMRI, and some other issues have been discussed in many papers for the past decade [22, 23]. In this study, ICA is implemented as an advanced preprocessing step in fMRI activation detection to remove artifacts by identifying and then removing some unrelated noisy components. ICA can also be used to identify temporally independent sources by implementing temporal ICA to fMRI signals within the region of interest (ROI). Sources identified by temporal ICA provide extra information regarding the segmentation of microvasculature and macrovasculature mixtures within one voxel.
Temporal characteristics of the BOLD response had been investigated by using a series of time-shifted reference functions [7, 24]. A better localization of the activated sites and temporal relationships among different brain regions within selected clusters of activated voxels was achieved using this dynamic correlation method. But this dynamic fitting used only a one-reference function at a time. Our method is to use a multi-component model representing a mixture of many vascular components to account for partial volume effect within one voxel [25, 26]. Because of physiological and random noises in the fMRI signal, the multiple components fitting of the dynamic mixture model can be further improved with both spatial and temporal ICA methods to improve SNR. Our purpose is to implement dynamic fitting in the proposed mixture model to account for different temporal characteristics of vascular components and to improve SNR with ICA integration for better microvasculature detections and a higher spatiotemporal resolution.
To test the methodology, an Institutional Review Board (IRB)-approved human study was conducted with fMRI on two normal subjects aged 25 and 40 years. A 480-volume of event-related EPI was acquired on a GE 1.5 T LX system from two continuous slices (i.e., two images per volume) through the visual cortex. The stimulus was a reversing checkerboard flashing with a 2-Hz frequency for 2 s every 20 s. The pulse repetition time TR = 275 ms, effective echo time TE = 45 ms, 45° flip angle, 64 × 128 acquisition matrix, and 20 × 40 cm field of view. A total of seven events were acquired.
A multi-component reference function with a variable latency and a variable time separation between adjacent components was fitted to the time course of each voxel within the visual cortex, as shown in Eq. (1)
where
Each vascular component is modeled by a reference function with a latency parameter (2):
where
Assuming the noise in fMRI is Gaussian white noise and the components (or mixtures) can be explicitly modeled by a series of reference functions, there are several ways to estimate the mixture coefficient and the latency of each component.
A non-negative least square (NNLS) solver [27] can be used to estimate the contribution coefficients of each component after normalizing both the time course and the components. At each iteration, only the column of S where the associated entry of A > 0 was used for least square estimation as in Eq. (3)
If the non-negative constraint is removed from the estimation, then a standard minimum norm method can be used to estimate the contribution coefficients of each component. The model falls in the general linear model (GLM) fitting problem [28]. Thus, the estimation of the coefficient and hypothesis testing for the estimation can be done using Eq. (4)
Recently, a first-order Taylor approximation for the temporal derivative of the reference function is used to estimate the delay of the fMRI response and the latency difference in different regions [29, 30]. Assuming that there is a slight time delay
where
After the mixture coefficients are estimated for any combination of two (or more) different reference functions, the combination of the two-reference functions that has the minimum fitting error or a maximum correlation coefficient with regard to the original time course of each voxel is the estimate of the two components with different latencies.
To account for the relatively small microvasculature signal compared to veins at 1.5 T, a weighting factor can be used to estimate the relative fractions of micro- and macrovasculature inside a voxel from the fitted coefficients. For two components, assume
In Eq. (2), each component comes from a reference function with certain latencies. The reference function mimicking the BOLD response is represented by the convolution of the stimuli function and the hemodynamic response function (HRF), assuming that the brain response is linear to the input (7)
HRF is the brain response to an impulse stimulus and is modeled as the difference between two gamma functions as in Eq. (8) [31]
where
Firstly, the influences of the HRF parameters
Secondly, a Monte-Carlo study was conducted to test the fitting algorithm and to study the influence of noise on the latency estimations. The simulated time course was a mixture of one- or two-reference functions at different latencies from a series of reference functions. The mixture coefficient
For the simulated time course coming from one-reference function case, the tested algorithms are GLM method for one component and one derivative (i.e., two basis functions), GLM method with only one component, and NNLS method with only one component. The results show that the estimation is unbiased for both NNLS and GLM methods for all SNRs, and the standard deviation (STD) for the estimation is relatively small (less than 100 ms) for both methods at SNR larger than 3. For the GLM plus the derivative component method, the estimation error is non-zero for larger SNR. This is because the method uses the first-order derivative as an approximation, assuming that the delay is very small and the assumption is not always valid. The result is consistent with Hensen [29]. So only, the GLM and the NNLS without derivative were tested for the mixture of two components.
For the case in which the simulated time course came from two mixed reference functions, the latency of first component and separation of the two reference functions were estimated. First, only the latency of the first component was estimated and the separation of the two reference functions was initialized and fixed. Then, the separation of the two reference functions is also set as a variable. The Monte-Carlo simulation shows that both fixed and variable separations between two reference functions give a small bias in the estimation of latency as a function of SNR in case of mixture fitting. However, the NNLS estimation algorithm produces smaller bias than GLM. Also, a variable separation gives a higher STD than a fixed separation for latency estimation. Therefore, NNLS with a fixed separation is used for this work.
To improve the fitting using the multi-component model, spatial ICA (SICA) was implemented first to improve SNR. Temporal ICA (TICA) had also been applied to the cleaned data within a region of interest to extract the possible intrinsic temporally independent sources. TICA has also been used on functional MRI by several groups [32, 33].
In SICA, the assumption is that all the intrinsic spatial independent components are mixed temporally and measured at different time (which has the same meaning as “channel”). In order for spatial ICA to work, the measured fMRI EPI 2D or 3D image will be transformed to 1D vector in the same order at each time. The whole fMRI data are formulated as a 2D matrix:
where
In order to get a good estimation of unmixing matrix and source components, the number of samples or voxel number (
In this chapter, we used PCA to estimate the number of the sources (
Three features are extracted for each independent component (IC) in order to select the artifacts components: (1) Spatial ICA map obtained by superimposing activated voxels on the anatomy for the
To clean the data, the noise independent components are removed by setting the associated columns of the noise components in the mixing matrix to be zero. Data are reconstructed from the possible signal components as shown in Eq. (10)
Microvasculature estimation based on the methods described was applied to the original data and the data after ICA cleaning. The histogram of voxels was detected as a function of latency in steps of TR = 275 ms for the single component (Figure 1). The histogram was fitted by a Gaussian distribution with the estimated mean and standard deviation. Since pixels containing mostly microvasculature would have a shorter latency among all detected voxels, the time separation from the peak of the Gaussian to its baseline on the left side would be a reasonable estimate of the time separation between the micro- and macrocomponents. The peak level was 22 (number of pixels) and Gaussian baseline is chosen at 10% of peak level which was 2.2. These correspond to indexes of 20 and 12, respectively, in units of TR. Therefore, a separation of 8*TR = 2.2 s was selected between the components of the two-component model.
Histogram showing the number of voxels as a function of latency (each point in X-axis is 275-ms unit) for best fitting time of a one-component model.
Figure 2 shows the histogram of dual-component models using separation time = 2.2 s. The histogram is a combination of two Gaussian distributions. The latency boundary of micro- and macrovascular classes is chosen based on the separation between two classes. The vertical line at ∼15 shows the separation boundary (Figure 2).
Histogram showing the number of voxels as a function of latency for best fitting time for a dual-component model.
Figure 3a shows the voxels (numbering 34) localized from fitting indexes 2–15 with earlier latency (latency up to 15, Figure 2) and has >50% fractional contribution from the earlier component. These voxels are likely to contain a microvasculature component. The relative fractional contribution of these components in the 34 voxels is shown in Figure 3b. Figure 3c shows the distribution of voxels indexed with a high latency (after 15 shown in Figure 2) likely to be veins. The relative contributions of the two components in these voxels are plotted in Figure 3d. In Figure 3c, a large vein structure can be seen that may contain a mixture of two macrovasculature components. In Figure 3a, the microvasculature estimated in the V5 region (marked by circle) is in gray matter, though a couple of pixels are likely to be macrovasculature and thus contain two vascular components as shown in Figure 3b. For macrovasculature voxels estimated in Figure 3c, since there might still be two vascular components (venules and veins) with different latencies, the fractional contributions shown in Figure 3d were not equally distributed as in Figure 3b.
Results of mixture model for microvasculature estimation. (a) Voxels corresponding to indexes up to 15 in
To further improve the mixture model, ICA is used as a preprocessing operation for denoising. PCA was used to estimate the number of the sources, and the number of components was chosen to be 30 (Figure 4) that contains ≥95% data variation and information. After PCA preprocessing, the data that maintain the first 30 largest components were used for the spatial ICA decomposition using the ICA INFORMAX software.
SVD decomposition of fMRI data. Cutoff horizontal line was chosen to discard less than 5% data variation with the corresponding number of components at 30.
Figure 5 shows the features of a one-source component. The first row is the spatial map of the 15th IC. V1, V2, and V5, expected to be activated, can be seen in the spatial map. The second row is the associated time course and the averaged time courses of original data. The associated time course matches well with the averaged original time course. The correlation coefficient between the associated time course and the reference function is 0.4 with P < 0.0001. The third row is the PSD of the associated time course shown in the unit of Hz. Since the stimulus is presented every 20 s, the corresponding frequency is 1/20 s = 0.05 Hz. The peak at 0.05 Hz can be seen in the PSD; however, there are also some large peaks around 0.1 Hz and lower frequencies that may come from the alias of the physiological noise. This component is mostly likely to be task-related based on the high CC of 0.4 and a distinct peak at 0.05 Hz in PSD. Figures 6 and 7 show two examples of components attributed to physiological noise. For instance, the source that is most likely from the heart-beating with a dominant peak in 1.2 Hz is shown in Figure 6, and the source that is from breathing and heart beating activation in the ventricles with distinct frequencies at 0.27 and 1.2 Hz as in Figure 7. Figure 8 demonstrates an example of the motion artifact component. The associated time course shows a gradual drift along time. This component is likely to be movement-based low-frequency drift. The activations have a “ring-like” spatial distribution that is coming from head movement.
Representative result of one component from spatial ICA that is task related. (a) Spatial map of the 15th IC. V1, V2, and V5, expected to be activated, can be seen in the spatial map. (b) Associated time course (red) and the averaged time courses of original data (blue). The associated time course matches well with the averaged original time course. The correlation coefficient between the associated time course and the reference function is 0.4. (c) Power spectrum density (PSD) of the associated time course shown in the unit of Hz. Since the stimulus is presented every 20 s, the corresponding frequency is 1/20 s = 0.05 Hz as seen with the large peak in the spectrum.
One noisy component from heart beating.
Another noisy component from both breathing and heart beating with distinct frequencies at 0.27 (from breathing) and 1.2 Hz (from heart beating).
Result of motion artifact component from spatial ICA.
Eight noise components were identified based on the three features, and data were reconstructed by removing these components. We applied both multi-component model and TICA to the original data and the data after ICA cleaning to the visual cortex. Dynamic mixture model was used to fit the data after ICA cleaning. The same time separation, 2.2 s, of “before ICA” was used for “after ICA” fitting.
Figure 9 shows the histogram of a dual-component model using component separation time = 2.2 s after ICA cleaning. The separation of micro- and macrovascular classes was ∼12. The shape of the Gaussian distribution is narrowed compared to Figure 2 before ICA. This is because ICA has removed the noisy voxels and thus the distribution is less Gaussian.
Histogram showing the number of voxels as a function of latency for best fitting time for a dual-component model after ICA cleaning.
Figure 10a shows the voxels (numbering 50) localized from low latency (up to 12, Figure 4) and has >50% fractional contribution from the earlier component. These voxels are likely to contain a microvasculature component. Figure 10b shows the relative fractional contribution of these components. Figure 10c shows the distribution of voxels indexed with a high latency (after 12 in Figure 9) likely to be veins. The relative contributions of two components in these later voxels are plotted in Figure 10d.
Results of microvasculature estimation after ICA cleaning. (a) Voxels corresponding to indexes up to 13 in
The average correlation coefficient for the fitting after ICA cleaning has increased around 70% compared to the original fitting (Figure 11). The number of voxels at an earlier latency (up to 15 in Figure 2 and up to 12 in Figure 9) also increased. The number of voxels that are most likely to be microvasculature has increased from 34 to 50 (∼50%) after ICA. The regions marked by a circle in Figure 10 identified microvasculature in V5 region on the left side which was missed by the estimation before ICA.
Correlation coefficient (CC) before ICA (blue) and after ICA (red). Average CC of all voxels improved 70% after ICA compared to original fitting without ICA denoising.
For all the estimated microvasculature, the fractional contribution coefficients of two components after ICA (Figure 10b) are the same, suggesting all the voxels are in the microvasculature. The fractional contribution coefficients of two components in the macrovasculature are different with venules and veins.
We have implemented further temporal ICA to the data after spatial ICA cleaning in the cluster that has a higher correlation (≥0.3) to the reference function. The assumption is that the concurrent active voxels may still be mixed with different types of temporally independent components.
The number of components was set to be 10 based on the PCA of the cleaned data within the activated cluster. There is an associated spatial map for each temporal component that reflects the spatial contribution of the component. The spatial map of each temporal IC is shown in Figure 12. Compared to the micro and macrovasculature images, temporal IC #9 and IC #1 in Figure 12 have activation patterns similar to the macrovasculature image in Figure 10c, while the spatial map of temporal IC #10 and IC #4 has similar distributions with the microvasculature image in Figure 10a.
Ten associated maps of temporal independent components (IC) identified by TICA.
We have described a novel multiple-component model that takes into consideration vascular mixtures in the fMRI BOLD signal and partial volume effect and developed methods to estimate the contribution of each component. Experimental studies have shown that compared to the traditional single-component model, our method achieves a better match to the original time courses of fMRI and thus reduces the fitting errors. Another advantage of the method is that it allows us to estimate microvasculature. The microvasculature is closer to the site of neuronal activation and validated with the temporal ICA method, as expected [36]. Spatial ICA has been used as a preprocessing step in the mixture model to remove noise and improve the microvasculature detection with a higher CC and more voxels with lower latencies detected. The spatial and temporal distributions of all these noisy components were consistent with the results of other studies [32, 34, 37].
We use a series of reference functions to model the brain vascular components. Compared to the classical single-component model, the multi-component model fits the measured fMRI time course with a higher correlation coefficient and also detects voxels with low latencies more efficiently. Different vascular components will have different HRF shapes. Therefore, how the brain vascular components can be modeled more accurately needs to be investigated in the future. Also, the multiple reference functions are not orthogonal to each other; some de-correlation methods can be further implemented to improve the robustness of the fitting. Temporal ICA decomposition in the activated regions could overcome these problems with good spatial correspondence results between temporal ICA and mixture models. One limitation is that temporal independent assumption might not be fully satisfied in fMRI data since hemodynamic responses evolve with time [29].
In conclusion, we had used two new methods (i.e., ICA and dynamic mixture model) to improve microvasculature detection in fMRI that is closer to true neuronal activation and therefore improve the specificity of the fMRI microvasculature detection in both functional and structural ways [38]. Further integration and validation with other modalities such as EEG and PET are warranted in the near future. Further imaging of the full dynamic spatiotemporal multi-parametric functional and neurophysiological profile including BOLD microvasculature activation, couplings between BOLD and CBF/CBV, between BOLD, and oxygen extraction/ metabolism [39] are expected in the near future [40].
The authors thank Dr. Singh and colleagues for their help on this work.
Heat stress is one of the challenging stress factors for goat farming under changing climatic scenario across the world due to global warming [1]. It is well established that environment stressor either hot or cold negatively affect the productive and reproductive performance of goat via reducing growth [2], milk yield [3], reproductive performance [4] and meat production [5], as well as immunity, making the goats more susceptible to various diseases and extreme cases even death [6, 7]. Therefore, the focus should be on adaptive capacity of goats for selection of breed which are best suited and reproduce, perform better under extreme environment [8, 9]. Hence, there is a growing demand for selection of goats that are best suited to a wide range of geographical and harsh environment. Like every animal, goats possess several unique morphological and physiological adaptive mechanisms [6]. It is important to understand the adaptive mechanisms of goat to heat stressor, to evolve fast-growing new breed of goat, identification of bio-markers at the gene level to produce heat-tolerant transgenic goat having high growth rate and adaptability. This chapter is therefore, an attempt to provide the underlying various adaptive mechanisms of goat to heat stressor.
Adaptation is the capacity and the process of adjustment of an animal to itself, to other living material and to external physical environment. In term of biology, adaptation (biology) is defined as the morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical and behavioural characteristics of the animals, which promotes welfare and favour the survival in a specific environment. According to genetic, adaptation (genetic) is defined as the heritable animal characteristics which favour survival of a population in a particular environment. Further, in term of physiology, adaptation (Physiology) is defined the capacity and process of adjustment of the animals to itself to other living materials and its external physical environment. These adaptive changes either genetic or phenotypic (physiological) occur in animals in response to internal and external stimuli [10], which allows normal activity of the animals in an altered but tolerable climatologically range. There are series of behavioral, physiological, biochemical, hormonal, and molecular changes at the gene level to cope with heat stressor which may or may not lead to permanent genetic changes. Therefore, the adoptive capacity of animals to a stressful condition is a function of both its genetic and the intensity & duration of the stressor.
Adaptive mechanisms of goat to heat stress either hot or cold were evaluated on the basis of behavioral, morphological, physiological, biochemical, hormonal and molecular changes at the gene level. This adaptive response to heat stress experiments were conducted either in climatic chamber under control climatic conditions or under natural environmental conditions especially seasonal variations such as extreme hot (summer) and cold season (winter). Many experiments were conducted in terms of comparative assessment between indigenous native goat breeds in their own home tract with that of exotic, crossbred as well as goat breed originated in different environmental condition under similar managemental condition, sufficient feed and clean adlibitum water.
A temperature humidity index (THI) was the most preferred method to detect goat under heat stress and co-relation to access adaptive capacity of goats to different environments/heat stressor. It was calculated from dry and wet bulb temperature using following formula.
where Dbt = dry bulb temperature in °C and Wbt = wet bulb temperature in °C.
Body length, body height, body heart girth, horn length, ear length, tail length, coat colour, pigmentation and body weight are the mostly studied morphological variables to determine the adaptive capacity of goat to heat stressor. Body weight of the goats were weighed in fasting condition at early morning on settled platform after the setting of weighing balance at zero [9].
Behavioral responses like standing time, lying time, drinking frequency, defecation frequency, and urination frequency were recorded during the study period [11].
Physiological variable such as respiration rate (RR) was recorded by counting flank movements per minute, from adistance of 4–5 meters without disturbing the experimental goats. The unit of measurement of RR was in breaths per minute. Rectaltemperature (RT) was recorded using a clinical thermometer by gently restraining the goats. The unit of measurement of RTwas in degrees centigrade. Skin temperature ST) o f goats varies based on the quantum of sun rays to which the different body parts were exposed. Generally, in male goats, the skin temperature was recorded on the head, scrotum, and flank region. Skin temperatures were recorded using a infrared thermometer (B.S.K. Technologies, Hyderabad, India) by maintaining a distance of 5 to 15 cm [11].
Heart rate (HR) was measured by auscultation method with the aid of a flexible stethoscope by counting the number of heart sounds and beats for 20 s; the results were multiplied by 3 to express the values on a minute-time scale.
Sweat glands number was analyzed by the histological method [12]. Approximately 1–2 cm of skin sampled from the neck, flank and hindquarters were collected. These samples were processed by paraffin embedding and prepared skin smear and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. The stained skin smear was conducted on a photomicroscope under 20 × magnifications. A total of 20 fields were examined for each skin smear and images were captured to count the number of sweat gland appeared by the ImageJ® software program. The numbers of sweat glands in these images were counted on the basis of the number of hair follicles that were observed.
Blood samples were collected from experimental goats from jugular vein in vacutainer tubes with anticoagulant under aseptic conditions at fortnightly intervals for estimation of hematological, biochemical and hormonal variables. Plasma was immediately separated aftercentrifugation at 3500 g for 8 min and aliquated the plasma samples were stored at−80 °C until analysis.
Haematological variables were measured in fresh blood samples. These variables were measured using an automated blood analyzer. It was also measured as per conventional methods. Total erythrocyte and total leucocytes was measured by haemocytometer method. Packed cell volume was determined using capillary tubes inmicrohaematocrit centrifuge based on the technique described by Wintrobe method. Haemoglobin concentration was estimated by cyanmethemoglobin method. Fresh blood was used for preparing smears for differential leukocytes count (DLC). The bloodfilm was dried by waving the slide in the air and stained with field stain, and counting was done under microscope. The biochemical variables such as AST, ALT, glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were analysed using a biochemical analysis apparatus (Thermo Scientific Genesys 10S Vis, Centreville, VA, USA) as well as few experiments quantified by using commercial diagnostic kits as per manufactures protocols. Non-Ester fatty acids (NEFA), betahydroxybutyrate (β-HBA), cortisol, aldosterone, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) were quantified by using commercial diagnostic kits as per manufactures protocols.
Blood samples were collected from experimental goats from the jugular vein in a heparinized vials and centrifugation was done at 3500 rpm for 25 min at 4 °C for collection of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) pellet. Total RNA was extracted from the PMBC pellet using RNA extraction kit as per manufacturer’s protocol. The total RNA was reverse transcribed into complementary DNA (c-DNA) using cDNA synthesis kit for real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction as per manufacturer’s protocol. Relative expression of mRNA transcripts of Heat Shock Protein (HSP) and other stress associated genes by quantitativereal-time PCR using SYBR Greenas per manufacturer’s protocol. Each sample was run in triplicate and in all cases, samples of total RNA were used as negative control.
The data were analyzed by two way ANOVA using SPSS 16.0 statistical software. Results were expressed as the mean ± SEM. A difference with value p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Behaviour is the first and foremost one of the most effective adaptive mechanism, at least for the short term period. This mechanism allows goat to reduce the heat load by avoiding/reducing direct exposure to solar radiation. Behavioral changes include seeking shelter [11], changing posture (eg: standing or altering orientation to the shade or wind breaks [13, 14], reducing feed intake (When exposed to hot) or increasing feed intake (When exposed to cold) [15], standing time, lying time, drinking frequency, defecation frequency, urination frequency [11] etc. Goat tends to spend more time on standing in hot humid environment to avoid direct solar radiation as well as radiation heat from the ground. For example; Fawn goats have different eating behaviors in comparison with Saanen x hair goats, when they were exposed to heat stress and poor nutritional condition [16]. These behavioral responses are to prevent additional heat load from the ground as well as to facilitate effective heat dissemination from the body of the animals to the surrounding environment [17]. Hence, the understandings of normal behaviors goats are paramount for assessing the impact of heat stress and adaptive capabilities.
Goats can cope with a variety of geography that include deserts, alpine regions, high altitude mountain hilly area, wet and dry tropics, arctic and temperate zone. Morphological or phenotypic variations are part of adaptive changes to a wide range of geography and environment. These variations are depending upon their ecological niche where they are originated. The most common morphological changes are
Size and shape.
Coat colors and pigmentation.
Morphological adaptive changes due to heat stressor in animals are the most pronounced and efficient response to cope with the heat stressor. Bergmann [18] stated that the smaller sized breed of a given species are found in the warmer regions of ecological range and the larger sized breeds in the cooler localities. Further, the extremities (eg. ear, tail, bills) are smaller in the species inhabiting the cooler part of ecological range than those in warmer parts [19]. All these morphological characteristics are very crucial from the adaption point of view as it directly influence the heat exchange mechanisms via convection, radiation and evaporation between goats and surrounding environment [13]. For example Sudanese and Egyptian desert goats have relatively medium to large body size, which help in evaporative heat loss and it is a part of morphological adaptive response [20]. Similarly, non-dwarfed breeds of goats in the desert and savannah areas of Africa are much smaller than typical European breed of goats [21].
Coat colors and skin pigmentation are directly attributed towards heat loss from the body via conduction and convection in goats. The sensible heat loss via conduction and convection from the body of the animal are affected by the surface area per unit body weight, coat color, the magnitude of the temperature gradient between the goats the skin to the surrounding air [22]. Light coats colour and sleek and shiny hair coats are reflected a greater proportion of incident solar radiation than hair coats that are dark in colour or more dense and woolly [23]. For example, West African dwarf goats have smooth, short, and straight hair, which helps them to adapt in hot and humid environment [22]. Similarly, Black coat colour goats are dominant in hot deserts area and they have advantages to cope with direct exposure of solar radiation over white goats. Although, the black coat absorbs much more incident of direct solar radiation, these goats can drink an amount of water that equal to about 35% of their body weight, thus help in efficiently adjust to hot and humid environment by evaporation mechanism [24]. In addition, pigmented skin protects the deep tissues from direct short wave UV radiation by blocking its penetration in hot tropical regions. Thus, it prevents extra heat gain by the goats through direct solar radiation.
The physiological adaptations are most often caused by acute stressors. These changes are manifested as respiration rate, sweating rate, body temperature, skin temperature, heart rate etc.
Respiratory rate is the first foremost physiological response to heat stressors in goats [8, 25]. Respiration is the process of inhalation of oxygen (O2), followed by elimination of carbon dioxide (CO2), produced as a result of cellular metabolisms by the cells which lead to evaporative moisture loss from the respiratory tract to maintain thermal balance of the animals. This mechanism is very crucial for preventing the hypothermia which otherwise occur under thermal/heat stress [26]. As temperature increased above the thermal comfort zone of the goats, a marked increase in the respiratory rate from the normal level indicated that the goats are trying to maintain homeostasis by dissipating heat load from the body through evaporative cooling mechanism by vaporizing more moisture to the surrounding environment [27, 28]. Normally, respiration rate increased during summer due to increase in ambient temperature and decreased during winter due to decline in ambient temperature. Respiration rate increased during summer to increase heat loss through sweating and respiration. When this physiological adaptive response is failed to alleviate the effect of heat load by evaporation cooling mechanism, the body temperature may increase to a point at which goat’s well-being and productive performances are compromised mainly due to reduce feed intake and extra energy loss in the process heat loss from the body. Respiratory rate increased during the summer season which indicated that goats are under stressed [29]. So, rapid increase in the respiratory rate in response to heat stress indicates the greater susceptibility of goats to heat stress. This physiological response has been found to be different from breed to breed. This adaptive response may be attributed to breed difference and adaptation to different heat stress [1, 29, 30]. For example, a higher respiratory rate was recorded in cold-adapted goats (Gaddi and Chegu) compared to that of heat adapted goats (Sirohi and Barbari) during summer [30].
Rectal temperature represents the resultant of all heat gain (both metabolic and radiation heat) and heat loss of the body. It is used to measure the core body temperature of animals. Also, it acts as a natural passage way for dissipation of extra heat to maintain physiological homeostasis and body temperature [1]. Hence, it is an indicator of heat stress and may be used to assess the heat stress and adaptive capacity of goats. Normal rectal temperature of goats ranges between 38.3 to 40 °C. An elevation of the rectal temperature occurs only when the sweating and respiratory evaporation mechanisms failed to maintain homeothermy in goats [29, 30, 31]. This physiological response is varied from breed to breed and climatic conditions. For example, a higher rectal temperature was recorded in cold-adapted goats (Gaddi and Chegu) compared to that of heat adapted goats (Sirohi and Barbari) during summer and might be attributed to different heat stress [30].
Skin is an important passageway for heat exchange between the animal’s body and the surrounding environment. Skin temperature is a result of blood flow to the skin, which ends with regulation of heat exchange between body core and the skin [32]. Skin temperature increased under stressful condition for redistribution of blood flow to the skin surfaces so as to form a gradient between ambient temperature and skin surface temperature for heat dissipation from the body of the animals to the surrounding environment. So, when an ambient temperature is greater than skin temperature, the temperature gradient between the body surface and the environment decreases, impeding heat dissipation in this case by an evaporative mechanism [25]. But, it depends on heat stressor including nutritional stress. For example, highest skin temperature of the head, flank, and scrotum was recorded during the afternoon of a day in Osmanabadi goats subjected to combined (heat and nutritional) stressors [11]. This increased in skin temperature for vasodilatation of the skin capillary bed and consequently increases the blood flow to the skin surface to facilitate heat dissipation.
Heart rate reflects primarily the homeostasis of circulation along with the general metabolic status of animals. Heart rate of animals increased under stressful condition to increases blood flow from the core to the surface of the body to give a chance for more heat to be lost by sensible (conduction, convention and radiation) and insensible (diffusion water from the skin) means [33]. A marked acceleration of the heart rate occurs during the hottest part of the day to decrease heat production [34].
Heat stress leads to activation sweating to maintain physiological homeostasis and body temperature. Specially, when respiratory mechanism is failed to maintain physiological homeostasis, it activate the evaporative heat loss mechanisms by involving an increase in sweating rate and respiratory minute volume about 70–85% [35]. The goats have greater sweating rate and lower body weight: surface ratio, which allows efficient way to heat dissipation from the body to the surrounding environment [36]. For example Black Bedouin goats can able to store large volumes of body water, and have considerable sweating capacity which allows them to cope in hot environment [37].
The hematology profile is an attributing adaptive response to cope with heat stress either hot or cold in animals. Heat stress effects on hematological parameters such as packed cell volume (PCV), hemoglobin (Hb), total erythrocytes count (TEC), total leukocytes count (TLC), lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes, granulocytes, and pH [38]. Hb, PCV, TEC and TLC levels increased during winter season in cold climate climatic condition whereas these variables levels decreased during summer in goats [30, 39]. Similarly, Upadhyay and Rao [40] and Abdelatif et al. [41] observed decreased levels of mean TLC, TEC, Hb and PCV during summer months and increased during winter months in goat. Increased in PCV and Hb levels could be availability of adequate nutrients for synthesis of Hb as the goat consumes more feed during winter season [42]. Further, hematological response to the heat stressor is varied from breed to breed [30]. They reported a decreased in mean Hb, PCV, TEC and TLC levels during summer in Sirohi and Barbari goats as they were well adapted to hot climate and less susceptible to heat stress. But the decline in Hb, PCV, TEC and TLC was more in Gaddi and Chegu goats as they were less adapted to hot climate more susceptible to heat stress during summer.
Biochemical composition is directly proportional to the metabolic status of animals and can be used as an index for assessing the adaptation capacity to heat stressors. Heat stress causes alteration in blood biochemical parameters such as glucose, NEFA and β-HBA, total protein, albumin, globulin, to maintain physiological homeostasis especially energy balance through basal metabolic heat production. These responses may be due to a direct effect of high temperature on metabolic function or may be a result of heat impacting gene expression.
A decreased level of blood glucose, cholesterol and free fatty acid levels were recorded in goats in response to heat stress [38]. This low level of blood glucose level could be related to reduce feed intake due to heat stress especially during summer [30, 43]. Further, increased blood glucose level in cold-adapted goat breeds such as Gaddi and Chegu was higher during summer in compared to Sirohi and Barbari goats as they are well adapted to hot climate [29]. The high blood glucose level during summer may be due to increased glucocorticoids especially cortisol due to increase level of stress related to ambient temperature. Further, NEFA and β-HBA are used for energy status of the animals [28]. Heat-stressed goat showed a decreased level of NEFA and β-HBA [36]. This may be related to the adaptive capability of the goats to maintain constant energy requirements.
Heat stress affects the protein metabolism of goats [44]. Metabolism is a part of adaptive response to the heat stress. Helal et al., [45] reported decreased in total plasma protein, albumin and globulin levels in goats subject to heat stress [45]. This might be due to an increase in plasma volume as a result of heat stress. In contrast, heat stress increased total protein and albumin levels due to increase respiration rate in goats for enhancing evaporating cooling [46]. This variation is might be due to adaptive capacity of goods. Indigenous breeds of goats are relatively better adapted to heat stress in their own native place.
Neuro-endocrine responses to heat stress play an integral role in the adaptive mechanisms in animals. It is a crucial stress axis to accomplish physiological homeostasis by releasing several hormones for regulation of energy mobilization, cardiovascular and respiratory functions [47]. The hypothalamus serves as the main integrative control unit for neuro-endocrine responses. It receives information from peripheral as well as central nervous system and triggers an appropriate hormonal signal to maintain the internal milieu of the animals. The activation of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal axis leads to enhance synthesis and release of cortisol and aldosterone levels into circulation under stressful conditions in goats [48]. These hormones are regulated the metabolism, also behavioral response to heat stressor in goats by favoring glycogenolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis to supply required energy to restore homeostasis. However, the cortisol level was varied considerable between heat- and cold-adapted goats. For example, the cortisol level was higher in heat-adapted goats such as Sirohi and Barbari than in the cold-adapted breeds such as Gaddi and Chegu [30]. The differences in the cortisol levels may be due to adaptation of heat- and cold-adapted goats to different environment conditions, which might helps in physiological adjustment to the environment and enables goats to tolerate stressful conditions. In case of heat-tolerant breeds such as Sirohi and Barbari goats, the cortisol level increased during winter. This increase in cortisol level during winter due to cold stress so as to increase basal metabolism to maintains of the normal body temperature. However, in case of cold-tolerant goats, the cortisol level was lower during winter, thus it is reflected as adaptive response and comfortably to cold climatic condition.
Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) stimulate oxygen consumption and heat production by the cells [49], and regulate the basal metabolic heat production in animals. Thus, the level of thyroid hormones may reflect an adaptation response to the heat stressor in order to reduce the basal metabolic heat production. Decrease levels of T3 and T4 during heat stress is an adaptive response [50], which enables reduces the basal metabolic rate and thus metabolic heat production goats [51, 52, 53] and heat production by the cells [54]. The secretion and release of thyroid hormones are affected by environmental stressor and adaptive capacity of the goats breed. For example, a high blood thyroid hormone levels was recorded in cold-adapted breeds (Gaddi and Chegu) than for heat adapted breeds (Sirohi and Barbari) goats [30]. This may be attributed to breed differences and their adaptation to different climatic conditions, which is associated with energy metabolism. The increased level of thyroid hormones may be due to low ambient temperature during winter to increase metabolic rate and increased body heat production to maintain core body temperature.
With the advancing modern biotechnological tools, it could able to identify and characterize gene expression patterns associated with cellular adaptation mechanisms of goats at the molecular level [29, 42]. A complex network of gene associated with adaptation to heat stressor in goat [55]. Out of these, many genes determine an individual’s capability to adapt to the heat stress. Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are perhaps the best-studied examples of genes whose expression are associated with adaptive capacity of to heat stress. These HSP genes such as HSP60, HSP70, and HSP90 are highly conserved proteins belong to the chaperones family proteins across evolutionary lines that are expressed under various kinds of stressor and play pivotal role in regulating the proper folding of proteins [56], intracellular transport, maintenance of proteins in an inactive form, the prevention of protein degradation [57], and to adapt progressively to the changing environment to ameliorate the deleterious effects of heat stress [58]. The genes expression profile is depended on kind of goat breeds and type of environmental stressor such as heat or cold [29, 59]. For example, the expression of HSP70 was unregulated in heat stressed goats remained elevated only for 4 hours and returned back to basal level after 8 hours of heat stress withdrawal [60, 61]. Further, it was reported that cold stress was not enough to produce an alteration in HSPs gene expression except in Jhakrana goats [29]. They reported that an increase in HSP90 expression during winter season in Jhakrana goats indicated that cold stress could induce stress in Jhakrana goats, while Barbari and Siorhi goats exhibited adaptation to the same. Madhusoodan et al. [58] reported that the native indigenous goats breed was comparatively better adopted to own ecological niche or environment. They recorded a low level of expression of all heat shock response genes such as HSP70, HSP90, super oxide dismutase (SOD), nitrous oxide synthase 1 (NOS1) in Salem Black goats. The lower level of expression may be due to a sub-threshold level of the heat stress attained in the study to induce cellular stress response in Salem Black goats.
Apart from HSP genes, several other genes such as SOD, NOS, thyroid hormone receptor (THR) and prolactin receptor (PRLR) genes are associated with heat tolerant in animals [62]. Higher expression of NOS was reported in heat stressed goats, which help in vasodilatations of the skin to favor cutaneous evaporative cooling mechanisms to dissipate excess heat from the skin surface [31, 58]. Variations in the gene expression were due to gene–environment interaction and which favor the survival of a population in a particular environment [63, 64, 65]. Therefore; heat-tolerant genes play a significant role for regulation of physiological homeostasis and body temperature [66], and could be useful for production of heat stress tolerant goat breed by conventional approach through artificial selection as well as advance biotechnology tools using transgenic technology. Affymetrix Gene Chip Bovine Genome designed to monitor expression of approximately 23,000 transcripts, it has identified 39 and 74 genes whose expression was up- and down-regulated, and respectively by heat stressor in the blood cells of goats [3] and the genes are as follows (Table 1).
Breeds | Genes | Function | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Mexico goat | Thermo-tolerant | [67] | |
Chines goat | Coloration | [68] | |
Chines goat | Body size | [68] | |
Baraki goat | Thermo-tolerance (melanogenesis) | [66] | |
Baraki goat | Body size and development | [66] | |
Baraki goat | Energy and digestive metabolism | [66] | |
Baraki goat | Nervous and autoimmune response | [65] | |
Ugandan goat | Immune response | [69] |
Enlisted a few genes associated with heat tolerance in goats.
Heat stress has negatively affected the productive and reproductive performances of goat. Under the changing climate scenario due to global warming, the immediate need is to understand the adaptive mechanisms and identification of heat tolerant genes. Adaptive mechanism will provide basis strategies for management and to evolve fast-growing new goat breed as well as the production of heat tolerant transgenic goat for sustainable and profitable goat farming under challenged environment.
The authors are thankful to Hon’ble Vice Chancellor of Central Agricultural University, Imphal.
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Fish",authors:[{id:"36989",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynn",middleName:null,surname:"Fish",slug:"lynn-fish",fullName:"Lynn Fish"}]},{id:"17152",title:"Advanced Supply Chain Planning Systems (APS) Today and Tomorrow",slug:"advanced-supply-chain-planning-systems-aps-today-and-tomorrow",totalDownloads:10739,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"274",slug:"supply-chain-management-pathways-for-research-and-practice",title:"Supply Chain Management",fullTitle:"Supply Chain Management - Pathways for Research and Practice"},signatures:"Luis Antonio de Santa-Eulalia, Sophie D’Amours, Jean-Marc Frayret, Cláudio César Menegusso and Rodrigo Cambiaghi Azevedo",authors:[{id:"33605",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"de Santa-Eulalia",slug:"luis-antonio-de-santa-eulalia",fullName:"Luis Antonio de Santa-Eulalia"},{id:"34023",title:"Prof.",name:"Sophie",middleName:null,surname:"D'Amours",slug:"sophie-d'amours",fullName:"Sophie D'Amours"},{id:"34024",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Frayret",slug:"jean-marc-frayret",fullName:"Jean-Marc Frayret"},{id:"34025",title:"Mr",name:"Claudio",middleName:"Cesar",surname:"Menegusso",slug:"claudio-menegusso",fullName:"Claudio Menegusso"},{id:"34026",title:"Prof.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:"Cambiaghi",surname:"Azevedo",slug:"rodrigo-azevedo",fullName:"Rodrigo Azevedo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"446",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82344",title:"Supply Chain: A Modeling-Based Approach for Cyber-Physical Systems",slug:"supply-chain-a-modeling-based-approach-for-cyber-physical-systems",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105527",abstract:"Within the frame of this chapter, the author focuses on the distribution processes of green supply chain solutions and describes a potential mathematical model, taking environmental aspects into consideration. The first part of the chapter includes a systematic literature review. Based on the identified research gap, a new mathematical model is described, which makes it possible to describe last-mile logistics processes from an environmental point of view. The functional model of the distribution system includes the potential of Industry 4.0 technologies, which makes it possible to gather real-time information from the distribution process and use real-time status information for a sophisticated design and operation. The mathematical model of this approach defines an NP-hard optimization problem; therefore, heuristic optimization algorithm is supposed to solve the design and operation tasks of the green distribution problem. As the computational results show, cyber-physical systems increase the performance of green supply chain solutions and have a great impact on operational cost. As the numerical example shows, the integrated approach resulted in a 5.3% cost reduction in transportation operations.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Ágota Bányai"},{id:"82191",title:"Open Innovation Strategies on New Product and Process Development Prospects: A Case of the Automotive Component Manufacturers in South Africa",slug:"open-innovation-strategies-on-new-product-and-process-development-prospects-a-case-of-the-automotive",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105035",abstract:"Competition between South African Automotive Component Manufacturers ACMs has focused on activities associated with supply chain management such as transporting raw materials and finished products. However, these activities are non-value, adding, so they are an area of relative opportunities for cost reduction; hence new product development presents a significant boost to competitiveness. This chapter\\'s primary goal is to determine which open innovation practices can benefit ACMs in developing new products and processes by using a sample survey of 10 ACMs in the automotive manufacturing industry in South Africa. The study adopted a quantitative methodology approach using a 5 Likert structured questionnaire. Data were collected from 33 respondents, including owners, senior and junior managers of ACMs. The results identified that idea generation positively influences the Open Innovation activity of seeking new outside applications for internally developed innovations, knowledge, tools and ideas on new product development. The significant implications are that ACMs should improve their dynamic capabilities to turn ideas generated into new innovative products to remain competitive. This chapter contributes to the existing knowledge by suggesting a contextualised impact of open innovation strategy on sustainable new product development of ACMs in South Africa.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Arthur Mzwandile Gonyora and Pfano Mashau"},{id:"81340",title:"Sustainable and Efficient City Logistics",slug:"sustainable-and-efficient-city-logistics",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104413",abstract:"This article is discussing the basic trend and challenges in city logistics operations. The role of each actor in city logistics has been highlighted. The actors have enabled city logistics to generates the main benefits for the city logistics operations need to focus. Critical trends and challenges that contributed towards city logistics development has shown that city logistics efficiency need to be addressed to ensure sustainable impact to the cities. Different approaches in making the city logistics operations were implemented to ensure that the customers get their possession according to the stipulated time. The usage of new technology has also assisted in enhancing the efficiency of city logistics deliveries. By providing the right strategies, the objective of achieving sustainable city logistics can be obtained.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Shahrin Nasir"},{id:"81222",title:"Industry 4.0: The Tenets of the Next Generation of Supply Chain Management",slug:"industry-4-0-the-tenets-of-the-next-generation-of-supply-chain-management",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102979",abstract:"The supply chain industry is at the crossroads of the business revolution through the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), impacting business activities across industries. The transformative elements of 4IR offer individual consumers, corporations, and governments unprecedented opportunities to link, collaborate, process, and manage rising consumer and business data to boost decision-making, efficiency, and productivity. Evidence shows that have applied a mix of collaborative and innovative technologies to internal and external activities to manage supply chain disruptions. The groundbreaking technological advancements paved the way for the supply industry to shift supply business prototypes from traditional supply chain models to supply web models. The shift has helped firms resolve national and global supply chain disruptions. The present chapter introduces the Supply Web (SW) concept and its distinctive tenets by adding to the growing body of the evolving Industry 4.0 field, knowledge to help advance the field. The author calls on governments, the global supply industry, and academia to consider embracing the new SW paradigm evolving under 4IR to help resolve societal and consumer challenges emerging in the 21st Century.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Andre T. Mayounga"},{id:"80946",title:"Industry 4.0 Technologies Impact on Supply Chain Sustainability",slug:"industry-4-0-technologies-impact-on-supply-chain-sustainability",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102978",abstract:"A supply chain is a network that links technology, activities, resources and organisations involved in the manufacturing and distribution of product and services. Supply Chain Operations Reference model (SCOR) defines basic processes of the supply chain (SC) into five categories as Plan, Source, Make, Delivery and Return. The search for a more sustainable production and consumption system is so relevant today that the United Nations (UN) have selected it as one of their paramount societal objectives for sustainable development. The implementation of sustainability in production and consumption processes aims to mitigate negative pressures on the ecosystem generated by products, services, and transportation. Industry 4.0 (I40) technologies have sparked interest in recent years. The advanced digital technologies of I40 such as big data analytics (BDA), artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), internet of things (IoT) and sensors, block chain technology (BCT), robotic systems (RS), cloud computing (CC), cyber-physical system (CPS), additive manufacturing (AM) /3D printing (3D), virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), autonomous vehicles (AV), and drones have found applications in many processes of manufacturing, logistics and SC. The benefits are sustainability, efficiency, cost reduction, transparency, traceability, and collaboration. In addition to benefits, I40 implementation is not free from challenges.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammad Akhtar"},{id:"80711",title:"Enhancing the Resilience of Sustainable Supplier Management through Combination with Lean and Audit",slug:"enhancing-the-resilience-of-sustainable-supplier-management-through-combination-with-lean-and-audit",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102465",abstract:"Industry 4.0 has positive effect on the enhancing of the resilience. However, if the resilience can be promoted by lean and auditing environment priority, after further combine with industry 4.0 environment, the resilience will become stronger. Even though, two research questions should be verified priority: How do manufacturers make good use of pull production and employee involvement under lean practices that can strengthen supplier management robustness and enhance the prevention ability of resilience? Why does the combination of lean practices with an audit mechanism strengthen the produce synergy to prevent and control opportunistic behaviour by suppliers? PLS and the Sobel test were applied to survey data from 231 Chinese manufacturers to test and verify research questions. Pull production and employee involvement can enhance responsible purchasing, emergency-response, manufacturing process coupling, and further strengthen supplier management robustness, further enhance the prevention ability of resilience in dealing with opportunistic behaviour. In addition, enhancing manufacturing process coupling has the indirect effect of strengthening emergency-response ability. The audit mechanism can control the dysfunctional behaviour of the supplier, further guiding cooperation with the practice of pull production and employee involvement; in addition, audits also trigger the supplier’s trade-off mindset in terms of risk and profit maintenance.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Ping-Kuo Chen, Qiu-Rui He and Xiang Huang"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:11},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. 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He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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