Participant characteristic.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5378",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Epidemiology and Ecology of Leishmaniasis",title:"The Epidemiology and Ecology of Leishmaniasis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne, parasitic disease with tremendous variety in presentation, biology, and epidemiology. Any book on this disease must acknowledge the nearly impossible task of providing an exhaustive account of leishmaniasis simply because the epidemiology of the disease is so very complex. This book addresses some of this variety with chapters on the epidemiology of leishmaniasis in North Africa, Central America, and South America. The purpose of the book is not to specifically address diagnosis and treatment of the disease, but rather to provide a sample of the differing epidemiologies of leishmaniasis that occur due to variations in local habitats; the presence of different vectors, reservoirs, and agents; and the wide variety of cultures in which this disease occurs.",isbn:"978-953-51-2972-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2971-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7346-5",doi:"10.5772/62617",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"the-epidemiology-and-ecology-of-leishmaniasis",numberOfPages:176,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"862e269e0512a4763bba54d355c3c44f",bookSignature:"David Claborn",publishedDate:"March 1st 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5378.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13472,numberOfWosCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:37,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:80,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 15th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 5th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 10th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 8th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 7th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"169536",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Claborn",slug:"david-claborn",fullName:"David Claborn",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169536/images/system/169536.jpeg",biography:"David Claborn is a Professor of Public Health at Missouri State University (MSU), USA, where he teaches courses in environmental health, infectious disease, and international health. He obtained a DrPH from the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, with his dissertation on the re-emergence of malaria in South Korea. He has been the director of the Master of Public Health program at MSU since 2013. Prior to his academic career, Dr. Claborn served in the US Navy for 20 years, retiring at the rank of Commander in 2008. His work as a medical entomologist has taken him to several international settings including Japan, Australia, South Korea, Italy, and, during Operation Desert Storm, Saudi Arabia.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Missouri State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1134",title:"Population Health",slug:"population-health"}],chapters:[{id:"52357",title:"Living on the Edge: Border Countries Should Have Strict Veterinary and Health Policy on Leishmaniasis",doi:"10.5772/65273",slug:"living-on-the-edge-border-countries-should-have-strict-veterinary-and-health-policy-on-leishmaniasis",totalDownloads:1342,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"First human and canine cases as well as presence of competent Phlebotomine fly vectors are reported for the first time in Slovenia. Number of infected dogs in Slovenia has been increasing in the last few years. Having increased number of infected dogs and a presence of proven Phlebotomine fly vectors at the same time in a climatically suitable region may lead to endemic spread of the disease. And that is the kind of situation calling for governmental regulation. Basic preparedness and rapid response mechanisms should be in place. Leishmaniasis cases should be detected early and reaction should be quick. In epidemic-prone areas and before the anticipated outbreak season, the responsibilities of the outbreak task force members should be defined; the necessary needs for response, surveillance, and control should be assessed; the surveillance system should be reinforced; criteria for epidemic alert should be set up; and all health facilities should be provided with minimum stocks of basic diagnostic and treatment supplies. Successful preventive measures should include regular veterinary checks of all imported dogs and dogs traveling outside the country, vector control, use of effective repellents, sleeping indoors with nets on the windows, and antileishmanial vaccination of dogs.",signatures:"Tina Kotnik and Vladimir Ivović",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52357",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52357",authors:[{id:"186975",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tina",surname:"Kotnik",slug:"tina-kotnik",fullName:"Tina Kotnik"},{id:"188027",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Ivovic",slug:"vladimir-ivovic",fullName:"Vladimir Ivovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"54155",title:"Clinical Manifestations of Visceral Leishmaniasis (American Visceral Leishmaniasis)",doi:"10.5772/67398",slug:"clinical-manifestations-of-visceral-leishmaniasis-american-visceral-leishmaniasis-",totalDownloads:1703,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is the most severe form of leishmaniasis. It is endemic in tropical and subtropical countries and responsible for about 50,000 deaths annually. It is characterized by irregular fever, progressive pallor, spleen and liver growth, and consequent increase in abdominal volume, lymphadenopathy, anorexia, and weight loss. Some changes in epidermal structures can be observed such as dry, brittle and depigmented hair, while the eyelashes are long and silky, pale skin, and as the disease progresses may arise petechiae, ecchymosis, hemorrhagic suffusion, and sometimes jaundice. Edema appears very often, mainly in lower limbs. Hematologic changes are manifested by the reduction of all blood cells. Hypoalbuminemia is a frequent finding, while globulin increases. The patient suspected of having the disease is the one who has fever and splenomegaly. It is valuable to the diagnosis of epidemiological data, history of irregular fever, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and blood disorders such as pancytopenia and hypoalbuminemia. In the course of the disease, bacterial infections are established, especially in the respiratory tract, sometimes responsible for the death. VL is a consumptive disease that requires specific treatment as early as possible.",signatures:"Celia M.S. Pedrosa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54155",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54155",authors:[{id:"187021",title:"Dr.",name:"Celia Maria",surname:"Pedrosa",slug:"celia-maria-pedrosa",fullName:"Celia Maria Pedrosa"}],corrections:null},{id:"53594",title:"Application of the Eco-Epidemiological Method in the Study of Leishmaniasis Transmission Foci",doi:"10.5772/66430",slug:"application-of-the-eco-epidemiological-method-in-the-study-of-leishmaniasis-transmission-foci",totalDownloads:1594,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study of transmission foci involves the clinical characterization of disease within a focus using active surveillance of human cases, characterization of the population group that is most frequently infected or at highest risk of becoming infected, diagnosis and treatment of infected people and identification of the conceptions, attitudes, beliefs and practices related to the disease. An entomological survey is necessary to determine the geographical distribution of species and incrimination of vector species, the ecological characteristics of the zone (macro-focus), times of the year and day of highest biting activity and places in homes in which the most frequent contact between the people and the vectors occurs. A survey of peri-domestic and wild mammals in the area is advisable to try to identify potential reservoir hosts. Using this information, it is feasible to design specific and accurate prevention and effective, rational and economic control measures and define the times of the year and locations in which these measures must be applied. In this chapter, a description of the application of the eco-epidemiological method to the study of leishmaniasis transmission foci is provided. A special emphasis is placed on the methodology, multidisciplinary work and analysis of findings.",signatures:"Iván D. Vélez, Lina M. Carrillo, Horacio Cadena, Carlos Muskus and\nSara M. Robledo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53594",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53594",authors:[{id:"187783",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara M.",surname:"Robledo",slug:"sara-m.-robledo",fullName:"Sara M. Robledo"},{id:"189117",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan D.",surname:"Velez",slug:"ivan-d.-velez",fullName:"Ivan D. Velez"},{id:"189118",title:"Dr.",name:"Lina M.",surname:"Carrillo",slug:"lina-m.-carrillo",fullName:"Lina M. Carrillo"},{id:"189119",title:"Dr.",name:"Horacio",surname:"Cadena",slug:"horacio-cadena",fullName:"Horacio Cadena"},{id:"189120",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Muskus",slug:"carlos-muskus",fullName:"Carlos Muskus"}],corrections:null},{id:"53752",title:"Visceral Leishmaniasis and Natural Infection Rates of Leishmania in Lutzomyia longipalpis in Latin America",doi:"10.5772/65787",slug:"visceral-leishmaniasis-and-natural-infection-rates-of-leishmania-in-lutzomyia-longipalpis-in-latin-a",totalDownloads:1832,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Leishmaniasis, a neglected disease caused by protozoans of the Leishmania genus, is still present in 98 countries with about two million new cases yearly worldwide. It is transmitted by female phlebotomine sandflies and presents itself as cutaneous, mucocutaneous and visceral clinical forms, depending on the Leishmania species and the parasite‐host relationship. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is caused by Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum chagasi, endemic in 12 countries of Latin America, with 90% of the cases reported in Brazil. VL is characterized by irregular bouts of fever, weight loss, hepatosplenomegaly and pancytopenia, being highly fatal with no treatment. The main strategy in limiting the expansion of VL, besides the treatment of human cases, is the control of the vector Lutzomyia longipalpis and its reservoirs. There are only few studies on the natural infection of Leishmania species, especially in relation to its endemic distribution. Epidemiological studies of leishmaniasis may indicate the infection rate of parasites in sandflies in order to assess the populations at risk and to direct public health control strategies. In this context, we aimed to review the main features of VL with regard the distribution of disease cases and natural infection rates of Leishmania in Lu. longipalpis in Latin America.",signatures:"Kárita Cláudia Freitas Lidani, Fabiana A. Andrade, Maria R.P.A.\nTizzot, Magda C.V. Costa-Ribeiro, Marcia H. Beltrame and Iara J.\nMessias-Reason",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53752",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53752",authors:[{id:"187223",title:"Dr.",name:"Kárita",surname:"Lidani",slug:"karita-lidani",fullName:"Kárita Lidani"},{id:"189200",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiana",surname:"Antunes De Andrade",slug:"fabiana-antunes-de-andrade",fullName:"Fabiana Antunes De Andrade"},{id:"189201",title:"Dr.",name:"Magda Clara",surname:"Vieira Da Costa-Ribeiro",slug:"magda-clara-vieira-da-costa-ribeiro",fullName:"Magda Clara Vieira Da Costa-Ribeiro"},{id:"189204",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Regina",surname:"Pinheiro De Andrade Tizzot",slug:"maria-regina-pinheiro-de-andrade-tizzot",fullName:"Maria Regina Pinheiro De Andrade Tizzot"},{id:"189205",title:"Dr.",name:"Iara J.",surname:"Messias-Reason",slug:"iara-j.-messias-reason",fullName:"Iara J. Messias-Reason"},{id:"194880",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcia",surname:"Holsbach Beltrame",slug:"marcia-holsbach-beltrame",fullName:"Marcia Holsbach Beltrame"}],corrections:null},{id:"52734",title:"Epidemiology of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Tunisia",doi:"10.5772/65788",slug:"epidemiology-of-cutaneous-leishmaniasis-in-tunisia",totalDownloads:1504,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Tunisia, Zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ZCL) represents the most significant leishmaniasis form. The epidemic of ZCL emerged in Central Tunisia in 1982 and expanded to the whole central and southern parts of the country. Tunisian ZCL is caused by Leishmania (L). major zymodeme MON‐25 and transmitted by Phlebotomus papatasi. Rodents constitute the reservoir for ZCL. They include Psammomys obesus, Meriones shawi and Meriones libycus. ZCL occurs as seasonal epidemics and the annual incidence ranges from 2 to 10 thousand cases. Transmission of L. major by the phlebotomine sandfly vector occurs during the summer months, and active lesions in humans tend to emerge during the autumn and winter months. The symptoms of the disease are rather polymorphic, ranging from benign self‐limited cutaneous sores to more protracted and extensive lesions that may cause severe disfigurement. Asymptomatic infection occurs frequently in endemic areas indicating a high level of immunity of the residents in these regions. The transmission of ZCL, its drastic increase and its spread are influenced by environmental changes affecting the reservoir and vector geographic distributions and by the lack of efficacy of the control tools available.",signatures:"Bettaieb Jihène and Nouira Meriam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52734",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52734",authors:[{id:"186501",title:"Dr.",name:"Jihene",surname:"Bettaieb",slug:"jihene-bettaieb",fullName:"Jihene Bettaieb"},{id:"194369",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariem",surname:"Nouira",slug:"mariem-nouira",fullName:"Mariem Nouira"}],corrections:null},{id:"52819",title:"Ecoepidemiology of American Visceral Leishmaniasis in Tocantins State, Brazil: Factors Associated with the Occurrence and Spreading of the Vector Lutzomyia (Lutzomyia) longipalpis (Lutz & Neiva, 1912) (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae)",doi:"10.5772/65852",slug:"ecoepidemiology-of-american-visceral-leishmaniasis-in-tocantins-state-brazil-factors-associated-with",totalDownloads:1321,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Leishmaniases are considered serious public health problems, and their geographical expansion has enabled their establishment in urban areas of medium and large cities in Brazil. Continuous processes of deforestation, construction of dams, and hydroelectric plants, among others, cause environmental impact and may favor the increase in the number of human cases of leishmaniases, as well as the establishment of epidemic outbreaks. This scenario reflects the reality of some regions of Brazil, such as Tocantins State, which in recent years has recorded high levels of American visceral leishmaniasis (AVL). This study is aimed to analyze environmental and epidemiological factors related with the spatial and temporal distribution of AVL and with the occurrence of Lutzomyia (Lutzomyia) longipalpis, the main vector of AVL, in the state of Tocantins. The results indicate that the vector is adapted to all environments, especially the ones under human influence, and that anthropogenic environmental impacts can support the development and adaptation of AVL in Brazil. Such information could be applied in control strategies aimed at decreasing AVL incidence.",signatures:"Margarete Martins dos Santos Afonso, Sérgio Augusto de Miranda\nChaves, Mônica de Avelar Figueiredo Mafra Magalhães, Renata\nGracie, Carina Azevedo, Bruno Moreira de Carvalho and\nElizabeth Ferreira Rangel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52819",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52819",authors:[{id:"187580",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete",surname:"Martins dos Santos Afonso",slug:"margarete-martins-dos-santos-afonso",fullName:"Margarete Martins dos Santos Afonso"},{id:"194451",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Moreira De Carvalho",slug:"bruno-moreira-de-carvalho",fullName:"Bruno Moreira De Carvalho"},{id:"194452",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio",surname:"Augusto De Miranda Chaves",slug:"sergio-augusto-de-miranda-chaves",fullName:"Sérgio Augusto De Miranda Chaves"},{id:"194453",title:"Dr.",name:"Mônica",surname:"De Avelar Figueiredo Mafra Magalhães",slug:"monica-de-avelar-figueiredo-mafra-magalhaes",fullName:"Mônica De Avelar Figueiredo Mafra Magalhães"},{id:"194454",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",surname:"Ferreira Rangel",slug:"elizabeth-ferreira-rangel",fullName:"Elizabeth Ferreira Rangel"},{id:"194457",title:"MSc.",name:"Renata",surname:"Gracie",slug:"renata-gracie",fullName:"Renata Gracie"},{id:"196535",title:"Dr.",name:"Carina",surname:"Azevedo",slug:"carina-azevedo",fullName:"Carina Azevedo"}],corrections:null},{id:"52224",title:"Leishmaniasis in Tunisia: History and New Insights into the Epidemiology of a Neglected Disease",doi:"10.5772/65000",slug:"leishmaniasis-in-tunisia-history-and-new-insights-into-the-epidemiology-of-a-neglected-disease",totalDownloads:1358,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Tunisia, both cutaneous (CL) and visceral leishmaniases (VL) are historical diseases that have been described since the nineteenth century. Cutaneous form is more prevalent than the visceral one. It is caused by three taxa (Leishmania major, Leishmania infantum, and Leishmania killicki synonymous Leishmania tropica) and six zymodemes (MON-1, MON-8, MON-24, MON-25, MON-80, and MON-317). Among these dermotropic zymodemes, sand flies vectors and reservoir hosts were identified for only three ones. Transmission cycles of L. infantum MON-24 and MON-80 and L. killicki MON-317 are still unknown. Zoonotic CL is largely distributed and covers mainly the sub-arid and arid bioclimatic stages. Nevertheless, it has recently spread to the humid and sub-humid stages in northern Tunisia. Sporadic and chronic CL are less prevalent with limited geographical distribution. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is mainly infantile that affects children of <13 years. It is caused by the single taxon L. infantum. Transmission cycle of this parasite is zoonotic but not well elucidated. Three zymodemes are responsible for the genesis of VL (MON-1, MON-24 and MON-80). Only the transmission cycle of L. infantum MON-1 is identified. Geographically, VL is mainly distributed in the humid, sub-humid, and semi-arid bioclimatic stages of the country. Despite the large progress of knowledge in the ecoepidemiology of leishmaniases in Tunisia, many parameters of the transmission cycles of these taxa are still unknown and need further investigations to identify them.",signatures:"Najoua Haouas and Hamouda Babba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52224",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52224",authors:[{id:"174926",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamouda",surname:"Babba",slug:"hamouda-babba",fullName:"Hamouda Babba"},{id:"187609",title:"Dr.",name:"Najoua",surname:"Haouas",slug:"najoua-haouas",fullName:"Najoua Haouas"}],corrections:null},{id:"52898",title:"Eco-Epidemiological and Immunological Features of Localized Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Southeastern Mexico: Thirty Years of Study",doi:"10.5772/66130",slug:"eco-epidemiological-and-immunological-features-of-localized-cutaneous-leishmaniasis-in-southeastern-",totalDownloads:1437,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Yucatan Peninsula is considered an important endemic area of localized cutaneous leishmaniasis (LCL) caused by Leishmania (Leishmania) mexicana and mainly the states of Campeche and Quintana Roo where 41.5% of all new cases in Mexico were reported in 2015. People were affected due to the lack of the resources for early diagnosis and treatment and although many aspects of the disease are known, control of LCL is absent in this region. Thus, better case detection and epidemiological surveillance are required. The presence of emerging focus and changes in the clinical form suggest the importance of continuing the eco-epidemiological studies, which could lead to the implementation of a sustainable control on the disease. In this review, we focus on the results of our multi-disciplinary studies carried out in the southeastern Mexico, including LCL burden, clinical aspects, causal agents, vectors, reservoirs and the host immune response to Leishmania (L.) mexicana infection.",signatures:"Fernando J. Andrade-Narvaez, Nicole R. Van Wynsberghe, Erika I.\nSosa-Bibiano and Elsy Nalleli Loria-Cervera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52898",authors:[{id:"187837",title:"Dr.",name:"Elsy Nalleli",surname:"Loría-Cervera",slug:"elsy-nalleli-loria-cervera",fullName:"Elsy Nalleli Loría-Cervera"},{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez"},{id:"188882",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika Ivett",surname:"Sosa-Bibiano",slug:"erika-ivett-sosa-bibiano",fullName:"Erika Ivett Sosa-Bibiano"},{id:"188883",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicole",surname:"Van Wynsbrghe",slug:"nicole-van-wynsbrghe",fullName:"Nicole Van Wynsbrghe"}],corrections:null},{id:"52588",title:"Survey of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Mexico: Leishmania Species, Clinical Expressions and Risk Factors",doi:"10.5772/65501",slug:"survey-of-cutaneous-leishmaniasis-in-mexico-leishmania-species-clinical-expressions-and-risk-factors",totalDownloads:1382,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Leishmaniasis is caused by Leishmania sp., which is transmitted to human beings and reservoirs by phlebotomine sand flies, with worldwide prevalence of approximately 12 million cases with population at risk of approximately 350 million. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is the most widespread form, causing localized skin lesions (LCL), mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL), or nodular lesions in diffused cutaneous leishmaniasis (DCL). American CL includes LCL and DCL caused by Leishmania mexicana complex and MCL caused by the Leishmania braziliensis complex. In Mexico, CL is distributed in three endemic areas, Gulf of Mexico, Pacific of Mexico, and Central Mexico. In order to monitor clinical outcome and adequately target treatment as well as epidemiologic studies, diagnostic kinetoplast DNA (kDNA), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Southern and dot blotting, and ITS1 PCR-RFLP of Leishmania DNA were evaluated in samples and Leishmania isolates from patients with cutaneous ulcers from several endemic areas. In Mexico, LCL can be caused by the L. mexicana, L. braziliensis, or both complexes. DCL is caused by L. (L.) mexicana or Leishmania (L.) amazonensis and visceral leishmaniasis (VL) by Leishmania (L.) chagasi and L. (L.) mexicana in immunocompromised patients. 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The sudden outbreak of COVID-19 in China in 2019 during the Spring Festival, has spread rapidly worldwide [1]. The disease spread relatively fast and affected the whole world [2]. The COVID-19 has now become a global issue [3]. Several measures have been taken to prevent physical contact during the pandemic and contain the spread of COVID-19. The most stringent step for epidemic prevention is lockdown [4], which aims to restrict the movement/mobility of people. Colleges and universities are also facing unprecedented challenges. The pandemic has forced the closure of schools, and more and more universities have to turn to online learning [5]. Several studies indicated that online learning displays the potential of overcoming course delivery difficulties during the pandemic of COVID-19. For example, Guo [6] found that physics students have a better performance in introductory calculus class as attending the online sessions than those absent in online sessions and only rely on self-learning materials. More students attending online sessions believe that synchronous online sessions are the same as face-to-face teaching compared to their counterparts since those sessions allow students to interact with the teacher. This implies that engagement during lectures will be an important factor to facilitate students’ study.
The use of LMS in online learning become famous during COVID-19. Many researchers are trying to investigate features that influence learners’ and educators’ degree of acceptance among those technologies [7]. The literature has shown that the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is the most adopted theory to investigate the students’ technology acceptance. Davis [8] suggested the TAM examine the determinants of users’ acceptance for using the technology. Originally, TAM postulated that
After the publication of Davis [8], in several studies, it is argued that the attitude toward the use of technology would be removed to simplify the model without losing the explaining power [9, 10]. Therefore, the extended model, TAM2 [11], and another subsequent model, UTUAT [12], removed the attitude toward using technology.
Šumak, Heričko [13] conducted a meta-analysis to summarize the TAM-related studies. They found that perceived usefulness and ease of use are two significant factors affecting users’ intention to use e-learning systems. For instance, Brunel University offered a series of online courses in LMS and examined the factors of increasing the use of the platform [14]. They found that both the perceived ease of use and the perceived usefulness have been significantly and positively associated with using the platform. During COVID-19, Siron, Wibowo [15] also found similar results. They used TAM to evaluate the use of e-learning platforms during COVID-19. They found that both the perceived usefulness and the perceived ease of use are the major factors affecting students’ intention to use e-learning at several state universities in Indonesia during the pandemic.
However, using the actual usage of technology is not enough to capture the whole picture of their acceptance behavior. Some of the acceptance is not behavioral but mental and abstract, which is considered engagement. Also, academic disciplines would have different emphases in integrating technology into their teaching and learning; thus, it would influence students’ acceptance. In the following sections, therefore, we will discuss the relationship between academic discipline, student engagement, and the actual use of LMS.
Students’ academic performance is primarily influenced by student engagement [16]. More recently, researchers have begun to conceptualize student engagement as a multidimensional phenomenon. The review by Fredricks, Blumenfeld [17] identified three dimensions of engagement: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive. Behavioral engagement refers to students’ levels of involvement in the learning activity, including attention, participation, interaction with students and teachers, and spent effort and time. Emotional engagement is defined as students’ presence of positive emotional reactions to learning in general, such as value, identity, interest, and happiness, and absence of adverse emotional responses such as anxiety. Cognitive engagement centers on students’ self-regulation strategies to employ sophisticated rather than superficial learning strategies in their learning processes. Besides, another review by Kahu [18] used the integrative framework to emphasize engagement as a state influenced by a wide array of teacher and student factors. The framework also acknowledges that students learn through being engaged with their study; thus, learning is not only acquiring skills and knowledge. Build on the previous literature, Reeve [19] also proposed agentic engagement, which is defined as students’ attempt to contribute to the learning environment to create for themselves a more motivationally supportive learning environment.
Several studies have found student engagement to be an indicator of students’ higher academic achievement. Carini, Kuh [20] found that improvements in students’ engagement improve their learning outcomes. Kahu and Nelson [21] assessed students’ emotional and cognitive engagement and found that emotional and cognitive engagement can predict academic success. However, online/remote learning has been famous recently, and the question may raise whether students engaging in LMS would benefit academic achievement. For example, Wang [22] examined the relationship between behavioral engagement on Moodle and academic performance (defined as course grade) in a university in Taiwan. Wang found that engagement in problem-solving-related learning activities in Moodle has a direct effect on academic performance. In the studies of Hsiao, Huang [23] and Lee, Park [24], they defined academic performance by GPA and self-developed academic capability measurement, respectively. They also found that behavioral engagement positively correlates with academic performance. This study hopes to extend their findings by assessing whether another type of student engagement, cognitive, emotional, and agentic engagement, also predicts academic performance.
Since the technology advanced, students gradually developed “the information-age mindset” over the three decades [25]. In the meantime, the Learning Management System (LMS) was developed in the 2000s to create a virtual learning environment and facilitate the implementation of online learning (Oblinger & Kidwell, 2000). Since the LMS is a teaching and learning tool, the discussion of LMS has to be informed by pedagogical considerations. As early as 2000, researchers were beginning to identify the influence of LMS on teaching and learning to form the theoretical framework. Coates, James [26] identified some practical problems when the teacher used LMS; one of the dominant problems is that LMS is only used to transmit the text. Teachers did not modify their teaching pedagogy; instead, they employed their traditional teaching approaches when using the LMS [27]. Sadaf, Newby [28] also found similar results in the group of pre-service teachers that use of the LMS would predict the intention to use LMS.
On the contrary, the successful use of LMS depends on the integration between LMS and the subject (including teaching material and learning objective). Research also suggests that different courses emphasize different learning outcomes by providing discipline-specific learning environments [29, 30]. For example, teachers from soft fields tend to focus on facilitating and developing students’ ability to discuss alternative and critical perspectives [31]. Those in hard fields tend to focus on having students memorize and apply essential concepts [32]. Therefore, courses in the same academic discipline would have similar learning objectives; different academic disciplines would have a different level of integration with LMS. Smith, Torres-Ayala [33] investigate the academic discipline as a factor in the instructional design of e-learning. They found that mathematics and nursing/healthcare emphasize learning outcomes and utilization of e-learning tools differently. For example, mathematics focused on the abstract concept of mathematics, whereas nursing/healthcare focused on authentic assessment, which facilitates students to apply the skill and knowledge in real life. White and Liccardi [34] also used Biglan categorization [35] to categorize academic disciplines based on the degree of consensus about knowledge within them. Their categorization classifies disciplines into soft (a low degree of agreement) and hard fields (a high degree of agreement). They found that soft and hard fields have a difference in using LMS tools, which soft fields utilize discussion and simulated virtual environment (role play). In contrast, hard fields utilize real-time visualization tools and assessment.
There are several gaps in the literature among students’ engagement in online learning. First, the literature’s findings focus on behavioral engagement only, which neglects cognitive, emotional, and agentic engagement. Second, previous studies do not differentiate the influence of academic discipline on engagement in e-learning.
This study seeks to address these gaps by combining TAM with engagement and academic discipline. Its theoretical framework is outlined in Figures 1–4. This study hypothesizes that 1) ease of use has a direct effect on the intention to use, 2) ease of use has an indirect effect through usefulness toward intention to use, 3) positive relationship between students’ intention to use and their engagement is stronger in soft fields than in hard fields. Sharma et al. (1981) defined a moderating variable as influencing the relationship’s strength and direction between predictors and outcome measures. A moderating variable is different from a mediating variable—the latter accounts for the relationship between predictors and outcome measures [36]. We used regression in our moderation analysis to include the interaction term for both predictors and moderators in our model [37].
Hypothetical model of behavioral engagement.
Hypothetical model of agentic engagement.
Hypothetical model of cognitive engagement.
Hypothetical model of emotional engagement.
We recruited study participants from The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, The University of Hong Kong, and The Chinese University of Hong Kong between January and May 2021. A total of 6 courses participated in this study. The research team sent the online survey via Microsoft Form to students at the end of the semester. All of these participants were aged 21–23 years. They had a mobile phone, which shows that the participants were previously mobile users and can be good evaluators of any mobile application. Overall, 68 students responded to the questionnaire. More than 54% of students used the iOS System, and other students used the Android System.
To overcome the challenge of COVID-19, the project team had developed a system named “Augmented Teaching and Learning Advancement System (ATLAS)” to enhance the teaching quality and student learning experience in the university setting of Hong Kong. Students’ mobiles install the app on their mobile phones and sign the written consent before participating in the study. More details are provided on the ATLAS website: https://www.atlas-learn.com/. The description of ATLAS is defined as below:
A standalone system for use in conjunction with iBeacon protocol to provide location-based features is being developed. The System is named ATLAS. The purpose of ATLAS is to empower teachers with the ability to open new streams of engagement, facilitate active participation and communication between students and instructors, and enhance the learning experience in general by providing a holistic platform for contents sharing, discussion, assessment, and engagement.
ATLAS has four main parts: a web-based portal for administration, a student/visitor mobile app for iOS and Android devices, a web-based content management system for instructors, and, lastly, server-side services for the central storage of educational information location-based data collected. The mobile app was developed to utilize an iBeacon-based system to facilitate questions and answers, attendance monitoring, seating location measurement for enhancing teaching and learning outcomes, and activity for “Contactless Learning and Teaching”. To achieve “Contactless Learning and Teaching”, the teacher set up several learning locations to deliver learning and teaching material. After the teacher set up the contactless learning and teaching activity in ATLAS, the mobile app would guide the students to different locations. It depends on the students whether to participate in the contactless activity, and it is a voluntary activity without affecting their final academic performance.
Since there were difficulties in conducting the face-to-face classes under the COVID-19 pandemic, an additional function has been added to the System for teachers and students to use off-campus. Teachers and school administrators can create off-campus classes for the teaching activities. During the remote class, all the location-based features are disabled.
We assessed four aspects of student engagement— behavioral, agentic, cognitive, and emotional. We use the engagement scale developed and modified from Reeve’s [19] confirmatory factor analysis study, which contained 4, 5, 4, and 4 items for behavioral, agentic, cognitive, and emotional engagement. The items were rated using a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree), where Cronbach’s alphas were 0.95, 0.92, 0.92, and 0.91, respectively for behavioral, agentic, cognitive, and emotional engagement.
The usefulness, ease of use, and intention to use were adopted by introducing the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Three constructs were modified to fit our System (ATLAS), which contained 9, 4, and 3 items for usefulness, ease of use, and intention to use. The items were rated using a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree), where Cronbach’s alphas were 0.97, 0.88, and 0.94 respectively for usefulness, ease of use, and intention to use.
We used Biglan [35] classification to divide the academic disciplines into soft (code = 1) or hard fields (code = 2). The categories classify the disciplines into soft (a low degree of agreement) and hard (a high degree of agreement).
We performed a path analysis in R studio with the PROCESS macro, version 3.5.3 beta0.6 [38]. Figures 1–4 display the hypothetical model being tested in the current study. Age and gender were set as covariates. Maximum likelihood (ML) was used to estimate the parameter, and the robust test statistic was reported. To examine the moderated serial mediation effect, we specified 5000 bootstrap samples based on 95% confidence intervals (CIs). A significant conditional indirect effect can be found when the 95% CIs do not include zero. We used a simple slope analysis to visualize the significant interaction between variables [39]. All alpha was set at 0.05, two-tailed.
As shown in Table 1, participants’ average engagement score was 3.92, 3.34, 3.77, and 3.88 for behavioral, agentic engagement, cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement, respectively. About 70% of them were hard fields, and 57.4% of them were female. Nearly 60% of them came from Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The mean scores of usefulness, ease of use, and intention to use were 4.11, 4.78, and 3.84, respectively.
Mean / N | SD / % | |
---|---|---|
20.838 | 2.477 | |
Male | 29 | 42.65 |
Female | 39 | 57.35 |
Usefulness | 4.112 | 3.118 |
Ease of Use | 4.756 | 4.022 |
Intention to Use | 3.840 | 3.055 |
Behavioral | 3.915 | 0.771 |
Agentic | 3.338 | 0.822 |
Cognitive | 3.772 | 0.725 |
Emotional | 3.882 | 0.770 |
Soft field | 20 | 29.41% |
Hard field | 48 | 70.59% |
The Chinese University of Hong Kong | 19 | 27.94% |
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University | 40 | 58.82% |
The University of Hong Kong | 9 | 13.24% |
Participant characteristic.
Figures 5–8 show the results of our path analysis. Results showed that “Ease of Use” was significantly associated with “Usefulness” (ß range from 0.863 to 0.864) and “Intention to Use” (ß range from 0.298 to 0.302) in all models. “Usefulness” was also significantly associated with “Intention to Use” (ß range from 0.777 to 0.781) in all models. “Intention to Use” was also significantly associated with behavioral engagement (ß = 0.274), agentic engagement (ß = 0.320), cognitive engagement (ß = 0.253), and emotional engagement (ß = 0.324). Significant interaction effect between students’ “Intention to Use” and their academic discipline can predict their emotional engagement scores only (ß = −0.236), there were no significant interaction effect was found in behavioral engagement (ß = −0.171), agentic engagement (ß = −0.169), and cognitive engagement (ß = −0.162). Thus, we performed a simple slope analysis to probe the significant interaction effect. The simple slope analysis revealed no significant relationship between students’ “Intention to Use” and their engagement scores in hard fields (β = 0.094) but a significant relationship between these two variables in soft fields (β = 0.252) (Figure 9).
Path analysis of TAM, academic discipline, and behavioral engagement. Lines in red color indicated significant paths.
Path analysis of TAM, academic discipline, and agentic engagement. Lines in red color indicated significant paths.
Path analysis of TAM, academic discipline, and cognitive engagement. Lines in red color indicated significant paths.
Path analysis of TAM, academic discipline, and emotional engagement. Lines in red color indicated significant paths.
Relationship between intention to use and emotional engagement among students with the soft and hard field in the academic discipline.
Regarding the bootstrap moderated serial mediation analysis, significant conditional indirect effect was found from “Ease of Use” to “Usefulness” to “Intention to Use” to emotional engagement only (Index of moderated mediation = −0.161, 95% CI [−0.293, −0.035]), there were no significant effect was found in behavioral engagement (Index of moderated mediation = −0.119, 95% CI [−0.244, 0.012]), agentic engagement (Index of moderated mediation = −0.118, 95% CI [−0.260, 0.041]), and cognitive engagement (Index of moderated mediation = −0.109, 95% CI [−0.247, 0.024]). Similar to simple slope analysis in emotional engagement, no significant conditional indirect effect was found in hard fields (β = 0.062, 95% CI [−0.029, 0.162]) but a significant effect in soft fields (β = 0.223, 95% CI [0.117, 0.332]).
In summary, students from soft fields had higher emotional engagement scores when they had the higher intention to use ATLAS in the future. Students from hard fields’ emotional engagement scores did not vary significantly by their “Intention to Use”. Regarding behavioral engagement, agentic engagement, and cognitive engagement, the relationship between students’ “Intention to Use” and their engagement scores did not vary significantly by their academic discipline.
The literature presents many studies where student engagement has been studied from the perspective of behavioral engagement. However, the relationship between agentic, cognitive, and emotional engagement and LMS is an understudied topic. In COVID-19, the use of LMS has become common in the higher education sector, and it has become essential to study it currently. This study explored the relationship between technology acceptance of LMS and engagement with a moderating role for academic discipline.
Study findings add to the literature on the technology acceptance model and students’ engagement. Our results are consistent with those of Marangunić and Granić [40] and Al-Emran, Mezhuyev [41]. They noted that ease of use is positively related to the usefulness and intention to use. Aligned with TAM, we expected the usefulness is the mediator from the ease of use to intention to use. Our results align with Tawafak, Romli [42], who found that students with high perceived ease of use among the LMS show higher perceived usefulness. The perception of usefulness leads to a higher intention to use LMS in the future.
Another exciting aspect was that this model operates through the fully online learning platform. Previous studies had investigated the technology acceptance of e-learning platforms [43, 44, 45]. Before COVID-19, students used an e-learning platform combined with face-to-face teaching at the same time. The learning does not become highly dependent on the platform and only serves as a supplement. However, face-to-face teaching is suspended and entirely depends on those platforms. Therefore, there is a question of whether the TAM would be applied in this situation. The results align with the above literature on e-learning. Our study recruited participants in a fully online learning undergraduate program, which is different from the previous literature. Therefore, the current study fills the gaps that the experience in a fully online learning program would explain using TAM.
Our study also showed a significant implication in the different types of engagement. Our results were consistent with previous literature [13] that intention to use was associated with the usage of the technology. Also, our current study extended the engagement from behavioral to cognitive, emotional, and agentic. The findings indicate that students without behavioral engagement would also have a high engagement level in other aspects. While comparing the different types of engagement, emotional and agentic engagement had higher effects than behavioral engagement. The results indicate that some of the engagement during the class would be implicit and non-observable. The study makes a case for teachers to be more sensitive toward engagement during the class.
The current study also found a significant moderation effect through academic discipline. The result is aligned with previous literature that there are discipline differences in student engagement [46]. We found that students with the soft field in academic discipline had a stronger relationship between intention to use and emotional engagement than their counterparts. The results were partially consistent with the study of Espejo [47]. Espejo [47] investigated the different types of engagements between classroom characteristics. They found that a learning environment with enough support would facilitate students to engage emotionally and behaviourally. Our result indicates that students with soft fields are more affected by intention to use and might become more engaged emotionally. However, there are no moderation effect would be found in behavioral, cognitive, and agentic engagement. The insignificant moderation effect would explain that academic disciplines have various effects on the different types of engagement. Different academic disciplines would lead to different learning environments, for example, it is most likely that teachers from the soft field would lead to a person-centered learning environment (reference). Under this learning environment, students would work enthusiastically and enjoy their involvement during the class, even though there are no face-to-face interactions [48]. On the contrary, students would engage in their class behaviorally, cognitively, and genetically at a similar intensity no matter their academic field. This is consistent with the finding that students would engage more with greater teacher support [49]. Therefore, teachers in the hard field could also provide a supportive and interactive learning environment. In aligning with the benefit of an autonomy-supportive learning environment [50], teachers are critical in developing appropriate strategies to heighten the intention to use LMS toward such students and become an autonomy-supporter in facilitating the use of LMS.
This study’s findings can provide university administrators and teachers with several important insights and recommendations regarding how to use and redesign the LMS to engage the student. For example, researchers in the University of Hong Kong compared different e-quiz platforms during the class, which the selection of the platform was based on the TAM [51]. They found that the platforms would enhance engagement through friendly competition. The immediate feedback also was perceived as another important component in engaging students to learn since students would perceive the platform as useful for their learning. Researchers at the Chinese University of Hong Kong also examined the impact of digital support on students’ engagement [52]. During the learning in LMS, several difficulties about learning materials would be faced by students. In traditional classroom teaching, teachers would provide support for the needs of students. However, the teachers cannot support students all the time when students learn in LMS. Therefore, redesigning the LMS to include digital support based on the TAM would engage students better. Our study and preceding studies mentioned here suggest that several components should be added or platforms should be selected based on the TAM. The more ease to use and usefulness, the better.
The present study extended the TAM by adding cognitive, emotional, and agentic engagement as the outcome; students’ acceptance of the ATLAS is associated with the behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and agentic engagement. Academic discipline also modifies the relationship between the acceptance of the ATLAS and emotional engagement. However, it has several limitations to overcome by future researchers.
First of all, since we employed the cross-sectional study design for current research, the relationship between different types of engagement and user acceptance may not be generalized [53]. Future researchers might use a longitudinal study design to understand better the underlying mechanisms driving our theoretical model.
Second, in the present study, the issue arising from the discipline difference in the engagement is not addressed. Our findings still beg the question of what the underlying mechanisms are, which drive this moderating effect. Future studies will cover several related factors, e.g., classroom characteristics, pedagogical approach, or learning environment.
The study was supported by the “Augmenting Physical Learning Spaces with Location-based Services Using iBeacon Technology for Engaging Learning Experiences” project from the UGC Funding Scheme for Teaching and Learning Related Proposals (2016–2019 Triennium), University Grants Committee, Hong Kong.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Extreme weather conditions and changes in humidity rates significantly affect the concrete compressive strength development. Concrete as one of the substantial material used in residential buildings and infrastructures is subjected to a massive strength change under extreme weather conditions. For understanding, the different concrete’s behavioral aspects, various commercial cement types under different temperatures, and humidity rates are investigated in this chapter. The experiments are aimed to investigate the concrete strength development over time when the material is cast at lower to mild temperatures and different humidity index rates. Results show that reducing the curing temperature more than 15° could result in 20% reduction in total compressive strength, while decreasing humidity rates by 50% leads to less than 10% drop in ultimate strength. To understand the strength developing process, maturity tests are conducted. It is shown that concrete is not able to reach to the expected ultimate strength if the temperature is significantly low regardless of curing time. The effect of temperature change during the curing process is more tangible on strength development compared to cement type and humidity rate values.",book:{id:"8757",slug:"compressive-strength-of-concrete",title:"Compressive Strength of Concrete",fullTitle:"Compressive Strength of Concrete"},signatures:"Alireza Farzampour",authors:null},{id:"51720",doi:"10.5772/64574",title:"Microstructure of Concrete",slug:"microstructure-of-concrete",totalDownloads:4834,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Concrete is a composite material that consists of a binding medium and aggregate particles and can be formed in several types. It may be considered to consist of three phases: a cement paste, the aggregate, and the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between them. In addition to ordinary Portland cement, the essential components of the base of concrete are aggregates and water. For practical requirements, additives and admixtures can be added to these raw materials to improve some desirable characteristics. The following requirements should be considered in producing high performance concrete (HPC): (i) low water/cement (w/c) ratio; (ii) fine aggregate; (iii) large quantity of mineral additives, silica fume, and fly ash; (iv) high dosage of superplasticizer; and (v) high-pressure steam curing. The microstructure of high performance concrete (HPC) is more homogenous than that of normal concrete (NC) due to the physical and chemical contribution of the additives (silica fume and fly ash) as well as it is less porous due to reduced w/c ratio with the addition of a superplasticizer. Inclusion of additives (individually or in combination) helped in improving the strength and durability of concrete mixes due to the additional reduction in porosity of cement paste and an improved interface between it and the aggregate.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Ameer A. Hilal",authors:[{id:"180518",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",middleName:null,surname:"Hilal",slug:"ameer-hilal",fullName:"Ameer Hilal"}]},{id:"51861",doi:"10.5772/64779",title:"Concretes with Photocatalytic Activity",slug:"concretes-with-photocatalytic-activity",totalDownloads:2827,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter is a short review about the modified concretes with photocatalytic activity. In the beginning, the photocatalysis process is explained; the authors are focused on the mechanism of organic contamination and nitrogen oxide decomposition. Next the three main methods for concretes modification are presented: the first group is when the concrete is covered by thin layer of TiO2 materials, e.g., paints or TiO2 suspensions. The second group is the concretes with thick layer of photoactive concrete on the top. The third group constitutes concretes modified in mass with TiO2. The two main methods for photocatalytic activity of the modified concrete determination were shown: an air purification by a nitrogen oxide decomposition and the self-cleaning properties by dyes decomposition. Also in this chapter the mechanical properties of the modified concrete are presented. In the end, the examples of the buildings made of photocatalytic concretes are shown.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Magdalena Janus and Kamila Zając",authors:[{id:"180824",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Janus",slug:"magdalena-janus",fullName:"Magdalena Janus"}]},{id:"51409",doi:"10.5772/64386",title:"Application of Polypropylene Fibrillated Fibres for Reinforcement of Concrete and Cement Mortars",slug:"application-of-polypropylene-fibrillated-fibres-for-reinforcement-of-concrete-and-cement-mortars",totalDownloads:2417,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Polypropylene fibres have been applied for reinforcement of cement mortars and concrete for many years. The fibres restrict crack propagation and positively affect several concrete parameters. To improve the adhesion of polypropylene to cement matrix, geometrically deformed or modified fibres are commonly used. Good results are obtained by application of fibrillated fibres with the net-like structure obtained from the polypropylene types. The fibrillated polypropylene fibres were produced. The fibres were chopped to specified lengths and used for the reinforcement of concrete and cement mortars. The parameters of fresh concrete and mechanical parameters of reinforced concrete and mortar were determined. It was stated that the fibres do not affect the compressive strength of the reinforced concrete and mortar. The beneficial effect of fibres on the compressive strength of concrete is revealed after freezing and thawing cycles. The fibres influence the bending strength of the mortars. For mortars reinforced with fibrillated fibres a significant increase in the bending strength is observed. The increase in the bending strength results from enhanced interfacial adhesion and mechanical anchoring, which results from opening of the network structure and splitting of fibrillated fibres.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Jan Broda",authors:[{id:"104226",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Broda",slug:"jan-broda",fullName:"Jan Broda"}]},{id:"68188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88057",title:"Compressive Strength of Lightweight Concrete",slug:"compressive-strength-of-lightweight-concrete",totalDownloads:1709,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter has been prepared with the hope that its readers will become interested in lightweight concrete (LWC). Therefore, after a brief background of lightweight concrete, different types of LWC will be introduced and then LWC made of lightweight aggregates (LWA) will be specifically discussed. Compressive strength and density of LWC are the main points of interest in this chapter. In addition to conventional compression test, a nondestructive test (NDT) method will be used to assess the compressive strength of a variety of lightweight concrete mixes. A case study has been designed and conducted including an experimental program on the LWC made of expanded glass aggregate. The experimental program includes about 150 specimens, incorporating different unit weight for the entire specimens. In the end, it can be observed that the properties of LWC depend on the properties of the used LWA, and therefore for each specific type of lightweight aggregate, a brand new equation will be required for prediction of concrete compressive strength. The author hopes that the present chapter and the discussed case study on LWC would attract the attention of researchers to the importance of LWC in the future of construction industry.",book:{id:"8757",slug:"compressive-strength-of-concrete",title:"Compressive Strength of Concrete",fullTitle:"Compressive Strength of Concrete"},signatures:"Saman Hedjazi",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51720",title:"Microstructure of Concrete",slug:"microstructure-of-concrete",totalDownloads:4834,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Concrete is a composite material that consists of a binding medium and aggregate particles and can be formed in several types. It may be considered to consist of three phases: a cement paste, the aggregate, and the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between them. In addition to ordinary Portland cement, the essential components of the base of concrete are aggregates and water. For practical requirements, additives and admixtures can be added to these raw materials to improve some desirable characteristics. The following requirements should be considered in producing high performance concrete (HPC): (i) low water/cement (w/c) ratio; (ii) fine aggregate; (iii) large quantity of mineral additives, silica fume, and fly ash; (iv) high dosage of superplasticizer; and (v) high-pressure steam curing. The microstructure of high performance concrete (HPC) is more homogenous than that of normal concrete (NC) due to the physical and chemical contribution of the additives (silica fume and fly ash) as well as it is less porous due to reduced w/c ratio with the addition of a superplasticizer. Inclusion of additives (individually or in combination) helped in improving the strength and durability of concrete mixes due to the additional reduction in porosity of cement paste and an improved interface between it and the aggregate.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Ameer A. Hilal",authors:[{id:"180518",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",middleName:null,surname:"Hilal",slug:"ameer-hilal",fullName:"Ameer Hilal"}]},{id:"70930",title:"The Influence of Interfacial Transition Zone on Strength of Alkali-Activated Concrete",slug:"the-influence-of-interfacial-transition-zone-on-strength-of-alkali-activated-concrete",totalDownloads:896,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"A process of structure formation taking place in the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) “cement stone-aggregate” was studied on a variety of concretes made with artificial and real aggregates. The study of these processes in the case of artificial aggregate prepared from a mixture of clay loam and alkali-activated slag cement showed that not only active SiO2 and Na2O but also other substances of both cement and aggregate are involved in the formation of the ITZ. This results in the formation of alkaline and alkaline-alkali-earth aluminosilicate hydrates which strengthen the ITZ and improve strength and durability of the concrete. Thus, the alkali-silica reaction (ASR) transforms from a destructive one (negative effect) into a constructive one (positive effect). The study on the ITZ in the alkali-activated cement concretes made with real alkali-susceptible aggregates selected from crushed basalt rock, glassy waste product from basalt fiber production, crushed perlite rock, and expanded perlite suggested to make a conclusion on the possibility to prevent the destructive processes in the ITZ through the addition of the metakaolin additive into the cement composition in quantities of 5–10% by mass. These conclusions were supported by the long-term testing of strength of these concretes, by measuring the deformations “shrinkage-expansion” as well as the results of study on hardness of the ITZ.",book:{id:"8757",slug:"compressive-strength-of-concrete",title:"Compressive Strength of Concrete",fullTitle:"Compressive Strength of Concrete"},signatures:"Pavel Krivenko, Oleh Petropavlovskyi, Oleksandr Kovalchuk and Oleksandr Gelevera",authors:null},{id:"68188",title:"Compressive Strength of Lightweight Concrete",slug:"compressive-strength-of-lightweight-concrete",totalDownloads:1709,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter has been prepared with the hope that its readers will become interested in lightweight concrete (LWC). Therefore, after a brief background of lightweight concrete, different types of LWC will be introduced and then LWC made of lightweight aggregates (LWA) will be specifically discussed. Compressive strength and density of LWC are the main points of interest in this chapter. In addition to conventional compression test, a nondestructive test (NDT) method will be used to assess the compressive strength of a variety of lightweight concrete mixes. A case study has been designed and conducted including an experimental program on the LWC made of expanded glass aggregate. The experimental program includes about 150 specimens, incorporating different unit weight for the entire specimens. In the end, it can be observed that the properties of LWC depend on the properties of the used LWA, and therefore for each specific type of lightweight aggregate, a brand new equation will be required for prediction of concrete compressive strength. The author hopes that the present chapter and the discussed case study on LWC would attract the attention of researchers to the importance of LWC in the future of construction industry.",book:{id:"8757",slug:"compressive-strength-of-concrete",title:"Compressive Strength of Concrete",fullTitle:"Compressive Strength of Concrete"},signatures:"Saman Hedjazi",authors:null},{id:"51409",title:"Application of Polypropylene Fibrillated Fibres for Reinforcement of Concrete and Cement Mortars",slug:"application-of-polypropylene-fibrillated-fibres-for-reinforcement-of-concrete-and-cement-mortars",totalDownloads:2417,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Polypropylene fibres have been applied for reinforcement of cement mortars and concrete for many years. The fibres restrict crack propagation and positively affect several concrete parameters. To improve the adhesion of polypropylene to cement matrix, geometrically deformed or modified fibres are commonly used. Good results are obtained by application of fibrillated fibres with the net-like structure obtained from the polypropylene types. The fibrillated polypropylene fibres were produced. The fibres were chopped to specified lengths and used for the reinforcement of concrete and cement mortars. The parameters of fresh concrete and mechanical parameters of reinforced concrete and mortar were determined. It was stated that the fibres do not affect the compressive strength of the reinforced concrete and mortar. The beneficial effect of fibres on the compressive strength of concrete is revealed after freezing and thawing cycles. The fibres influence the bending strength of the mortars. For mortars reinforced with fibrillated fibres a significant increase in the bending strength is observed. The increase in the bending strength results from enhanced interfacial adhesion and mechanical anchoring, which results from opening of the network structure and splitting of fibrillated fibres.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Jan Broda",authors:[{id:"104226",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Broda",slug:"jan-broda",fullName:"Jan Broda"}]},{id:"51780",title:"High-Performance Concrete and Fiber-Reinforced High- Performance Concrete under Fatigue Efforts",slug:"high-performance-concrete-and-fiber-reinforced-high-performance-concrete-under-fatigue-efforts",totalDownloads:2319,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Fatigue is the process of mechanical degradation of a material, which leads to its collapse. Repeated load applications with a maximum value lower than the one that provokes the static failure of the material, causes internal damage in the material that, progressively, reduces its mechanical capacity until it finally collapses. The increasingly widespread use of high-strength concretes permits the construction of more lightweight structures. This implies that the variable loads (which are the causes of fatigue) represent an ever larger percentage of the total load. In consequence, fatigue is an increasingly important factor in concrete structures. In some cases, it even begins to be the dimensioning load of the structure. In addition, the presence of fibers within the concrete modifies the fatigue response of the concrete. In this chapter, the classic theory of fatigue is presented in detail and the most recent developments in the study of concrete fatigue are discussed.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Miguel A. Vicente, Jesús Mínguez, José A. Martínez and Dorys C.\nGonzález",authors:[{id:"181643",title:"Prof.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Vicente",slug:"miguel-vicente",fullName:"Miguel Vicente"},{id:"182032",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Minguez",slug:"jesus-minguez",fullName:"Jesus Minguez"},{id:"182033",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez",slug:"jose-antonio-martinez",fullName:"Jose Antonio Martinez"},{id:"182034",title:"Prof.",name:"Dorys",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"dorys-gonzalez",fullName:"Dorys Gonzalez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1348",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. 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\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.