Chemical requirement for pozzolanic materials.
\r\n\tMany tried to define it, and its definition is always related to those who are in power, that being explained by the fact that this power and the abuse of it precisely, gives the access to being corrupted and practicing the acts that fall under corruption.
\r\n\r\n\tWe can find various types of corruption such as bribery, lobbying, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, and embezzlement. Also giving or accepting bribes or inappropriate gifts, double-dealing, under-the-table transactions, manipulating elections, diverting funds, laundering money, and defrauding investors.
\r\n\tNo government is immune to corruption. According to the World Bank, “the causes of corruption are always contextual, rooted in a country's policies, bureaucratic traditions, political development, and social history”.
\r\n\tThis indeed has consequences for increasing inequality, impacts government expenditure and services, shadow economy, and crime.
\r\n\tThis book will be a collection of chapters on Corruption. It welcomes contributions related to the nature of corruption its types and how corruption is undertaken in a certain context and the ways to deal with corruption will be part of this book. We value including materials on Corruption in organizations and ways to solve it. The origins of corruption and the way to deal with corruption, how to provide solutions, and any new insights on corruption will be part of this book.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-696-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-695-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-697-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"9cda6d2feaa52a6d523da74f2e2d7ffb",bookSignature:"Dr. Josiane Fahed-Sreih",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11772.jpg",keywords:"Corruption, Origins, Types, Corporate Governance, Organizational Performance, Solutions, Corruption Index, Private Sector, Lebanon, Accountability, Anti-corruption, Public Policy",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 20th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 7th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 6th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fahed-Sreih is the director of the Institute of Family and Entrepreneurial Business and a chairperson in the Department of Management. She obtained a Ph.D. from Sorbonne University, France, and received the 2007 FFI International Award for outstanding achievement in furthering the understanding of family business issues between two or more countries. She is on the editorial board of the Journal of Family Business Management and a keynote speaker for corporate governance conferences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"103784",title:"Dr.",name:"Josiane",middleName:null,surname:"Fahed-Sreih",slug:"josiane-fahed-sreih",fullName:"Josiane Fahed-Sreih",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103784/images/system/103784.jfif",biography:"Dr. Josiane Fahed-Sreih is a full-time associate professor of Management in the School of Business, Lebanese American University. She is the founder and director of the Institute of Family and Entrepreneurial Business and a chairperson in the Department of Management at the same university. She was previously the assistant dean. She obtained a Ph.D. from Sorbonne University, Paris, France. Dr. Fahed-Sreih is the Middle East Coordinator for the Family Firm Institute (FFI), the USA, and a family wealth and family business consultant. She received the 2007 FFI International Award for outstanding achievement in furthering the understanding of family business issues that occur between two or more countries. She has participated in and organized international conferences, workshops, and seminars. She has presented at major conferences locally and internationally and consulted on management issues in many countries, including Saudi Arabia, Dubai, Jordan, Qatar, Kuwait, Syria, Bahrain, Oman, France, Cyprus, and Lebanon. She currently sits on five boards of directors as a shareholder, two as a chairman of the board, and one as an independent director in the private sector. She is also an advisor on boards of community service organizations. \n\nShe speaks regularly to trade and professional groups and presents her research at academic conferences worldwide. She is frequently invited as a keynote speaker to the recognized family business and corporate governance conferences. Her research interests are in management, family business, the functioning of boards of directors, and corporate governance. She has published three books, several book chapters, and academic articles in international journals. 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Such knowledge is useful to investigate the mechanism of a radiolytic reaction and to propose which process is taking place and which experimental condition is governing a reaction and to know the chemical kinetics of a radiolytic reaction under study.
Generally, in a chemical process, the reactant is converted to products in an individual step. However, in a radiation induced chemical reaction, all steps are taken into consideration including deposition of energy by a charged particle in the system and then formation of a final stable chemical product, and certainly will be a rather complex set of reactions [1]. In the following sections, we will briefly discuss the fast kinetics, i.e. competition kinetics to find the unknown rate constants of a compound with reactive species like hydroxyl radical (●OH) or hydrated electron (eaq−), by considering a reference compound whose rate constant with these reactive species is already known.
For detailed investigation of competing reactions, it is necessary to have a good knowledge about the rate constant data that will used to propose which reaction is predominant. For instance, the Fricke dosimeter contains three main active species (350 mol m−3 H+, 1 mol m−3 Fe2+ and 0.25 mol m−3 O2) that have very high rate constants with eaq− and to find out the reaction mechanism involved in the dosimetry, it is necessary to investigate which solute(s) will mainly react with eaq−.
The reactions and their corresponding rate constants are given as [1–3]:
The extent of reaction is proportional to the product
Alternatively, it can also be concluded that 99.94% of the hydrated electrons reacting with the three solutes will react with H+, so under such conditions the reaction of eaq− with Fe2+ and O2 will be ignored. Therefore, it is compulsory to have an wide collection of rate constant data to apply kinetics for a radiation induced chemical reaction.
In Fricke dosimeter, hydrogen ions are considered as strong scavengers of hydrated electrons [4–6]. The effectiveness of a chemical scavenger depends upon the product
In case of radiolysis of organic species, their products also itself often act as scavengers and it is commonly found that the product yield is not in direct relation with the absorbed dose. To estimate the possible reasons of such effects, competition kinetics can be employed in an effective way if the radiolysis mechanism is known and the necessary rate constants are available. For example, cyclohexene is produced when cyclohexane is irradiated and both cyclohexene and cyclohexane have appreciable rate constants with hydrogen atoms, one of the radical specie produced during gamma radiolysis of aqueous media. The reactions are summarized below as:
Under such conditions, the hydrogen atoms will be reacting equally with cyclohexane and cyclohexene when
Furthermore, competition kinetics is also employed when measuring rate constants by pulse radiolysis using a reference compound.
Ciprofloxacin (CIP) belongs to a class of fluoroquinolone family and is used globally as a human and veterinary medication [10]. It has been very much concentrated that the event of these wide range antibiotics in the water bodies may position genuine dangers to the environment and human wellbeing by producing expansion of bacterial medication inactivation. The natural event of these fluoroquinolones anti-infection agents in numerous nations, similar to Switzerland, Australia and China have been affirmed in recent literature [10–13]. It has likewise been watched that most quinolone antibiotics are not completely utilized in the human body and accordingly are discharged and acquainted with the amphibian condition through wastewater sewages because of poor execution of ordinary water treatment plants [12, 14–16] bringing about adversative impacts to sea-going microorganisms and fish [17, 18]. Thus, it becomes necessary to advice alternative physiochemical techniques for effective removal of these contaminants and diminish their ecological effects [12, 19]. For this reason, the deterioration of ciprofloxacin (CIP) in water utilizing ionizing radiations was evaluated to examine the rate constant of ●OH with CIP. The degradation curves of CIP by gamma irradiation at various absorbed doses has been shown by Figure 1.
The UV spectra of CIP solution observed by gamma irradiation at various absorbed doses ranging from 0 to 870 Gy. Inset shows the influence of gamma-irradiation on degradation of 4.6 mg L−1 of CIP solution [
For computation of bimolecular rate constant of ●OH with CIP by competition kinetics, phenol was selected as reference compound that has second order rate constant of 6.6 × 109 M−1 s−1 with •OH [20]. The sample solution of total 150 mL having CIP and reference compound phenol together in equivalent quantity was immersed with oxygen gas to change over eaq− and ●H to superoxide radical anions quickly [21], which are less responsive compared to ●OH.
While, the notations,
So,
Or,
Similarly,
While the absorbed ionizing dose and the total time for which irradiation was performed, are represented by “D” and “t,” respectively. Subsequently, the original concentrations of both CIP and phenol are same. Therefore, the rate of decay of CIP to phenol would be equal to the ratio of their individual rate constants as follows [8]:
Or,
In Eq. (13), at time 0, the concentration of CIP and phenol are represented by [CIP]0 and [Phenol]0, respectively; while after absorbed dose “D” of gamma irradiation, the corresponding concentration of CIP and phenol are represented by [CIP]D and [Phenol]D, respectively.
When a straight line is plotted by taking
Or,
Henceforth, the bimolecular rate constant of ●OH with CIP was calculated to be 2.75 × 109 M−1 s−1. Dodd et al. [22] likewise ascertained apparent second order rate constant of with •OH-radical with CIP to be 4.1 (±0.3) × 109 M−1 s−1, which is somewhat higher than the esteem calculated in the current report [8].
Norfloxacin (NORO) may be called likewise chemotherapeutic antibacterial agent, furthermore is regularly utilized to medicine for urinary tract infections [23]. Its occurrence in surface water and wastewater overflows has been accounted for at follow ppb levels [12, 14, 24–27]. Even though, the detected concentration of NORO is very low and normally ranges from ng L−1 to μg L−1 in water bodies and μg kg−1 to mg kg−1 in soils and sediments, still these fluoroquinolone family are categorized as “pseudopersistant” contaminants because of their continuous and regular discharge into the water bodies [28, 29]. González-Pleiter et al. [30] concentrated on those unique united toxicities from claiming norfloxacin, amoxicillin, erythromycin, levofloxacin, furthermore anti-microbial prescription toward two maritime organisms, i.e. Cyanobacterium Anabaena CPB 4337. Similarly as a goal existing being and the green alga
The presence of NORO in the fresh water bodies indicate that traditional wastewater or water treatment techniques are not efficient to remove NORO from aquatic environment due to its aromatic nature and its occurrence cause thoughtful health associated problems by using contaminated drinking water [31–33]. Therefore, it becomes an issue of interest to remove NORO from the aquatic environment.
In a typical experiment for gamma radiolysis of NORO, the apparent bimolecular rate constant of •OH, eaq− and •H with NORO was assessed, using competition kinetics.
The following Eq. (14) was employed to measure the bimolecular rate constant of •OH, eaq− and •H, which are the main species produced during gamma radiolysis of aqueous media [21].
2-Chlorophenol (2-CP) was selected as reference compound which have recognized rate constants with •OH, eaq− and •H (
A linear plot with slope equal to
Bezafibrate (BZF) is also the most commonly detected pollutant among various pharmaceuticals excreted into the sewage system and is categorized as persistent organic pollutants [36]. In drinking water its concentration has been noticed at the levels of 27 ng L−1 [37] in rivers at the concentrations level of 0.1–0.15 μg L−1 [37], in small streams in the range of 0.5–1.9 μg L−1 [37], in surface waters in the range of 3.1 μg L−1 [38], and up to 4.6 μg L−1 level in sewage treatment plant effluents. Owing to its high use and persistence nature, the elimination of BZF from aqueous media has emerged as a hot research topic. The qualitative and quantitative analysis of its degradation products besides its degradation kinetics is also of great concern. Keeping in view all these problems, the degradation of BZF was investigated by photo catalysis using hydrothermally synthesized TiO2/Ti films with exposed {001} facets. Besides photo catalysis, there are other many advanced treatment options for efficient removal of BZF from aqueous media, such as nanofiltration techniques, ultraviolet (UV) radiation and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) [39] and these have been thoroughly studied. In AOPs (the most reliable and efficient technique), as compared to other treatment techniques the pollutant of interest is converted in to more stable, harmless inorganic species such as carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts. AOPs are categorized as ozonation (O3), H2O2, O3/H2O2/photocatalysis, and O3/H2O2/UV photocatalysis [39, 40]. TiO2 photocatalysis is considered as more auspicious and efficient technique among semiconductor photocatalysis [41, 42]. TiO2 photo active material has shown a great potential in many applications, including water splitting to generate O2 and H2 [43, 44] water and wastewater treatment [45, 46], gas phase treatment [47, 48], as well as in solar cells [49]. So, in this case the degradation of BZF was performed by VUV photo active material with exposed {001} faceted TiO2/Ti material.
For measurement of absolute bimolecular rate constant of •OH with BZF,
Where,
Figure 2 shows degradation curves for BZF and
Determination of bimolecular rate constant of BZF with •OH; inset shows the degradation kinetics of BZF alone, p-CBA alone, BZF+ H2O2, pCBA + H2O2 exposed to UV-irradiation.
The overall conclusion of this chapter is that, in radiation chemistry to have a good knowledge about the mechanism of a reaction mechanism it is necessary that one must have sufficient understanding about the free radical kinetics. In addition, competition kinetics model can be successful applied for the determination of unknown rate constants of reactive species with solute molecule. The competition kinetics can not only be applied for ●OH rate constants with the solute but also for measurement of eaq− and ●H with the target species. The competition kinetics method is validated by taking ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin and bezafibrate as example compounds. However, it should be make sure that competing reactions do not disobey the kinetics rules.
The construction industry is booming worldwide. In Ethiopia, governmental policy supports infrastructure development projects to help transform the country from an agricultural economy to an industrial one. As such, there has been increased exploitation of naturally deposited resources for concrete. Concrete is a blend of aggregates of either crushed stone, gravel, or sand blended with a paste of cement, water, chemical admixture, and cementitious materials. The cement paste in the concrete helps to make strong bonds between aggregate particles. Aggregates, major ingredients of concrete by volume, are comparatively inactive filler materials that make up approximately 68–85% of concrete and can therefore be expected to influence concrete’s properties. Cement, which is among the main concrete ingredients, is the costliest and most environmentally inimical material.
Since cement production requires high energy consumption and leads to discharges of greenhouse gas, there continues to be a global search for new binders and admixtures to partially replace traditional ordinary hydraulic cement and improve the environmental sustainability and sturdiness of concrete structures. The application of leftover byproducts in construction materials as replacements for concrete is an attractive alternative to disposal and an eco-friendly solution to the challenges of exploitation and shortage of nonrenewable natural resources worldwide.
Sustainability is a combination of environmental, economic, and societal factors, with environment being the dominant parameter. The deterioration of our environment is driving the current worldwide focus on sustainable development. Generally, almost all scholars agree that definitions of sustainability include “meeting the desires of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.” As shown in Figure 1, to have sustainable construction outputs, there should be a balance among environmental (ecological), social, and economic aspects of building (construction) activities.
Interrelations among the ecological, economic, and social impacts of construction.
Construction typically refers to every type of activity associated with the erection and repair of immobile structures and facilities. It is essential to the growth of nations and their economies. In Ethiopia, approximately 60% of the federal capital budget is allocated to the construction industry. Of this allotment, 70% goes to physical infrastructures, 13% to transport and communication, and 17% to buildings and other sectors. The products of construction contribute extensively to the creation of wealth and quality of life.
The construction industry furnishes capital improvements to countries. Since the industry is primarily based on investments, construction activities are the first to suffer during economic recessions. However, in good economic times, construction workers can become quite prosperous. The construction business faces many challenges, such as low productivity, high costs, missed deadlines, quality failures, high rates of fatal accidents and injuries, conflicts and disputes that lead to claims and time-consuming litigation, and poor image due to its harmful effects on the environment. It is viewed as dirty, dull, and environmentally unfriendly.
Construction affects sustainability in its five major phases: (1) predesign phase (material selection, building program, project budget, team selection, partnering, project schedule, codes, standards, laws, research, and site selection); (2) on-site phase (site analysis and assessment, site layout and development, watershed conservation and management, equipment and materials); (3) design phase (passive solar design, materials and specification, indoor air quality); (4) construction phase (environmentally conscious construction, preservation of features and vegetation, waste management and source control practices); and (5) operation and maintenance phase (maintenance plans, indoor quality, energy efficiency, resource efficiency, renovation, housekeeping and custodial practices).
Concrete construction demands land. The sourcing of materials for construction activities (aggregates, cement, waters, admixtures, etc.) from quarry sites and borrow pits can potentially result in the wholesale removal of vegetation and virgin materials. It can also lead to displacement of individuals and loss of important ecological resources and biodiversity of national, regional, or global importance.
The steps of aggregate manufacturing have many considerable environmental impacts. The foremost environmental effect resulting from stone, aggregate, and mineral mining is air pollution from airborne emissions from both stack and disturbed areas at these mines. Natural deposit sources of aggregates are being depleted, threatening the environment and society. The high rate of natural aggregate depletion from source beds causes many problems, such as loss of water-retaining strata, bank slides, exposure of water supply scheme intake wells, and decreasing underground water table levels, which are causes of negative agricultural effects and aquatic life disturbances.
In emerging nations such as Ethiopia, due to rapid urbanization and infrastructure projects, there has been a wide expansion of cement industries that release pollutants. Apart from these environmental concerns regarding CO2 emissions during cement manufacturing, natural resource demands also make cement expensive when compared with aggregates and water for concrete production. Consequently, to overcome these problems, scientists are searching for more environmentally friendly and economical materials that have cement-like properties and can be used as full or partial substitutes for normal Portland cement.
Cement is a material with cohesive and adhesive characteristics that make it capable of bonding mineral fragments into a compact whole. Although it plays a major role in concrete for the construction industry, it is not environmentally friendly and is the most expensive concrete material.
Using concrete mix with optimum cement content, enhancing cement’s durability, and developing supplementary cementing materials are the focus areas for sustainability in concrete industries. Therefore, requirements for durable, economical, and more environmentally friendly ingredients for concrete, particularly for cement, have stretched curiosity to other cementing construction materials that can be used as partial or full replacements for normal Portland cement.
Cement is a fine gray powder, and when it reacts with water, it forms hardened, rigid, and stable structures that bond aggregates together, acting as glue and giving the desired strength of concrete. In ancient times, Romans mixed lime (CaCO3) with volcanic ash, producing cement mortar, which was used during the construction of monumental structures such as the Colosseum [1]. Cement is defined as a mineral chemical produced by mixing a well-defined ratio of raw materials at highly elevated temperatures. Producing cement depletes natural resources and emits greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. It is believed that producing one ton of cement clinker creates almost an equivalent ton of CO2 and other greenhouse gases [2]. This implies that the quantity of cement produced is directly proportional to the amount of greenhouse gases emitted during the production process. Additionally, cement factories contribute tremendously to global warming as well as degrade and disturb the natural existing environment. Beyond this, the cement industry requires high capital investment, energy intensiveness, and high dependence on power and transport.
Cement factories are some of the most energy-consuming/intensive industries worldwide, with 30–40% of their total production costs going to fuel and energy for production. The cost of raw materials represents the second-largest percentage of cement manufacturers’ cost structures.
The major ingredients of cement include clay, limestone, marl, chalk, and others, noteworthy quantities of which are endlessly quarried to meet the demand for cement. The cement sector currently uses large quantities of power station fly ash, blast furnace slag, natural pozzolana, limestone, and silica fumes to substitute for natural raw materials in the production process of blended cements. The use of these alternative materials has significant economic benefits and positive environmental advantages, such as reduced energy consumption and emissions of dust, CO2, and acid gases. In some applications, the performance of concrete can be enhanced when these alternative materials complement Portland cement clinker.
Cement production is an energy-intensive process. The specific thermal energy demand of a cement kiln varies between 3000 and 7500 million joules for a ton of clinker, depending on the basic process design of the plant. The explicit electrical energy demand typically ranges between 90 and 130 kWh and 60 and 130 kg of fuel oil per ton of cement. The cement industry was expected to produce 4.7 million tons per year to meet the demand in 2015, 27 million tons per year. However, the industry achieved an output of only 11.17 million tons in 2009/2010. This result suggests the need to increase the production and supply capacity of cement to meet the needs of the fast-growing construction industry.
Pozzolan is an aluminosilicate/siliceous material that is finely ground and chemically reacts with calcium hydroxide in the presence of moisture to create calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and other cementitious materials. Clay and shale, volcanic ash, and diatomaceous earth are examples of natural pozzolanas, while fly ash, rice husk ash, blast furnace slag, coffee husk ash, silica fume, bagasse ash, and metakaolin are examples of artificial pozzolanas. Most pozzolanas used today are widely available byproduct materials. Since there are many types of pozzolana, its chemical structure and contents also vary. Therefore, classifying pozzolanas depending only on their chemical composition is difficult. For this reason, ASTM C-618 classifies pozzolanas based on performance, as shown in Table 1 [3, 4, 5, 6].
F | C | |
---|---|---|
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 (min %) | 70 | 50 |
MgO (max %) | … | 5 |
SO3 (max %) | 5 | 5 |
Moisture content (max %) | 3 | 3 |
Loss on Ignitions (max %) | 12 | 10 |
Available alkalis as Na2O (max %) | 1.5 | 1.5 |
Chemical requirement for pozzolanic materials.
Pozzolanas improve both hardened and fresh concrete. Decreasing thermal shrinkage and heat of hydration, increasing water tightness, decreasing the alkali-aggregate reaction, resisting sulfate attack, improving workability, and price effectiveness are some of the benefits of using pozzolanas blended with cement [7, 8, 9].
Materials used to either partially or fully replace cement are special construction materials, either naturally occurring or byproducts of industrial or agricultural waste. They rely on the activation of byproducts while incorporating minimal amounts of cement and are promising low-carbon candidates that can potentially complement the globe’s growing concrete industries.
Due to the increase in awareness of environmental concerns and natural resource consumption, the issue of energy savings has been gradually emphasized by the public. Owing to the considerable use of concrete and cement material, the natural material resources associated with the construction sector have been continuously reducing in recent years. However, for each country, particularly for developing countries such as Ethiopia, concrete is the most significant material for fundamental and public constructions. Thus, an innovative and alternative concrete material that is feasible and practical is critical and significant for mitigating environmental impacts and promoting energy-saving performance. Some of the most common cement replacements in concrete production are natural pozzolanas, diatomaceous earth, glass residue, Silpoz plaster, fly ash, corn cob ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume, highly reactive metakaolin, rice husk ash, bagasse ash, coffee husk ash, calcined termite hell, water hyacinth ashy, and so on.
Natural pozzolanas originating from volcanic activities are available worldwide, with varied compositions and subsequently varied performance. Because of their large content of amorphous silica, pozzolanas are excellent replacement materials for cement. Curiously, before the invention of ordinary Portland cement, volcanic ash and air lime mixtures were commonly used, with good performance and proven durability. Difficulties in the usage of these products are a lack of characterization and the varied composition of raw material layers, sometimes within the same area. However, naturally occurring pozzolanas are used successfully in cement composition and may be used to replace up to 20% of cement’s mass. The use of volcano ash for concrete production helps to reduce the chloride ion diffusivity of concrete, inhibiting the localized corrosion of steel and further concrete degradation. This addition also promotes less heat of hydration and a longer setting time. The improved performance was qualified for the refinement of the stomate structure and the pozzolanic action of volcanic ash. One of the challenges of using natural pozzolana materials is their diversity. To minimize this problem, natural pozzolanic materials from different extraction heights are usually mixed before use [1, 2, 3, 6, 10].
Diatomaceous earth, also known as diatomite/fossil flour, is a sedimentary material comprised mainly of diatom outer shells. This very fine powder formed by the external skeletons of these unicellular beings is extremely rich in silica and has high porosity and surface areas. It is usually commercialized after it has been subjected to calcination to remove organic matter, and its characteristics make it a potential cement replacement material. Its application in concrete production is usually in a weight percentage of 10–20% over the cement binder weight.
Traditional soda-lime glass, predominantly composed of silica but with a high percentage of sodium and calcium, is a common residue that is finely ground for posterior use. It can replace up to 20–30% of cement without harmful effects; it performs satisfactorily concerning alkali reactivity and drying shrinkage. In addition, glass powder can significantly reduce the chloride ion penetrability of concrete.
Silpoz is extracted from rice husk ash and is finer than cement with a particle size of 25 μm, which helps it fill the gaps between the aggregate and cement (i.e., the determinants of the density and strength of concrete). Because of this, it reduces the cement amount in the given concrete proportioning, elevates the compressive strength of concrete by 10–20%, and provides good resistance against chemical attack, abrasion, and reinforcement corrosion.
The demand for corn cob ash as an alternative cement material is increased due to its low organic content, which proves the binding properties of cement. It can be used to replace up to 20% of cement’s mass and increases the water amount, which helps to obtain the desired plasticity as well as the initial and final setting time. This is probably due to the reduced cement surface area and hence the delayed hydration process. Corn cob ash may therefore be most applicable when a low rate of heat development is necessary.
Fly ash is a byproduct of pulverized coal in electric power plants. It is a fine-grained material containing alumina, silica, iron, and calcium, as well as sulfur, sodium, magnesium, carbon, and potassium. It can be used to replace up to 15% of cement’s mass.
Blast furnace slag is a byproduct of the iron manufacturing industry that contains cementitious materials such as aluminosilicates, silicates, and calcium.
Silica fume is waste from the production of silicon/ferrosilicon alloy in an electric furnace from high-purity quartz with coal. It is used as cement to replace 5–10% of concrete’s mass. It is recommended for use in high-strength and impermeable concrete.
Highly reactive metakaolin is a highly active pozzolana concrete material. In contrast to slag, fly ash, or silica fume, it is not a byproduct but rather is manufactured from high-purity kaolin clay by calcination at temperatures of 700–800°C. Unlike silica fume, which has more than 85% SiO2, metakaolin contains equal proportions of SiO2 and Al2O3 by mass.
Bagasse is fiber from cellulose obtained via the extraction of juice from sugarcane. Large amounts are obtained from sugar factories. It contains silica and alumina, which are the most vital components of cement-replacing materials.
Rice husk ash is a byproduct of agriculture and used to replace up to 20% of cement in concrete. It has a good tendency to reduce the temperature to produce high-strength mass concrete.
The chemical composition of coffee husk ash has significant values of Al2O3 and SiO2, which are major components of cement. It can replace cement by approximately 10%, and concrete produced from coffee husk ask has good potential as an environmentally friendly cementitious material that reduces pollution and provides a sound coffee waste management option.
Calcined termite hill clay powder is a pozzolanic material containing 38.82% SiO2, 23.98% Al2O3, and 11.68% Fe2O3. As such, termite hill clay powder calcined at 650°C satisfies the American Society for Testing and Materials’ requirements for use of calcined natural pozzolan in concrete. Moreover, classified as natural pozzolana class N, the material can produce a cementitious compound that has binding properties upon reaction with calcium hydroxide obtained from the hydration of cement. Therefore, calcined termite hill clay powder is a suitable replacement for up to 11.3% of cement in the production of concrete, which implies that it can reduce CO2 emissions by 11.3%.
Water hyacinth biochar, a carbonaceous solid material obtained through a pyrolysis process from solid waste materials, has extremely low thermal conductivity, high chemical stability, low flammability, ability to absorb water, and high capture and storage of CO2. It can be used as a partial cement-replacing material in concrete construction up to 5% of cement by weight. In addition, every ton of biochar used in a building envelope means that the equivalent of approximately one ton of CO2 is prevented from re-entering the atmosphere.
The cement industry is an energy-intensive industry with energy typically accounting for approximately 40% of operational costs (i.e., excluding capital costs but including electricity costs). The production of cement involves the consumption of large quantities of raw materials, energy, and heat. Cement production also results in the release of a significant amount of solid waste materials and gaseous emissions. The cement manufacturing industry is currently under greater scrutiny because of the large volumes of CO2 emitted. This industrial sector is thought to be responsible for 5–7% of total CO2 anthropogenic emissions. Concern over the impact of anthropogenic carbon emissions on the global climate has increased in recent years due to increased awareness of global warming. In addition to the generation of CO2, the cement manufacturing process produces millions of tons of cement kiln dust waste product each year, contributing to respiratory and pollution health risks. To produce one ton of clinker, the typical average consumption of raw materials is 1.52 tons.
The amount of clinker needed to produce a given amount of cement can be reduced by using supplementary cementitious materials such as coal fly ash, slag, and natural pozzolanas (e.g., rice husk ash, coffee husk ash, and volcanic ash). The addition of these materials into concrete not only reduces the amount of material landfilled (in the case of industrial byproducts) but also reduces the amount of clinker required per ton of cement produced. Therefore, replacing a portion of Portland cement with cementitious materials can substantially reduce the environmental impact of concrete associated with cement production, such as the consumption of raw materials and energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and waste production.
The cement industry plays a significant role in global energy consumption. Worldwide, the cement industry is one of the most energy-intensive sectors in which energy represents 40% of the total production cost. The energy consumption in cement manufacturing is mainly related to production methods, which are wet methods that consume more energy than dry methods. For instance, in the dry method, a temperature of 1450°C is needed to produce clinker, which accounts for 97.2% of the total, and the remaining temperature is needed for finishing and raw material grinding, with shares of 0.9 and 1.9%, respectively.
Sustainable development of the cement and construction industry is one of the biggest challenges today. The production of one ton of Portland cement releases approximately one ton of CO2 into the atmosphere in the manufacturing process. The cement industry contributes approximately 5% of the total atmospheric CO2 emissions globally. In fact, we are now concerned with the environmental impact of civil engineering structures. Judicious use of cementitious materials as a partial replacement for cement can significantly reduce the CO2 footprint of concrete structures. Most of the CO2 emissions and energy use in the cement industry is related to the production of clinker; 63% of the CO2 emitted during cement production comes from the calcination process, while the rest (37%) is produced during the combustion of fossil fuels to feed the calcination process.
The production of cement is energy intensive and depends on the availability of raw materials near the cement manufacturing area. The process is mainly classified into three categories: the raw material preparation process, the clinker burning process, and the finish grinding process. Of all these processes, clinker burning is the most energy-intensive process, accounting for more than 97.3% of the fuel consumed and approximately 30% of the electric power used. Approximately 40% of the electric power is consumed in the finish grinding process and 30% during the raw material preparation. Fuel costs are a large part of the manufacturing cost of the cement industry, making cement plants have aggressive energy consumption. Moreover, the clinker burning process consumes more than 97% of fuel, suggesting that it is the most expensive part of cement production.
Currently, sustainability is an important issue worldwide and is affected by cement and concrete technology. The construction industry, particularly cement and concrete, is responsible for the production of 7% of the world’s total CO2 emissions. Green concrete capable of sustainable construction is characterized by the application of industrial wastes to reduce the consumption of natural resources and energy and pollution of the environment. Replacement of materials over nominal concrete is what makes green concrete more environmentally friendly.
Cement is integral to infrastructure development in many nations. At the same time, cement production affects the local environment and nearby communities. The environmental issues of cement manufacturing are related to local, regional, and global problems in mining and mineral processing. The local problems include dust, ground subsidence, noise, vibrations, chemical contamination, tailings spills, scenic and local ecological degradation, and health problems among miners. Regional problems are acid rain and contamination of surface and/or groundwater from chemical spills, and stream sediment loading. Global problems are the effects of mineral use and anthropogenic greenhouse gases contributing to global warming. Dust emission sources include kilns, crushers, grinders, clinker coolers, and material handling equipment, which are used in crushing and pyroprocessing. In addition, pyroprocessing is a considerable source of emissions, such as cement kiln dust, gases such as CO2, sulfur oxide, and nitrogen oxide, and dioxins [11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
Air emitted/vented from various stages of cement processing contains dust, SO2, NOx, CO2, and heavy metals, which can negatively affect the air quality of the area. One of the most common methods for reducing the environmental effects of concrete is adding recycled materials to the concrete. Increased environmental awareness and dwindling resources in conjunction with regulations by governments/regional councils have led to the research and development of products and processes that employ effective waste utilization.
The concrete industry is a major contributor to air pollution and an exploiter of natural resources. As such, it bears a special responsibility to contribute to sustainable development. It can do so by pursuing three goals: (1) searching for cement production technologies that are less energy intensive and cause less air pollution (since such technologies will not be available in the foreseeable future, the more realistic approach is to reduce the need for Portland cement, primarily by increased use of supplementary cementitious materials, especially waste materials); (2) replacing concrete ingredients with recycled materials, such as recycled concrete or waste glass; and (3) improving the durability of structures such that they need to be replaced less frequently through careful concrete mix design and prudent choice of admixtures.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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In the meantime, RNA‐seq is evolving rapidly, and newer sequencing technologies are briefly introduced, including stranded RNA‐seq, targeted RNA‐seq, and single‐cell RNA‐seq.",book:{id:"5160",slug:"bioinformatics-updated-features-and-applications",title:"Bioinformatics",fullTitle:"Bioinformatics - Updated Features and Applications"},signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Baohong Zhang, Ying Zhang, William Gordon,\nSarah Du, Theresa Paradis, Michael Vincent and David von Schack",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao"}]},{id:"49705",title:"Nucleic Acid Isolation and Downstream Applications",slug:"nucleic-acid-isolation-and-downstream-applications",totalDownloads:3470,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Nucleic acids are not only a source of life but also a means of observing, understanding, and regulating it. 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Finally, the chapter outlines the application of nucleic acids in the diagnosis of various diseases, in scientific research, and bird sex determination by downstream applications such as restriction enzyme analysis, polymerase chain reactions (PCR, reverse transcription-PCR, real-time PCR), and different sequencing methods (Sanger, cycling sequencing, and next-generation sequencing).",book:{id:"5092",slug:"nucleic-acids-from-basic-aspects-to-laboratory-tools",title:"Nucleic Acids",fullTitle:"Nucleic Acids - From Basic Aspects to Laboratory Tools"},signatures:"Ivo Nikolaev Sirakov",authors:[{id:"176634",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ivo Nikolaev",middleName:null,surname:"Sirakov",slug:"ivo-nikolaev-sirakov",fullName:"Ivo Nikolaev Sirakov"}]},{id:"57644",title:"Polysaccharides: Structure and Solubility",slug:"polysaccharides-structure-and-solubility",totalDownloads:4372,totalCrossrefCites:39,totalDimensionsCites:106,abstract:"Understanding the solubility of polysaccharides is extremely important for their food applications as most functions of polysaccharides including stability, emulsifying property, drug delivery, membrane forming properties, etc., are all achieved in aqueous solution. 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It is documented that isolation of some of these bacteria from cultures is very difficult. Because there is a large number of STD pathogens which can generate coinfections, their simultaneous detection in a unique sample is very important. Multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an advanced method of molecular biology which allows for simultaneous detection of multiple pathogens in the same sample. The advantages of the multiplex PCR method were assessed by various researchers by comparing the diagnosis results obtained with different other conventional methods. The sensitivity and specificity of these methods were analyzed on different specimens in comparison to traditional methods, such as culture media or direct microscopic examination. These studies demonstrated beyond any doubt that the multiplex PCR system is highly effective in the detection of each of multiple STD pathogens depicted from a single specimen and argued for multiplex PCR superiority in terms of sensitivity and rapidity.",book:{id:"5450",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction-for-biomedical-applications",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction for Biomedical Applications",fullTitle:"Polymerase Chain Reaction for Biomedical Applications"},signatures:"Mihaela L. Vică, Horea V. Matei and Costel V. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. 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The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence"},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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