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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7606",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Coastal and Marine Environments - Physical Processes and Numerical Modelling",title:"Coastal and Marine Environments",subtitle:"Physical Processes and Numerical Modelling",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book systematizes the concepts of contemporary coastal zone management and suggests possible structural and non-structural management tools for decision-making processes. Some successful adaptation measures and case studies on oceanic processes and coastal protection are discussed. High-frequency communications in coastal and marine environments are also addressed.All chapters contribute relevant information and useful content to scientists and other readers interested or concerned about the lack of adequate management actions and the installation of appropriate protections or their ineffectiveness in containing coastal vulnerabilities and risks.",isbn:"978-1-78984-360-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-359-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-732-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77408",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"coastal-and-marine-environments-physical-processes-and-numerical-modelling",numberOfPages:136,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dd1227726856d58b88116129b0de8384",bookSignature:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7606.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4474,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:22,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 15th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"67904",title:"Prof.",name:"José Simão",middleName:null,surname:"Antunes Do Carmo",slug:"jose-simao-antunes-do-carmo",fullName:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67904/images/system/67904.jpg",biography:"José Simão Antunes do Carmo obtained his master’s degree in Hydraulics and Water Resources in 1990 from the University of Lisbon and his Ph.D. in Engineering Sciences in 1995 from the University of Coimbra, Portugal. He was director of several undergraduate and master’s courses in Civil Engineering and Environmental Engineering in the period 1995-2010. He was a scientific advisor of twenty-five master’s dissertations and two Ph.D. theses in Hydraulics and Water Resources. He has published two books, sixty-five papers in scientific journals, fifteen book chapters, and more than one hundred papers in international conferences. He has edited eleven books and a special issue of a scientific journal. He is a member of the editorial board of several international journals. His main areas of scientific research are hydrodynamics, morphodynamics, coastal management, river and coastal processes, climate change, natural hazards, risks, and vulnerabilities.",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"839",title:"Oceanography",slug:"oceanography"}],chapters:[{id:"68193",title:"Coastal Adaptation: Past Behaviors, Contemporary Management, and Future Options",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88123",slug:"coastal-adaptation-past-behaviors-contemporary-management-and-future-options",totalDownloads:811,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the recent past, coastal public works solutions were generally designed as engineering problems. By that time, prior to the 1980s, the primary goal of coastal works projects was to maximize safety, taking into account only engineering knowledge and existing economic constraints. Today, concerns are no longer limited to safety; lifestyle and quality of life have become essential ingredients in building a successful coastal works project. Other aspects of the project are also important, such as environmental impact, attractiveness, and sustainability. These additionalcomplexities are further aggravated by other pieces of the puzzle that need to be integrated into the overall design, such as the non-engineering and non-science aspects. A synthesis of recent concerns regarding coastal public works projects has, in fact, become much more difficult for engineers to manage due to new assumptions of value, social acceptance, and sustainability of these projects. In this context, it is common knowledge that decision-making on a coastal issue should be based on criteria such as technical effectiveness, costs, benefits, implementation, and monitoring. This chapter addresses coastal issues using a dual perspective of meeting current needs and ensuring future sustainability. Contemporary adaptation measures and future accommodation options are also discussed.",signatures:"José Simão Antunes do Carmo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68193",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68193",authors:[{id:"67904",title:"Prof.",name:"José Simão",surname:"Antunes Do Carmo",slug:"jose-simao-antunes-do-carmo",fullName:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo"}],corrections:null},{id:"66266",title:"Numerical Modeling Tools Applied to Estuarine and Coastal Hydrodynamics: A User Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85521",slug:"numerical-modeling-tools-applied-to-estuarine-and-coastal-hydrodynamics-a-user-perspective",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Estuarine and coastal areas have been intensively studied given their complexity, ecological, and societal value and the importance of their ecosystem services. Estuarine and coastal management must be based on a sound characterization of these areas, which is achievable complementing the comprehensive field measurements with numerical models solutions. Based on a detailed comparison between two close-by, but extremely different, Portuguese estuaries (the Douro and Minho estuaries), this chapter intends to discuss how accurately numerical modeling tools can provide relevant information for a variety of coastal zones. They can be very useful for various applications in the planning and management fields, such as coastal and infrastructures protection, harbor activities, fisheries, tourism, and coastal population safety, thus supporting an effective and integrated estuarine and coastal management, which must consider both the safety of the populations and the sustainability of the marine ecosystems and services. In particular, the capacity of the numerical models to give a detailed characterization of morpho-hydrodynamic processes, as well as assess and predict the effects of anthropogenic interventions, extreme events and climate change effects, are presented.",signatures:"Isabel Iglesias, Paulo Avilez-Valente, José Luís Pinho, Ana Bio, José Manuel Vieira, Luísa Bastos and Fernando Veloso-Gomes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66266",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66266",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66929",title:"Long-Term Changes in Sea Surface Temperature Off the Coast of Central California and Monterey Bay from 1920 to 2014: Are They Commensurate?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85882",slug:"long-term-changes-in-sea-surface-temperature-off-the-coast-of-central-california-and-monterey-bay-fr",totalDownloads:872,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We examine to what extent the waters of Monterey Bay act independently of those along the central California coast. Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) from 1920 to 2014 from the central California coast and Monterey Bay were analyzed for long-term trends. To estimate the trends, singular spectrum analysis and empirical mode decomposition were employed. Between 1920 and 1940, long-term trends inside and outside Monterey Bay revealed rapidly increasing temperatures. After 1940 trends inside the bay indicate that temperatures increased from ~1950 for the next 40 years, peaking around 1990, and then decreased rapidly through 2013. Offshore, temperatures increased to the early 1960s, after which they decreased until 2014. El Nino episodes, the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO), and increased coastal upwelling contribute to the long-term trends. Also, the impact of regime shifts associated with the PDO may be sustained for decades. Overall, the differences in the trends inside and outside Monterey Bay are significant only during summer where large-scale processes dominate offshore, and smaller-scale processes are important in and around the bay. Finally, our results suggest that waters inside the bay, although they co-vary with the waters further offshore, often appear to behave independently based on the long-term trends.",signatures:"Laurence C. Breaker",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66929",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66929",authors:[{id:"285157",title:"Dr.",name:"Laurence C.",surname:"Breaker",slug:"laurence-c.-breaker",fullName:"Laurence C. Breaker"}],corrections:null},{id:"68000",title:"Significance of Mesoscale Warm Core Eddy on Marine and Coastal Environment of the Bay of Bengal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86243",slug:"significance-of-mesoscale-warm-core-eddy-on-marine-and-coastal-environment-of-the-bay-of-bengal",totalDownloads:568,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bay of Bengal (BoB) is an affluent region for the mesoscale (eddies) and synoptic scale (cyclones) systems. It occurs primarily through the seasonal variations, dynamical instabilities and equatorial wind forcing mechanisms. The individual or cumulative effect of these changes is vulnerable to the coastal and marine ecosystems. For example, tropical cyclone (TC) AILA experienced a warm core eddy (WCE) before the landfall, and consequently it intensified into a severe cyclonic storm (CS) and remained as a CS up to 15 h after the landfall. Its severity produces a heavy rainfall of >18 cm day−1, thus leads to the coastal flooding. The eddy contribution to the TC is witnessed during and after the landfall. Inappropriately, high resolution in-situ observations are not available to identify such important processes on different time and spatial scales. Therefore, the present chapter analyses the northern BoB eddy induced signals using both in-situ and satellite (advanced microwave scanning radiometer—AMSR-2) derived products. Two in-situ locations (BD08 and BD09) are employed for this study purpose. The eddy responses at no-eddy, during and after eddy, have been analyzed. Besides, WCE imprints on the overlying atmosphere are also observed. The relationship between sea surface temperature and wind speed over the BoB region is assessed.",signatures:"Nanda Kishore Reddy Busireddy, Kumar Ankur and Krishna Kishore Osuri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68000",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68000",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68965",title:"Modeling of Coastal Processes in the Mediterranean Sea: A Pilot Study on the Entrance of Suez Canal in Egypt",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88509",slug:"modeling-of-coastal-processes-in-the-mediterranean-sea-a-pilot-study-on-the-entrance-of-suez-canal-i",totalDownloads:645,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main objective of this research is applying numerical modeling to simulate the impact of the Suez Canal jetties on the beach morphology and hydrodynamic regime along the Suez Canal coastal zone. In addition, coastal processes including waves and wave-induced currents will be evaluated using 2D modeling. This research will contribute to quantify the shoreline stability during the last three decades. Hydrodynamic and sediment transport (ST) models are utilized to predict sediment transport pathways and how sediment might move within the entrance of Suez Canal port. Remote sensing analyses of the Landsat Thematic Mapper images during 2000–2018 show siltation processes at the entrance of the Suez Canal. Vector analyses of the images’ data indicated updrift accretion at a rate of +15 m/year and downdrift erosion at a rate of −13 m/year. Coastal processes including waves and currents contribute to shoaling problem along the navigation channel of the Suez Canal port. Applications of 2-3D models were used to simulate wave and current dissipation. In addition, beach slope profiles and hydrodynamic models are used to help in understanding the impact of coastal processes on beach morphology and hydrodynamic regime controlling siltation problem along the entrance of Port Said harbor.",signatures:"Mona Fouad Kaiser, Walaa Awaad Ali and Maysara Khairy El Tahan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68965",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68965",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70525",title:"Ionospheric Monitoring and Modeling Applicable to Coastal and Marine Environments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90467",slug:"ionospheric-monitoring-and-modeling-applicable-to-coastal-and-marine-environments",totalDownloads:676,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ionospheric monitoring and modeling in costal and marine environment is reviewed and characterized in terms of state of art, global, regional, and local issues across different domains of solar-terrestrial conditions for practical applications. Their effects on critical technological systems are either controlled by the Earth’s ionosphere, as in telecommunications and information systems, or simply influenced by its variability, as in trans-ionospheric radio communication, and navigation systems. The evolution of long-distance high-frequency (HF) communications and then still the actuality of HF radio links especially for the coast environment, maritime services, and aeronautical applications, for control and emergency services, for communications equally important in case of great islands and remote areas, for economic reasoning and easy management, and for efficient backup in case of cyber threats are discussed. Some preferred methods for a proper assessment of HF networks have been identified, and examples of existing long-term prediction and near real-time nowcasting in ionospheric space weather modeling to be used, particularly in the Mediterranean area, are presented along with contemporary references.",signatures:"Ljiljana R. Cander and Bruno Zolesi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70525",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70525",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6821",title:"Natural Hazards",subtitle:"Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Reduction",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"855e55f0cd51410f7013bb47181d3321",slug:"natural-hazards-risk-assessment-and-vulnerability-reduction",bookSignature:"José Simão Antunes do Carmo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67904",title:"Prof.",name:"José Simão",surname:"Antunes Do Carmo",slug:"jose-simao-antunes-do-carmo",fullName:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10405",title:"River Basin Management",subtitle:"Sustainability Issues and Planning Strategies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e5ddd0f2eda107ce19c4c06a55a8351",slug:"river-basin-management-sustainability-issues-and-planning-strategies",bookSignature:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10405.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67904",title:"Prof.",name:"José Simão",surname:"Antunes Do Carmo",slug:"jose-simao-antunes-do-carmo",fullName:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6195",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4eb2fa7c0bf9d4a493375ee47276aa38",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang, Yijun Hou and Xiaomei Yang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8669",title:"Coastal Environment, Disaster, and Infrastructure",subtitle:"A Case Study of China's Coastline",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52abc534177a147ffd3154db2f4f4ba1",slug:"coastal-environment-disaster-and-infrastructure-a-case-study-of-china-s-coastline",bookSignature:"X. 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Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia and a key determinant of healthcare costs. It is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder, and due to increased people life expectancy, AD becomes one of the most burdensome threats to public health and a grand international research challenges. It is a system-specific brain disease affecting discrete neurons in a nearly consistent temporospatial pattern and is characterized by progressive memory decline and persistent cognitive impairment enough to interfere with the person’s performance of the usual daily activities.
\nThe gender difference in the cognitive and neurobehavioral performance had been noticed since ancient time which may be the origin of the popular legend (men are from Mars, women are from Venus and had met here in Earth) [1]. The concept of age-related cognitive decline was well known since antiquity, which progressed through the ages till reached the term dementia. The link between female sex and dementia had also noticed since a very long period and this made Jean Etienne Esquirol put menstrual disorders and sequelae of delivery as direct causes of dementia in his book Des Maladies Mentales [2, 3]. In 25 November 1901, the German neurologist, Dr. Alois Alzheimer admitted a patient presented by recent cognitive decline to the public mental asylum in Frankfurt. Surprisingly, this first description was on a 51-year-old lady named Auguste Deter, who experienced marked memory decline, fear of people and became jealous of her husband in the last year preceded her admission in Frankfurt asylum by Dr. Alois Alzheimer and Dr. Hermann P. Nitsche. Later, the patient developed severe behavioral abnormalities, delusions, disorientation of time and place, hallucinations and severe language difficulties. In 1906, Auguste died and her autopsy revealed gross brain atrophy and microscopically increased silver staining by using Bielschowsky method, which later named amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) [4].
\nDementia affects about 47 million people worldwide, and this number is expected to double every 20 years due to increased life expectancy. AD is the leading cause of dementia accounting for about 30% of early onset cases before the age of 50 years and 60–80% of late onset ones either as pure or mixed form [5]. It is one of the commonest causes of prolonged disability in old age, the sixth cause of death in USA globally and the fifth cause for seniors above the age of 65. Old age is the most important AD risk with estimated prevalence of 3% in people aged 65–74 years, 17% between 75 and 84 years and 32% in those >85 years [6, 7].
\nAD disproportionately affects both sexes, with females have 2–3 times higher incidence of AD than males of the same age. The age-specific risk of developing AD is almost twofold greater in women than men, 17.2% vs. 9.1% at 65 years and 28.5% vs. 10.2% at 75 years. The incidence of amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is equal both in male and female, denoting that females take shorter MCI/AD transitional state with rapid conversion to manifest AD [5, 8, 9].
\nAD is not an accelerated form of aging but it is characterized by distinct cellular and molecular pathological changes, including amyloid plaque deposition, NFTs accumulations, synaptic loss and neuronal death with gross brain atrophy.
\nThe amyloid cascade theory with the resultant extracellular amyloid plaque aggregation is the leading one for AD pathogenesis. Amyloid plaques are aggregates of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide derived mainly from the cleavage of a transmembrane protein named amyloid precursor protein (APP) by the sequential action of two aspartyl protease enzymes, β- and γ-secretases (amyloidogenic pathway) in which the APP is firstly cleaved by β-secretase to soluble APP and residual C-terminal segment that is further digested by the γ-secretase to Aβ-40/42 segments. The insoluble Aβ aggregates start to appear 15–25 years prior to the onset of cognitive decline or tau pathology, and their formation is triggered by enhancement of the amyloidogenic pathway with increasing the pool of soluble Aβ production, which in turn aggregate to form monomeric, oligomeric, protofibrils and finally mature insoluble Aβ [10]. Under normal circumstances, the ratio of Aβ-42: Aβ-40 is 1:9 and increase in this ratio due to either aberrant production (increased γ-secretase activity) or clearance (abnormal microglial activities) is the cause of Aβ accumulation as the former has a high tendency to aggregate. The amyloid aggregates spark a sequence of events that lead to AD development including neuronal injury and synaptic loss. It is generally accepted that brain β-amyloid deposition is relatively diffuse, and there is non-linear correlation between the density of mature Aβ aggregate and severity of AD, which denotes that soluble Aβ oligomers per se are neurotoxic and cause synaptic dysfunction even in the absence of insoluble aggregate [11, 12].
\nTau pathology, including NFTs, neuritic plaques and neuropil threads intraneural deposition is assumed to be the consequence of amyloid accumulation. NFTs are intraneural misfolded twisted paired helical filaments, which accumulate to form intracellular deposits composed of hyperphosphorylated tau protein that concentrates in the inner side of the cell membrane, but when the neurons die, NFT may migrate to other healthy or less affected neurons or may be found extracellular. Tau is essential for NMDA-dependent long-term potentiation and AMPA-dependent long-term depression and acts as autophagy regulator by inhibiting histone deacetylase-6 enzyme. Thus, tauopathies result in marked synaptic disturbances and impaired selective autophagic clearance. Tau has more than 25 serine, threonine and tyrosine residue sites, which can be phosphorylated by specific protein kinases and phosphatases [13]. Genetic or acquired induced dysfunctions result in tau hyperphosphorylation, misfolding and fibrillar formation ending in NFTs deposition. On the other hand, tau dephosphorylation is regulated by protein phosphatase 2A enzyme, which activity is impaired in AD. NFTs accumulation starts several years after Aβ deposition but still before AD clinical manifestations and its accumulation dense and distribution is directly proportional with the severity of AD cognitive decline. NFTs deposition usually follows a stepwise progression typically starting in the transentorhinal cortex, the entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, medial temporal cortex and lastly other areas of the neocortex [14, 15] (Figure 1).
\nPhotomicrography of Alzheimer’s disease pathology using Bielschowsky stain demonstrating neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques.
It is well known that the density of β-amyloid deposition is not proportional with the severity of AD cognitive decline making the amyloid hypothesis alone is not sufficient to explain the whole AD pathological cascade and in turn the possible role of additional pathogenetic factors, including neuroinflammation and vascular amyloidosis. The neuroinflammatory theory was supposed after identification of activated microglia within the vicinity of the amyloid plaques, which number was proportional with the size of the plaques. At the same time, several microglial expressed genes were associated with AD predisposition, including TREM2, CD33, CR1, CLU, CD2AP, EPHA1, ABCA7 and INPP5D. Under normal circumstances, microglial activities are modulated by several neuroimmune regulatory proteins, including insulin-like growth factor-1, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, transforming growth factor-b and nerve growth factor, which help in slowdown and resolving the inflammatory process [16].
\nMicroglia have no role in Aβ production; however, they act as Aβ scavengers as they play major roles in its clearance either directly through phagocytosis or indirectly via the secretion of several enzymes, including insulin degrading enzyme, neprilysin, matrix metalloproteinase-9 and plasminogen. At the same time, microglia regulate synaptic network remodeling (synaptic pruning) and neural circuit maintenance [17].
\nIn AD, chronic reactivation and excessive proliferation of microglia result in the production of inflammatory mediators, including reactive oxygen species, interleukin-1, interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. This imbalanced microglial function results in aberrant synaptic pruning, pathological synaptic stripping, neuronal loss, enhancing the endothelial response to hypoxia with impaired blood-brain barrier (BBB) stability, disturbed Aβ clearance, increased levels of phosphorylated tau protein, promoting NFTs accumulation and, consequently, cognitive decline. Microglia also transport amyloid and tau from one brain area to another; thus, they play a major role in spatial AD progression. Microglia are candidate for the action of sex hormones, and they express abundant sex hormone receptors. These receptors modulate microglial activities producing potent anti-inflammatory actions that resist AD development and progression [18, 19].
\nDiabetes, hypertension, smoking and heart diseases are associated with increased risk of AD. This concept resulted in the emergence of the AD vascular theory, which can explain why aging is the major risk of AD as vascular dysfunction is considered as a universal feature of aging and why AD progression increases after cerebral ischemic events like stroke and transient ischemic attacks. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is present in more than 75% of autopsy confirmed AD brains especially in mixed AD/vascular dementia where the vascular risk factors predominate. Cerebral microvascular compromise is more common among subjects having the APOE4 allele making them at increased risk of AD development. CAA represents imbalanced Aβ production and clearance with consequent deposition within the basement membrane of the leptomeningeal vessels, intracerebral arteries and arterioles, and less frequently in capillaries and veins [20].
\nAmyloid deposition in and around the blood vessel wall impairs its endothelial integrity and disturbs the BBB leading to Aβ trapping in the CSF and its diminished clearance to the venous circulation. At the same time, CAA disrupts the microvascular homeostasis leading to chronic cerebral parenchymal hypoperfusion with focal ischemia, microinfarcts, release of inflammatory mediators, oxygen-free radicals, loss of nitric oxide bioavailability and mitochondrial dysfunction. The net result is neurotoxicity, reduced neural plasticity, neural apoptosis and synaptic loss [21]. Sex hormone receptors are heavily expressed in the cerebral blood vessels and exert very important actions to keep the vascular integrity and prevent chronic ischemic hypoperfusion through promoting endothelial relaxation by increasing the production/activity of nitric oxide and prostacyclin and at the same time prevent vascular smooth muscle contraction by inhibiting intracellular Ca2+ influx and antagonize the actions of protein kinases [22].
\nSynaptic failure is an important factor in the cognitive manifestations of AD before manifest neuronal loss takes place. The neurochemical changes in AD include extensive serotonergic denervation in the hippocampus and neocortex, depletion of the cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain, loss of >70% of noradrenergic locus coeruleus neurons, reduction of dopamine, dopamine metabolites and dopamine receptors, histaminergic tuberomammillary nucleus degeneration and impaired melatonin secretion and action in the pineal body and suprachiasmatic hypothalamic nucleus, respectively [23].
\nGlutamate is a non-essential amino acid but it is one of the most important excitatory synaptic neurotransmitter as most of the CNS myelinated axons are glutamatergic. AD patients show aberrant increase in extracellular glutamate, which enhances tau pathology and enhances glutamate receptors expressed oligodendroglia to transport tau from one brain area to another leading to AD spatial progression. At the same time, there is a reciprocal relationship between glutamate and Aβ as soluble amyloid oligomers as well as insoluble Aβ deposits increases the extracellular glutamate concentration resulting in AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate) and NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate) receptors dysfunction, disturbed synaptic pruning and impaired synaptic plasticity with promotion of long-term synaptic depression and inhibition of long-term synaptic potentiation leading to cognitive decline especially memory domain. At the same time, NMDA receptor inhibition promotes amyloidogenic γ-secretase activities and inhibits non-amyloidogenic α-secretase with the resultant increase in Aβ production and accumulation and vice versa. Many studies revealed protective effects of sex hormones against glutamate-induced neurotoxicity through inhibition of glutamate release by reducing the activities of lactate dehydrogenase, inhibiting intracellular Ca2+ influx, exerting antioxidant action and enhancing mitogen-activated protein kinase action [24, 25].
\nGenetic predisposition to AD is very complex although positive family history is a common patients’ finding. The rare early onset AD constitutes less than 1% of cases and often transmitted as autosomal dominant and fully penetrant inheritance. Common affected genes include APP (genes encoding γ-secretase complex), presenelin-1 (PSNL1) and presenelin-2 (PSNL2) gene mutation in chromosomes 21, 14 and 1, respectively. Overexpression of these genes results in increased production of the highly hydrophobic fibrillogenic longer Aβ-42 and on the expense of the relatively shorter Aβ-40 [23].
\nIn late onset AD, apolipoprotein E series, especially APOE4, is the major genetic risk as >60% of AD patients harbor at least one APOE4 allele. APOE is a lipid-binding cholesterol transporter protein essential for maintenance of myelin and neuronal membranes, synaptogenesis and dendritic reorganization. Three APOE isoforms exist in humans: APOE2, APOE3 and APOE4. Heterozygous and homozygous APOE4 are at increased risk of significantly lower age of AD onset and higher rate of AD development by about 4 and 15 folds than other allele types. At the same time, males with APOE4 are more liable to develop MCI than others. APOE4 allele expression interacts with the sex hormones leading to increased risk of AD in women than men of the same age. APOE4 expression results in decreased soluble APPα/Aβ ratio, reduced Sirtuin T1 expression (NAD+-dependent deacetylases that attenuate amyloidogenic), triggered tau phosphorylation and induced neuronal apoptosis [26].
\nMany studies revealed that people with a rare missense mutation (rs75932628-T) in the gene encoding TREM2 (Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2) are at increased risk of developing AD 2–3 folds than others possibly due to reduced clearing abilities of their microglia to Aβ and apoptotic cells [10]. At the same time, other studies suggested a possible role of epigenetic changes and aberrantly expressed micro-RNAs (miRNAs) in the pathogenesis of AD through disturbing neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, synaptogenesis and neuronal network preservation as well as enhancing Aβ production and neuroinflammation [27]. Both epigenetics and miRNAs are influenced by sex hormone receptor activation, and they are potentially versatile and adaptive, which gives a challenging hope for novel therapeutic approaches in AD management. The epigenetics represents alterations in genetic functions without changing DNA sequence and constitutes an interface of genetic/environmental factors interplay, e.g. DNA methylation, histone modifications, non-coding RNAs regulation and higher order chromatin remodeling [28]. MiRNAs are 18–22 nucleotide long, non-coding RNAs that are involved in post-transcriptional suppression of gene expression [29].
\nDementia of Alzheimer’s type typically presents by episodic memory impairment, which gradually progresses to interfere with the activities of daily living. Memory impairment is usually followed by other cognitive domains declines which vary according to the pattern of cortical progression, including apathy, loss of interest in hobbies, sleep disturbances, impaired spatial and temporal navigations, inability to solve problems due to executive dysfunction, behavioral changes, difficulty in using common instruments due to apraxia, language difficulties, incontinence and high dependency on others [7, 11].
\nThe AD cognitive decline is usually preceded by a period of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in which the individual retains his usual daily activities but has subnormal performance in cognitive neuropsychological testing. Many researchers reported a prodromal stage of subjective cognitive decline in which the person experiences worsening in his memory and/or cognitive performance despite the normal objective performance in standardized cognitive neuropsychological tests [30]. Atypical AD types start by non-amnestic manifestations but have the same pathological hallmarks include logopenic aphasia type, dysexecutive type, parietal dominant and frontal dominant atrophy subtypes [31, 32].
\nIt is generally accepted that AD pathological changes begin decades before the appearance of dementia symptoms and this leads to the introduction of the term preclinical AD, which is defined as biomarker evidences of AD pathological changes in a cognitively healthy individual. The current challenge is to develop reliable biomarkers for early pre-dementia AD diagnosis to maintain longer patients’ independence and prepare the floor for the discovery of disease modifying agents including hormonal replacement therapy before irreversible neural damage takes place [11].
\nThe ADNI-2 (Alzheimer Disease Neuroimaging Initiative-2) established CSF biomarkers include reduced CSF Aβ-42 and elevated total and phosphorylated tau-181, which are very accurate in prediction of MCI/AD conversion with 85% sensitivity and 90% specificity. Novel but still non-approved CSF biomarkers include high Aβ oligomers and neurogranin levels [33].
\nBlood biomarkers include high plasma homocysteine, high serum angiotensin converting enzyme activities and low plasma levels of the obesity-related hormone leptin [20]. Other ongoing research biomarkers include prostate-specific antigen complexed to α1-antichymotrypsin, pancreatic prohormone, clusterin and fetuin B [34].
\nThe imaging biomarkers that can predict MCI/AD conversion are usually directed to measure the neural and synaptic densities in the commonly affected cortical areas. In volumetric MRI, manual and/or automated techniques can detect hippocampus and entorhinal cortex atrophy with concomitant dilatation of the temporal horns of the lateral ventricle. Other early neuroimaging biomarkers include task-free functional MRI (measures network failure quotient), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) MRI, SPECT, FDG-PET, amyloid PET and tau PET [35] (Figure 2).
\nBrain MRI of a 56 years old female with early Alzheimer Disease showing medial temporal atrophy in T1 axial section (left), decreased right entorhinal cortex volume (middle) and right hippocampus volume (right) in coronal 3D spoiled gradient magnetic resonance images.
Better keep progestogen as it is a wider term than progesterone and this is clarified in the section of progesterone are synthesized from cholesterol by the action of aromatase enzyme, and they play important roles in shaping the neural functions and behavior throughout all stages of human life. The sex steroid hormones are potent regulators of neuronal survival and function in multiple CNS regions during normal development, aging and in some neurodegenerative disorders including AD. In aging individuals, low levels of gonadal sex hormones are associated with decline in neurogenesis especially in the hippocampus with the resultant age-dependent memory decline and executive function difficulties [36].
\nOver a long time, obvious sexual dimorphism in adult human brain was observed with females harbor larger frontal and medial paralimbic cortices, while males exhibit bigger medial frontal cortex, amygdala and hypothalamic volumes. This gender difference is mainly due to variability in sex chromosome and sex hormone neuronal action. Genetic studies revealed that X-chromosome carry genes which expressions enhance visuospatial, executive and/or social cognitive tasks, whereas genes on Y-chromosome are more responsible for behavioral sexual differentiation [37].
\nAt the same time, there is different gender cognitive performance starting during the early neonatal period and persists throughout human survival. This sex difference may be the base of the striking variable susceptibilities to various cognitive disorders in men and women [38]. Under normal circumstances, there is non-significant sex difference in global cognitive performance, but generally, males are better in mathematics and 3D spatial tests, while females are superior in autobiographic, episodic memory and verbal tests. Regarding spatial navigation, males perform better in allocentric strategy (world-centered object-to-object spatial relations) but females excel in egocentric navigation (self-centered subject-to-object spatial relations). This different cognitive performance is universal and evident in humans and animals which weaken the suggestion that environmental factors or gendered socialization are the causes of these gender variations [39, 40].
\nEstrogen is the primary female sex hormone, which regulates fundamental physiological processes in both reproductive and nonreproductive organs, including the CNS. The brain can synthesize estrogens (neuroestrogens) either by the aromatization of androgens or via a series of enzymatic steps from the precursor of all steroids, cholesterol. This neuroestrogen plays major roles in sexual differentiation of brain in both male and female. Four natural types of estrogens exist: estrone (E1; a weak estrogen and the main postmenopausal type), estradiol (E2; the most potent endogenous estrogen and the main type during the reproductive age), estriol (E3; very weak estrogen and hardly detected in non-pregnant females) and estetrol (E4; secreted only during pregnancy) [41].
\nEstrogens can cross the cell membrane lipid bilayer to bind to the estrogen receptors (ER), which are of two types: nuclear and membrane ER. The nuclear ER are either ERα or ERβ, which are responsible for the estrogen genomic action through regulation of various transcriptional gene expression mechanisms. The brain contains both types of nuclear ER, which are abundant in the hippocampus, pyramidal cells and glial tissue [42]. The membrane estrogen receptors (mERs) are G protein-coupled and ligand-gated ion channels, including GPER1 (previously known as GPR30), ER-X and Gq-mER, which are responsible for the rapid non-genomic actions of estrogen that is initiated within minutes after estrogen administration (estrogen neurotransmitter actions) due to recruitment and activation of kinase-dependent signaling pathways. Membrane ER are abundant in the neocortex and their activation results in increased activity of nitric oxide synthase and Ca2+ influx to the cells through N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-mediated mechanism [43, 44].
\nThe cellular mechanisms underlying estrogen CNS actions are still uncertain due to the different estrogen expression in both sexes and in different brain areas, but it is generally accepted that estrogens usually promote neurogenesis, exert neuroprotective actions and support neuronal survival by antiapoptotic action, stimulating nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor [45]. Estrogens also improve neuronal plasticity especially in the hippocampus, increase cerebral blood flow by enhancing endothelial derived nitric oxide and prostacyclin pathways, regulate neural mitochondrial functions (both types of ER are expressed in the mitochondria) especially in stressful conditions by stimulating anti-apoptotic proteins and decrease free radical production. At the same time, estrogen exerts anti-inflammatory actions by reducing the expression of astrocyte to chemokines, promoting the maturation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells and improve their ability for CNS repair, which enhances the growth and differentiation of axons and dendrites and prevents axonal loss and demyelination [46].
\nEstrogens also have well-documented direct cognitive and behavioral actions, and their postmenopausal depletion been associated with cognitive decline and increased risk of AD. The rapid estrogen non-genomic actions are important for hippocampal memory consolidation and hippocampal-dependent spatial navigation memory and improve learning performance, novel objects recognition and object placement tasks when administered before the cognitive tests. At the same time, estrogens improve choline acetyltransferase activity, promote serotonergic neuronal function and stimulate dopamine release in the caudate, prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens and dorsal raphe nucleus, which in turn enhance age-related learning and memory declines [36, 47].
\nProgesterone is a steroid hormone and it is most active natural progestogen, synthesized in the gonads, placenta, adrenal glands and CNS (neurosteroids). It has many reproductive and non-reproductive functions, including regulation of a wide range of brain functions [48]. Progesterone has a lipophilic structure, which can cross the cell membrane to interact with its specific intracellular progesterone receptors (PRs) expressed throughout the brain without sex difference with special higher expression in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, frontal cortex, medial amygdaloid nucleus, norepinephrine neurons of the nucleus tractus solitaries and cerebellum. Progesterone exerts its CNS actions through regulation of gene expression, modulation of neurotransmitter systems and epigenetic actions as well as enhancing estrogen actions [49].
\nPRs are either nuclear type (PR-A and PR-B), transmembrane PR (7TMPRβ) or membrane-associated 25-Dx PR (PGRMC1). Nuclear PRs are ligand inducible transcription factors that regulate target genes expression and play important roles in sexual brain differentiation, reproductive behavior, neuroprotection, neurogenesis, Schwan cell activities and their myelination programs, proliferation of neural progenitor cells and the release of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor important for cell differentiation and survival. Progesterone also has anti-inflammatory actions through regulation of the activities of astrocytes, microglia and oligodendrocytes [50, 51].
\nTransmembrane PRs are G protein-coupled receptors responsible for the rapid action of progesterone, and when activated, they block the activity of adenylyl cyclase, including enhancement of mitochondrial functions and regulation of cell viability. At the same time, progesterone alters dopaminergic and GABAergic system activities in many brain regions mainly the hippocampus, amygdala and fusiform gyrus enhancing the memory and learning performances [52, 53].
\nAndrogens are very important sex steroids that exert cognitive functions in both males and females as they not only regulate the CNS development but also help to maintain its proper function from infancy to adulthood [54]. It is generally accepted that androgens play a pivotal role in cognitive performance and their depletion or signaling inhibition (in normal aging or anti-androgen hormonal therapy in cancer prostate) results in dysfunction in androgen-responsive tissues, including the brain and consequently deleterious cognitive impairment. At the same time, discontinuation of anti-androgen in cancer therapy restores cognitive performance especially verbal memory [55].
\nThe CNS action of androgens is mediated either directly through stimulation of androgen receptors (ARs) (nuclear receptors regulating target genes expression at transcriptional level) or indirectly after conversion to estrogen by the action of aromatase enzyme. ARs are highly expressed in the septum pellucidum, stria terminalis, preoptic area, ventromedial hypothalamus and cerebellum where they regulate the sexual reproductive behaviors [56, 57]. Neuroandrogens production had detected in the hippocampus where they modulate the hippocampal structure specifically CA1 and CA3 areas. In the medial amygdala and prefrontal cortex, androgens exert important roles in cognitive function regulation through promoting neuroprotection (anti-glutamate action) and neurogenesis, improving neuronal survival and anti-apoptotic effect (regulating mitochondrial genome activities and suppressing reactive oxygen species), modulating hippocampal synaptic plasticity, enhancing remyelination and exerting anti-inflammatory action by regulating astrocytic and oligodendrocytic activities [58]. Beside the delayed genomic effects of androgens, non-genomic rapid actions are mediated by trans-membrane G-protein-coupled ARs, which stimulations increase the intracellular Ca2+ influx and result in improved inhibitory avoidance task, spatial learning and memory performance [59, 60].
\nAndrogens especially anabolic androgen steroids (AAS) are not always neurobehaviorally beneficial, and their short-term use results in aggressive and manic behaviors, whereas their long-term use is associated with impairment of decision making, behavioral flexibility, cognitive control and spatial memory [61, 62].
\nThe neurocognitive actions of sex hormones are not simple but several factors may interact to control their beneficial effects including the inter-balance between their levels as well as the age and sex of the individual. In pregnancy, simultaneous increase in progesterone and estrogens results in impaired mood and decreased memory [63]. At the same time, sex hormones seem to play their major neuromodulatory action in early person’s prepubertal life with subsequent decrease in the neuronal sensitivity to their actions with advancement of age. Some studies revealed that prepubertal sex hormones have permanent effects in individual’s behaviors and cognition including spatial abilities. Early pubertal testosterone administration to gonadectomized male Syrian hamsters resulted in their attaining adult mating behaviors while administration in late puberty did not give the same results denoting that neurons are highly sensitive to the organizational effect of sex hormones at certain age with decreased sensitivity later after passage of this time [64, 65, 66]. On the other hand, brain estrogen expression was reduced in adult female mice previously exposed to stress in adolescence but not in early adulthood which concludes that adolescent stresses suppress estrogen activities and interfere with its organizational actions to attain adult mating behavior. From these results, we can conclude that the individual’s susceptibility to many neurodegenerative disorders including AD may be attained since early life and we may not be able to reverse it easily later [67, 68].
\nAlzheimer’s disease is a heterogenous disorder with multiple variants and wide variety of manifestations, which result from the interactions between multiple etiological factors, including genetic, epigenetic, environmental and lifestyle factors. Neuronal action of sex hormones represents one of the well-defined AD pathogenetic factors and may represent a hope to understand the biology of sex-dependent variability in AD predisposition and in turn leads to the development of personalized, gender-specific AD management.
\nThe concept of MCI had received much attention nowadays for early detection of those candidates to AD conversion which open a gate for future disease modifying agents including hormonal therapy before irreversible neuronal damages take place. MCI is a clinical condition lies between normal aging and dementia in which the cognitive dysfunctions are greater than expected for age but is not severe enough to significantly interfere with the daily life or warrant the diagnosis of dementia [8, 69]. MCI is classified to amnestic (am-MCI) and non-amnestic (nam-MCI) types. In the former, memory impairment is the dominating manifestation, and in the latter, non-memory cognitive domain is the affected one (language, attention, executive function, visual-spatial). Amnestic MCI is termed multiple domain if another cognitive domain is affected, whereas nam-MCI becomes multiple domain if more than one cognitive non-memory domain is affected. People with am-MCI are more liable to develop AD [11, 70].
\nThe prevalence of am-MCI is about 8.5–25.9 per 1000 of general population and 10–20% of those above the age of 60 years; 10–15% of am-MCI persons will develop AD compared to 1–2% of nam-MCI people. Several clinical and biochemical markers had been studied to be used as predictors of MCI/AD progression. In general, women have a higher prevalence of nam-MCI but most metanalytic studies showed non-significant gender difference in the prevalence of am-MCI, which means that women take shorter time to convert from am-MCI to manifest AD [71, 72].
\nOne of the most common observations associated with AD onset is decreased levels of sex hormones, including estrogens, progesterone and androgens, pointing the potential role of these hormones in AD pathogenesis and the possible benefits of their targeting in AD management strategies.
\nEstrogen neuroprotective actions in AD are well documented by decades of researches showing that women used estrogen supplements or those with late menopause are at significantly decreased risk of AD development. On the other hand, early menopause because of increased sex hormone-binding globulin is associated with higher risk of AD in later life [73]. Estrogens exert anti-AD actions through different mechanisms including inhibition of tau deposition and Aβ accumulation. The former action is exerted through inhibition of tau hyperphosphorylation and promotion of tau dephosphorylation in an estrogen receptor-dependent mode through inhibition of protein kinases and promotion of protein phosphatase 2A enzyme activities, respectively [13, 74]. Estrogens inhibit Aβ accumulation by several mechanisms, one of which is decreasing Aβ production by enhancement of non-amyloidogenic APP pathway through activation of α-secretase enzyme that cleaves APP to soluble APP-α peptides and shorter membrane-attached C-terminal segment. The latter is further digested by γ-secretase to non-toxic P3 and C59 segments. Other estrogen actions include inhibition of β-secretase (amyloidogenic pathway) and stimulation of APP-containing vesicle budding by trans-Golgi network [75]. Estrogens also promote Aβ clearance by stimulation of microglial Aβ phagocytosis and enzymes involved in Aβ degradation, including metalloproteases-2 and -9, insulin-degrading enzyme and neprilysin [76].
\nAt the same time, estrogens exert anti-AD actions by increasing dendritic spine densities, promoting synaptogenesis, inhibiting the neurotoxic effects of oxidized low-density lipoproteins and glutamate, improving mitochondrial functions and enhancing the hippocampal cholinergic neurotransmitter system. Estrogens also regulate the epigenetic DNA methylation and miRNAs biogenesis especially in the hippocampus and thus master the genes expressions both transcriptionally and post-transcriptionally, which in turn play pivotal roles in enhancement of neuroprotection and prevention of neurodegeneration. Estrogen actions seem to be age dependent with obvious dysregulation in old-aged people. At the same time, estrogens have neuroprotective actions through increasing the expression of antiapoptotic Bcl-xL and Bcl-w and suppressing the expression of proapoptotic Bim, which lead to prevention of neuronal loss from Aβ toxicity [77, 78, 79, 80].
\nWomen are at increased risk of AD due to age-related sharp decline in sex steroid hormones and spending a large proportion of their life in the postmenopausal period because of increased their life longevity with the resultant prolonged hypoestrogenic state and its negative neurological consequences. Studies showed that postmenopausal women with AD had lower estradiol (E2) and estrone (E1) levels in both blood and CSF compared to normal controls. Moreover, female CSF-E2 level is positively correlated with CSF-Aβ level and cerebral glucose metabolism in the left hippocampus PET scan, which denotes that they are at increased risk to develop AD. In short-term studies, transdermal estrogen administration is associated with increased attention, verbal and visual memories; however, long-term studies failed to slow down AD progression or adding benefits to rivastigmine therapy in postmenopausal women [47, 81].
\nThe neuroprotective effect of estrogen is not the same in both sexes as brain E1 and E2 levels have no relations with Aβ accumulation in males pointing to different gender expression of sex steroid hormones. At the same time, estrogen administration in male to female cross sex subjects results in significant decreases in the hippocampal volume despite producing neurogenesis, which means that the estrogen AD risk prevention in males is negligible [82, 83] (Figure 3).
\nEstrogen anti-Alzheimer’s neuroprotective actions.
Studies in progesterone neuroprotective actions against AD predisposition are not so plenty like those on estrogens but despite this, it is generally accepted that progesterone has a direct neuroprotective action while its indirect actions against AD development by regulating the neuroestrogen effects are matter of controversy as in some studies, progesterone enhances estradiol neuroprotective actions and in others antagonizes them beside reducing the cerebral blood flow [84].
\nThe direct progesterone protecting actions against AD development and/or progression include regulation of β-amyloid metabolism by reducing Aβ production and decreasing the pool of soluble Aβ by enhancement of the non-amyloidogenic α-secretase pathway, decreasing Aβ accumulation through modulation of γ-secretases activities and increasing Aβ clearance by enhancing insulin-degrading enzyme expression and downregulation of β-secretase gene expression [85, 86]. At the same time, progesterone reduces tau hyperphosphorylation and the serum level of endogenous progesterone is inversely correlated with tau accumulation, and at the same time, progesterone administration in transgenic AD mice improved cognitive performance in object recognition and T-maze task [87].
\nAndrogens have neuroprotective effects against AD in both males and females. Many studies had detected lower testosterone level in men with AD relative to normal age-matched control both in the blood and CSF. At the same time, APOE4 allele, which is a major risk of late onset AD, is associated with significantly lower level of circulating testosterone [88]. In accordance with these results, the Baltimore Longitudinal Study on Aging had detected significantly lower testosterone level 5–10 years in healthy men prior to their development of clinically manifest AD compared to those who did not develop AD [89].
\nShort-term testosterone administration improves cognitive functions in MCI and AD patients possibly through non-genomic transmembrane ARs activation [90, 91]. The long-term direct genomic action of androgens results in reduction of Aβ accumulation through enhancement of non-amyloidogenic APP pathway and promoting Aβ clearance by stimulation of Aβ-degrading enzyme action. Postmortem studies had shown that brain levels of testosterone were inversely correlated with cerebral soluble Aβ, which precedes insoluble fibrillar Aβ accumulation. These androgenic anti-amyloid actions are exerted in both sexes [92, 93]. Androgens can also indirectly reduce Aβ accumulation either through enhancing the estrogen pathway or through hypothalamo-hypophyseal-gonadal axis where they inhibit the release of gonadotropin luteinizing hormone secretion by the negative feedback, and it is well known that the latter hormone increases Aβ production by enhancement of APP/β-secretase initiated amyloidogenic pathway [94].
\nMales are subjected to andropause due to age-dependent high level of sex hormone-binding globulin with subsequent decrease in androgen levels and effects. Sex hormone-binding globulin is significantly higher in AD patients than age- and sex-matched control resulting in functional impairments of androgen-responsive tissues including the brain with consequent increase in AD risk [73]. Male andropause occurs very slowly over a long period of time where total androgen level starts to decline in thirties in a rate of 0.2–1% per year, while free testosterone decreases in a higher rate (2–3% yearly). This slowly gradual andropause relative to the rapid menopause may be one of the explanations of decreased male gender AD risk, delayed male MCI/AD conversion and slower AD cognitive deterioration [78, 95].
\nBased on the abundant data supporting the numerous neuroprotective actions of sex hormones in ameliorating many pathological processes occurring in AD, hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) seems to be theoretically beneficial but the translation of this hypothesis to practice met a lot of difficulties which made the use of HRT in AD management still a matter of skepticism [36, 94]. The values of female estrogens and progesterone replacement therapies carry controversial results, which are mainly dependent on the timing, dose and duration of their application to the AD predisposed individual. Promising results were only attained on early HRT initiation at a close menopause temporal proximity and any delayed administration may even give counterproductive bad consequence. This time limit of proper HRT initiation resulted in introduction of the term the critical window of intervention or the window of opportunity which describes the time after which HRT become worthless. HRT has not the same effect in all genotypes but it is found to be more beneficial in people with APOE2 and APOE3 genotypes than APOE4 [96, 97, 98, 99, 100]. At the same time, some studies revealed that the protective effect of HRT against AD is only achieved in long-term users (>10 years), while short-term therapy had no AD preventive actions pointing to the need of long-term HRT use to gain significantly beneficial AD protection [101, 102]. The need for long-term use of conventional HRT opens a new obstacle due to the high cardiovascular risks which in some instances may overwhelm the anti-AD cognitive benefits. This makes AD patients in ultimate need for future introduction of new hormonal drugs with little side effects [103, 104]. At the androgenic level and despite their numerous anti-AD neuroprotective actions, the long-term androgens use carries many neurological and extra-neurological risks including decreased dendritic reorganization and spine density in the limbic regions after initial increase due to increased glutamate turnover and neurotoxicity in amygdala structures with functional impaired connectivity with areas involved in cognitive functions [105, 106].
\nAlzheimer’s disease is a complex multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder resulted from dysregulation of many biological processes at multiple levels in a specific neuronal temporospatial pattern. Sex hormones, including estrogens, progesterone and androgens, play crucial CNS modulatory functions and their disturbances result in impairment of neuroprotection, neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, synaptic plasticity and myelination as well as abnormal glial cell activities. The sharp decrease of neurosteroids influences in menopause relative to the slow andropause makes females sex at increased risk of AD development, rapid MCI/AD conversion and rapid course of cognitive deterioration. Trials used sex hormones as a disease modifying neuroprotective anti-AD agents revealed that their possible beneficial effect can be achieved only by early HRT before the beginning of critical window of intervention and the therapy must continue for long time which may put the treated individuals at increased risk of cardiovascular complications.
\nSo, what is nowadays considered normal menopausal or andropausal sex hormones’ declines may be sufficient triggers irreversible neuropathological changes which latter on progress to AD in susceptible individuals, and it is the time to use these changes as early AD biomarkers in high risk persons and in turn correct them before the onset of the window of opportunity by safe and effective HRT for long-term use and sufficient to produce significant AD prophylaxis.
\nNo conflict of interest was reported.
For traditional journalism, the leading factors were the figure of the author and politics, the reputation of the publisher, and the mass media. The role of a journalist, publicist, and also a writer, publicists were often played by the same person, a group of creative personalities. Historians of journalism, representing the East Slavic scientific tradition [1, 2, 3, 4, 5], have been writing about this for a long time. The journalism of the past was predominantly person-centered, directed, withdrawn to the publicist, journalist as a civic authority, a public intellectual. The voice of the audience in this model of journalism occupied the peripheral location of a kind of silent majority in the sense that the position of the audience manifested itself indirectly. Foremost of all, it was expressed in the subscription-support of the circulation of the media, in letters, calls to the editorial office of the publication. Changes in capabilities and priorities in the technical process have led to transformations in media communications.
In modern journalism, media text often occupies a leading place and attracts more attention than the personality of its author. The exception, perhaps, is a small percentage of columnists and public intellectuals. The media text, in a natural way, especially for new mass media, is saturated with the voices of the audience, which sound through comments on the official websites of publications, in social networks, and on live broadcasts. As a result, the media text often turns out to be the dominant hero of the media reality and media process. A successful media text is often reprinted, distributed in full and in partial, disassembled into citations countless times, not always with links to the original source. The media process is becoming more and more text-centred, which for almost 20 years experts in media linguistics have pointed [6]. Since the 2000s Ukrainian philologists have dedicated several separate dictionaries to the media text [7, 8, 9]. One of the significant scientific results of such systematic work on the study of the media text is the creation of the International Medialinguistic Commission at the International Committee of Slavic Studies (UNESCO) in 2011 and the international scholarly journal “Medialinguistics” was established in 2014 [10].
Despite the active scientific interest of researchers in a media text, media language, media speech, media stylistics and media discourse, there are still many unresolved issues. Media communications successfully and quickly master the latest information technologies, which leads to changes in the nature, structure, and capabilities of the media text. The media text is more and more filled and oriented towards the sounding, in essence living word and the culture of audiality. With printed texts based on a culture of writing, as Derrida defines it, and the media texts with visual elements theorists and practitioners of journalism and media communications know how to work, what methods and techniques to apply to construct and analyze them (Barthes, Eco, Van Dijk, Courtin). Media texts, in which the audiality principle is strong, almost did not become the subject of separate research. Although, about the unreasonable secondary role of the living word in the text, speech, the importance of understanding its nature and the principles of opposition, coexistence with the culture of writing, sign already in the 60s twentieth century the French philosophers Derrida, Deleuze, Meschonnic. The evolution of the media text has shown that these ideas of French structuralism and post-structuralism must be taken into account and applied to the theory and practice of media communications.
Modern media text is increasingly focused on working with a living word. In this regard, in the theory of journalism, media communications, a conceptual and terminological difficulty has already arisen that needs to be overcome: there is a relatively new phenomenon in media text—the strengthening of the positions of audiality and living word, but there is almost no theoretical and methodological basis for describing them. So, one of the current tasks is the importance of justifying a living word as a key concept for describing audiality in media text. These general theoretical difficulties are not surprising, though.
In addition, there is one more factor. The sounding word is the most difficult phenomenon for both practitioners and theorists of journalism because of its peculiar “elusiveness”, “no-object”, and the unavoidable, unrecoverable difficulty of fixation. However, without taking into account the fullness of the meanings of the
In this regard, the section of this article on research methodology is not a designation of already existing methods and techniques for studying media text, but substantiation of the theory of methodology. In other words, as a theorist of journalism and the theory of media text, a representative of media linguistics, it is important for me to argue the theory of the methodology for studying audiality and the
This all assumes that this article is largely staged and theoretical in nature, which predetermines its main goals and objectives. First of all, it is necessary to identify and comment on the problematic field of audibility, audiality in the modern media text and media process. Then, necessary to show and characterize the key context of the problems that led to the idea of isolating the phenomenon of a
It is necessary to focus on the fact that only traditional journalistic materials from various national media spaces cannot be the material for the study of audiality and the living word. As the practice of the media process shows, the hosts of reality shows go into the podcast format, attract celebrities to talk about problems in reality projects to master and tame the new and popular format of the living word. In part, this leads the presenters of the show to the fact that they turn to the basics and principles of journalism, and it leads to the fact that the new format will be difficult to advance in the global media space. All this must be taken into account, described and investigated in a complex, which is also one of the tasks of this theoretical article in terms of its goals.
The range of modern media texts and related discourses includes traditional journalistic texts, advertising, PR, new media, the blogosphere, stories in the social media what that become more complex in structure, goals, functions, formats (Odnoklassniki, Facebook, Instagram, Clubhouse) and YouTube, TicTok. The main tendencies of this range of media texts development demonstrate of tending to further change the status, structure, functions of the culture of speech and reading in the media communications. Writing has ceased to be the leading, determining factor, but the speech sphere, the culture of visuality and audiality has become more active: media text “consists not only of verbal fabric, but is sequentially unfolded at several levels: verbal, video and sound, forming a single whole and acquiring features of volumetric and multi-layered” [6, p. 47].
In recent years, audiality has been more and more actively manifested in a media text. In electronic and new media, sounding speech, music, often accompanied by natural, artificial sounds, noises, is already the norm. Audiality fills the media text, diverting attention from what is written and attracting it to what is said, spoken aloud, designed, oriented for a quick and emotional reaction. This is typical not only for the usual live interviews, reports from the scene, live broadcasts, media text indicating “you can also listen to this news,” podcasts. In this case, audiality is a natural informational, ideological and esthetic component of a media text.
However, modern media texts of various genres are increasingly using the capabilities of the
In advertising, there is also simultaneously important professionally used music, expertly skillfully voice pronouncing advertising slogans; imitation of the living sound and noise, conversational elements of a modern metropolis, less often provinces, rural life. News media text, no less than analytical, journalistic genres is saturated with the element of the
Audiality culture in the mass media is used for several purposes. First, the traditional journalistic purpose of recreating, conveying the natural environment, focusing on fact, event, unchanging striving for documentary, authenticity. Secondly, the creation of various kinds of emotional impact with the help of esthetic, ethical collisions, effects, affects, and plays of language. Thirdly, to show in a more voluminous, multidirectional, large-scale presentation of the polyphony of the modern world. Fourth, to form an audiality (sound) picture of the world in the mass media and to consolidate certain value meanings and ideas in the audience using a given spectrum of feelings, emotions and methods, models of their expression in voice. Mass media introduces fashion and strengthens the right to develop speech, voice, sound, and noise models of human behavior, society and everyday life.
The
In recent years, attempts have been made to systematically investigate the mass media from a similar angle of view aimed at an emotional turn. For example, Wahl-Jorgensen, Karin in the article
Nevertheless, systemic studies of the issues of the
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, to the problem of mastering reality through visuality, the problem of audiality and the ways, goals, possibilities, tasks of its presence in the media text were added. Audiality,
It is clear that writers and publicists were aware almost half a century ago of changes in trend, lifestyle of human behavior, society, and sought to consider and analyze them by an accessible means—the written word. Transformation of the writing should occur so that the word written as much as possible approximation to
In the twenty-first century researchers and practitioners of media communications when talking about the problems of reality, reliability, objectivity, ways of displaying them are increasingly turning to ideas, the possibilities of an emotional turn, which manifests itself in texts not only through writing, visuality, but also through a
These can be interjections used as “vocal gestures” (Ameka [21]); or “affective signs” (Hougaard [29]); or “the flotsam and jetsam of mere performance” (Dingemanse [30]). As a result, the time for perceiving information is minimized and its comprehension is transformed predominantly into a feeling, an effect that is it would seem, almost accessible to analytical perception, comprehension. For example, interjections in media texts are no longer a characteristic and feature of oral communication. The tendency to anchor the written of word and the audiality is important for the contemporary verbal media text. So, many culinary bloggers, host reality shows, strive to capture, fix and convey in the announcements of programs, the atmosphere of audiality with the help of interjections, emoticons.
Sunny Anderson, for example, uses interjections to create a certain emotional mood in his written texts—announcements of cooking show, to activate emotions and their fixation in writing, amplification with emoticons and in cases when advertising products [36]. Similar communicative strategies are characteristic of another “star” chef—Geoffrey Zakarian [37]. This is quite revealing from several points of view: the format of the media text’s existence; the role of the emotional element in it; re-educating the audience, reorienting it from visual to auditory perception; the attempt to develop new ethical, ideological and esthetic canons for speech and voice. Subscribers have also praised the new format of the media text, which uses a live voice.
Many professional media chefs have set up their own audio rooms and run live shows, which are essentially similar to live radio broadcasts. For the past year, there has been a trend which can be conventionally called “go to sound”, “transitioning to in sound” or “tame the clear sound”. For example, Giada De Laurentiis [38]. Thus, from the excessive reality of the photo showmen, bloggers move towards sound, voice. Paradoxical as it may seem, but it is the ephemeral, heightened sensitivity to the nuances of emotions that make
The audiality culture of the era of an emotional turn makes the opinion leaders of the world mass media space to promote into its center not the face, but the voice. Making the voice recognizably means using both the power and possibilities of vocabulary, stylistics, speech patterns, the sound and melody of sound images, and a set of themes and problems that would lay down on the individual and unique sound of the host’s or journalist’s intonation. To a certain extent, this also means a return, a revival of the traditional foundations of journalism, which were oriented towards the individual. Now, however, the voice of the host, the journalist, must be more linked and associated simultaneously with his image, personality and the spectrum of problems, topics and discourses he presents in the media space. On the other hand, the audience, too, must develop a special sensitivity in their hearing to understand what is being said and how it is being said. This is one of the essential requirements of the era of a new sensibility, a new dimension of corporeality, which is already taken into account by the mass media.
In connection with such trends in the mass media process, the focus is on promoting, looking for ways, language, conventionally speaking, more subtle, ephemeral phenomena than in the written and video media text. These are, for instance, nuances of feelings, smells, the culture of their perception and presentation. The same phenomena in media text include voice, sound, noise and the ways of their realization, including playing with melody, sound images, exclamations and interjections. Andreeva, working on voice, vocal gestures and interjections, has put them into a new context and methodology: “Rhetorical phonetics <…> therefore, the timbre coloration of speech at the super-segmental level acquires special significance for research <…>” [39].
These
The following aspect related to methodologies of research on audiality in media texts needs to be emphasized. The media of the turn of our century, assuming the role of “generators of affect” (Reckwitz), actively mastered and implemented the paradoxes of the visual discourse, when, according to Mersch: “The term «representation» never only refers to the modalities of representation, but always at the same time to their
This problem is relevant to contemporary culture and mass media. Derrida this is how he formulated the essence of this paradox: “In phenomenological interiority, hearing oneself and seeing oneself are two radically different orders of self-relation” [41, p. 76]. In a media text, this kind of relationship is most evident. They are tangible for both the author and the audience. Visual, including through written text, writing, and perception of information implies a distance of writing, reading, photo, gradual rational comprehension, “further props”, as Derrida defines it. Through visuality, the distance of analysis, fact, and analytics is established in the media text. The voice, on the contrary, removes any “further props”, returning, cultivating in the subject confidence in what only he himself can hear in the overflow of intonations, melody, sounds, timbre. Voice initially and irresistibly contains, suggests, gives instant perception and ““alive” words”. They initially and invariably presuppose a special, almost immaterial “expressive activity” and meanings that “not to fall outside me, at a visible distance” [41, p. 76]. The
Modern society is increasingly dependent the “power of the voice”, which is based and manifests itself, according to Derrida, through the unity of meaning and intuition, anchored and supported by sounding, sound, noise. This has again activated before the society and, hence, before media communications a system of questions associated with ideology, axiology and phenomenology of perception, world representation in media text, on the one hand. On the other hand, this makes rethink the methodology of research in media text. In 2004 Latour wrote an article
As noted above, the
In 2015 a collection of articles
The origins of methodology should be sought in Derrida’s ideas. Voice, according to Derrida, is significant in that “<…> a medium which both preserves the presence of the
For creating and understanding the essence of the contemporary media text, these ideas of French post-structuralism are directly relevant and practical. The voice in media text is simultaneously a sound image, the basis for rational perception of the meanings that the voice articulates or utters; a seeking/rejection of emotional and intimate intimacy with this voice, with the meanings and ideas it carries with it, an orientation, a dependence on intuition, without which dialog is impossible in the system of audiality. In media text, the voice directly, without the mediation of writing, reading, signs address the feelings and emotions of the person or corporeality. In this sense, the voice in media text is in many ways similar and fulfills the same function as the nose in smell culture. The journalist activates extremely subjective channels, ways and possibilities for communicating with the audience. Voice in a media text is also the most effective means of penetrating into the personal and intimate space of the person as a perceiving subject. The process of conveying information and, more importantly, the meanings and ideas produced through it, through media text is oriented simultaneously towards rational-analytical and emotional, affective perception.
Voice in media text is also a specific break in equivalent communication between journalist and audience. The listener cannot shed light on, clarify the meaning of what has been heard, what has been performed. The word and its sound performance, implementation can generate a lot of shades of meaning, which the listener can only grasp and remain alone with his impression, his emotions, even after a serious analytical program. The listener often does not have the opportunity to respond with a public voice message to the journalist, to the editorial office. The listener can only express his reaction to the media text with a comment, post, smiley face or emoticon on the websites of publications and social networks. The exception is radio and blogs, stories in which a culture of the public-sounding voice of the ordinary person, of the various social starts of media text audiences, is beginning to take shape. So far, the publicly significant voice, the sound images, the element of audiality is the privilege of professional media texts and is curated by journalists, host, showmen, and publishing.
According to Derrida, because of the increased role of the subject, intuition in the creation and realization of meanings, it is important to look at the phenomenon of voice and audiality from the position of phenomenology: “It is implied in the very structure of speech that the speaker
The power of the voice in today’s media text is still largely the traditional strong control, management of those who create media products and replicate them. If a media text based on the culture of writing and visuality is a sign, can be subjected to a scrupulous, consistent analysis, then the auditory component can only be interpreted. This is the basis and trap of the power of the voice in the face of an emotional turn. The voice and the
In addition to the structural-semiotic, phenomenological approaches, which in one way or another have dealt with the problems of audiality in the text, the media text should be considered in terms of the methods and principles of media linguistics. This is a new sphere of knowledge in the humanities. Its main subjects are the media text and the media discourse [45]. It is clear that audiality is an indispensable component of a media text as a semantic, informational, communicative, esthetic integrity, due to the specifics of its media character. According to Duskayeva, media linguistics “… have required researchers to consider, first, those shades of meaning and additions to the linguistic tools that arise when the text (in the traditional sense) is transferred into the media sphere, and second, to take into account that means of meaning transmission in the media are of a different semiotic nature” [46, p. 12]. All this defines the main characteristics of “media thinking” (Duskayeva) [47, 48, 49].
Derrida, reflecting on the phenomenological nature of sound, of listening, of the essence of the voice done conclusion: “My words are “alive“ because they seem not to leave me: <…> not to cease to belong to me, to be at my disposition “without further props“. In any event, the phenomenon of speech, the phenomenological voice,
In media text, all of its characters, just as in everyday life, cannot step out of their voices without a trace, even when they are speaking someone else’s text, are in the image. Media text that uses voice is always subjective and filled with the element of
The media text initially has a system of its special strong “further supports” for the voice. It can be defined as follows.
Foremost, these are the traditional for journalism in general, professionally choreographed and trained voices, the speech of announcers, hosts and journalists. The
For example, Oksana Onishchenko, a journalist for the Ukrainian publication Дзеркало тижня, presented a piece on an urgent social topic: the criteria for the quality of education of schoolchildren during a pandemic, lockdown [12]. If the journalist had written the text, the reader would have learned about the incompetence, unprofessionalism and unwillingness of the team of Ukrainian Minister of Education and Science Serhiy Shkarlet to understand the issue, that officials have shown themselves to be illiterate, non-specialists and falsifiers of data. But this text is spoken by a journalist. The modulations, the timbre of the voice, the rhythm of the phrases, words and sounds uttered initially contain irony and sarcasm, constantly emphasizes the general, well-known incompetence and inability to work professionally by the team of the Minister of Education and Science of Ukraine. The evidence bases, facts, analytics, stylistics, general composition of the text are serious, verified. If it were a written text, it would be perceived as a system of questions for an in-depth conversation with officials from the Ministry of Education and Science. But, the words, phrases and sentences, despite their business style, are not spoken in a neutral tone. The voice changes the meanings of words, as characterized by Derrida. Voice invalidated even the hope for effective communication between media and public officials. The voice of the journalist redirects the problem to the public. The intonation of the journalist reveals to the audience from the first seconds the depth and scale of the social problem. The voice and the text create for the audience a complex unity of informational, social and esthetic tension. As a result, the media text is ideological, conceptual and civic-moral rich. The meeting of text and voice creates a media text that needs to be heard, analyzed and interpreted at the same time.
In addition to the traditional journalistic “further supports” for the voice and the element of the living word, there may be more complex possibilities in media text, ways of their existence. These are, first and foremost, conditioned by the requirements of the channel, format, genre, and the inclusion in the media text of voices that seem to come from the stream of
A media text in which the professional voice of a journalist, an announcer, a host and the natural, unprocessed voices of living life meet and combine is a complex semantic and social-informational, communicative, social-ethical, esthetic unity. The strength of its expressiveness, persuasiveness, and reliability depends on the professional ability of a journalist, sound engineer, and editor to combine heterogeneous principles that represent different voices. And we are not talking about manipulation of words, opinions of interviewers, of random people who unexpectedly found them at the scene. It’s not about simple journalistic tact, skill in presenting events from the scene, or the art of conversation. The problem is different. In the ability to embed expressiveness, emotional tension, affects of someone else’s natural voice, speech into the media text in such a way as not to remain only within the generally understandable meaning of words and to take into account the intonation-conceptual transformations of the sounding speech as accurately as possible. This is the aspect of voice that Derrida characterized as the right to lose of the clarity predetermined by writing. The element of a
There is another side to this problem. It is not initially conditioned by the level of professionalism of the journalist, host and editor, but by the new formats for the existence of a media text. Common media phenomenon in new media is the combination of verbal, visual and audiality components within the boundaries of a single media text, with their verbatim transcription, essentially duplication by means of the written text. There is also the option of a media text with a complex structure, in which several heterogeneous and equal beginnings are present at the same time. The verbal part of the text duplicates what is said in the video. However, the voices, the spoken speech, the soundtrack, so important for informational, political, ideological, social-ethical, esthetic meanings, are not included in the verbal part of the text.
It is clear that a voice, a
Consequently, information in a seemingly unified media text turns out not to be equal to itself: it depends on the choice, the preferences of the audience, and the mood of the individual at now. For modern journalism, which works with various types of communication channels and faces the need to quickly combine heterogeneous types of words, speech and communicative situations in unified media text, supplementary qualities, skills and ways of constructing a media text are important. In order to ensure that media “further props” do not become an aspiration for manipulation, a correction of reality, it is necessary to take into account Derrida’s idea: “Thus writing is always atonal. The place of the subject is there taken by another, it is concealed. The spoken sentence, which is valuable only once and remains “proper only to the place where it is, “loses its place and its proper meaning as soon as it is written down” [50, p. 315].
The situation changes somewhat in the format of live radio conversations, when the voices of typical people from the big outside world, entering virtually unprocessed, fill the media text and create a media event. Although, the voice from
However, there is another aspect to the paradox of audiality in media text. Its essence stems from the fact that language, speech, voice, sound, noise is in a media text always and inevitably a displayed and depicted language, speech, voice, sound, noise. Moreover, the voice, the element of
In contemporary media space is the complex, voluminous media text that is the centre of value and meaning that attracts and holds the audience’s attention and that determines the main trends in the development of the media process. Media text is constantly becoming increasingly complex in nature, structure and genre range. At the same time, on the one hand, media texts remain oriented towards a culture of writing and visuals. The verbal and visual languages and images form the informational, ideological, ethical and esthetic meanings of the media text. Audiences have become accustomed to the verbal and visual language of media texts, and have learned to read and understand it. On the other hand, in media space, the role of sound and noise, voice, and spoken language are increasing. This is largely due to the activation of meanings, images, cultural and social language generated by the emotional turn.
It is important for a modern person to hear another individual, the world, to understand, perceive in their integrity. These moods have their origins in the 60–70s twentieth century. Media texts of various formats and genres have also become actively involved in this process, and have consequently become more oriented towards audiality culture and the element of the living word. The television and radio began to actively produce media texts, which used audiality, focused on the sounding word. Since the 90s the twentieth century, the Internet has strengthened and diversified the capabilities of the sound-noise environment in media texts of various formats and genres, including podcasts, which began to be used in even reality shows. Audiality began to claim in the media text the role of an objective, reliable reflection of the reality of the world, as visuality claimed on this in the twentieth century.
There may be a misconception that media texts are as close as possible and reflect
Nevertheless, the theory of journalism, media communications has not yet developed techniques, methods of working with new growing phenomena of sounding speech, voice in media texts. The theory of journalism and of mass communication still does not have systems for analyzing, interpreting, “certification” of audiality and
Audiality—from the intonation pattern, sound’s modulation of the image in various types of media texts to its musical accompaniment—is an important part of media text. It contains a significant emotional, expressive, ideological, semantic and esthetic load of words, expressions and sentences, which contributes to the formation of the background and memory of a native speaker and the recipient’s attitude to the meaning of the media text. Audibility in the language of a media text creates and maintains that strong collateral sensual tone of the word, of which Bally wrote, and which determines and is determined by mass media tasks, goals and functions. Therefore, exclude the audibility, as well as the visual, from the language, imagery and concept of the media text is to focus solely on writing, which is wrong.
In this regard, a system of issues that are important from the point of view of the theory of media text is indicated. First of all, it is necessary to define and characterize what it means to grasp, to present in the media text the unity of language, speech, visual, sound and noise elements and media. Obviously, this cannot be done without answering the question: what is the role of integrity writing—sign—gesture—voice in this process. Then it is necessary to clarify how the tasks of a journalist and a creative group are changing, when preparation is in progress creating a media text that is complex in nature and structure. Another group of issues is associated with the problems of professional training of journalists, specialists in media communications. It is important to determine what and in what direction should change in the education specialists of mass media, who should be guided not only by the culture of the written text.
The theory of journalism, mass communication, and media linguistics is only just approaching this range of problems. The study of media text and media speech from the position of audiality is the research not only of the sound-noise sphere, of the sound, the voice and the element of living words, but also the development approaches, methods are allowing to describe it in the media text. Hence, not only traditional journalistic, sociological and linguistic methods and approaches, and those that work with the visual, but also those aimed at the spoken word and the voice actualized by the specificity of the mass media, must be taken into account. For this purpose, it is necessary to draw on developments in the theory of the
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\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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In recent years, the application of these fluids in electronic cooling systems seems prospective. In the present study, the laminar mixed convection heat transfer of different water–copper nanofluids through an inclined ribbed microchannel––as a common electronic cooling system in industry––was investigated numerically, using a finite volume method. The middle section of microchannel’s right wall was ribbed, and at a higher temperature compared to entrance fluid. The modeling was carried out for Reynolds number of 50, Richardson numbers from 0.1 to 10, inclination angles ranging from 0° to 90°, and nanoparticles’ volume fractions of 0.0–0.04. The influences of nanoparticle volume concentration, inclination angle, buoyancy and shear forces, and rib’s shape on the hydraulics and thermal behavior of nanofluid flow were studied. The results were portrayed in terms of pressure, temperature, coefficient of friction, and Nusselt number profiles as well as streamlines and isotherm contours. The model validation was found to be in excellent accords with experimental and numerical results from other previous studies.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Mohammad Reza Safaei, Marjan Gooarzi, Omid Ali Akbari, Mostafa\nSafdari Shadloo and Mahidzal Dahari",authors:[{id:"178854",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Safaei",slug:"mohammad-reza-safaei",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Safaei"},{id:"179807",title:"Dr.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Safdari Shadloo",slug:"mostafa-safdari-shadloo",fullName:"Mostafa Safdari Shadloo"},{id:"179809",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahidzal",middleName:null,surname:"Dahari",slug:"mahidzal-dahari",fullName:"Mahidzal Dahari"},{id:"179813",title:"MSc.",name:"Marjan",middleName:null,surname:"Goodarzi",slug:"marjan-goodarzi",fullName:"Marjan Goodarzi"},{id:"185093",title:"MSc.",name:"Omid",middleName:null,surname:"Ali Akbari",slug:"omid-ali-akbari",fullName:"Omid Ali Akbari"}]},{id:"5184",doi:"10.5772/6180",title:"From the Lab to the Real World: Affect Recognition Using Multiple Cues and Modalities",slug:"from_the_lab_to_the_real_world__affect_recognition_using_multiple_cues_and_modalities",totalDownloads:3784,totalCrossrefCites:39,totalDimensionsCites:57,abstract:null,book:{id:"3789",slug:"affective_computing",title:"Affective Computing",fullTitle:"Affective Computing"},signatures:"Hatice Gunes, Massimo Piccardi and Maja Pantic",authors:null},{id:"5197",doi:"10.5772/6167",title:"Generating Facial Expressions with Deep Belief Nets",slug:"generating_facial_expressions_with_deep_belief_nets",totalDownloads:3730,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:49,abstract:null,book:{id:"3789",slug:"affective_computing",title:"Affective Computing",fullTitle:"Affective Computing"},signatures:"Joshua M. 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The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. The purpose of this section is to indicate how the research was conducted throughout the study periods.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",middleName:null,surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"}]},{id:"70973",title:"Social Media, Ethics and the Privacy Paradox",slug:"social-media-ethics-and-the-privacy-paradox",totalDownloads:2565,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Today’s information/digital age offers widespread use of social media. The use of social media is ubiquitous and cuts across all age groups, social classes and cultures. However, the increased use of these media is accompanied by privacy issues and ethical concerns. These privacy issues can have far-reaching professional, personal and security implications. Ultimate privacy in the social media domain is very difficult because these media are designed for sharing information. Participating in social media requires persons to ignore some personal, privacy constraints resulting in some vulnerability. The weak individual privacy safeguards in this space have resulted in unethical and undesirable behaviors resulting in privacy and security breaches, especially for the most vulnerable group of users. An exploratory study was conducted to examine social media usage and the implications for personal privacy. We investigated how some of the requirements for participating in social media and how unethical use of social media can impact users’ privacy. Results indicate that if users of these networks pay attention to privacy settings and the type of information shared and adhere to universal, fundamental, moral values such as mutual respect and kindness, many privacy and unethical issues can be avoided.",book:{id:"8423",slug:"security-and-privacy-from-a-legal-ethical-and-technical-perspective",title:"Security and Privacy From a Legal, Ethical, and Technical Perspective",fullTitle:"Security and Privacy From a Legal, Ethical, and Technical Perspective"},signatures:"Nadine Barrett-Maitland and Jenice Lynch",authors:[{id:"311821",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nadine",middleName:null,surname:"Barrett-Maitland",slug:"nadine-barrett-maitland",fullName:"Nadine Barrett-Maitland"},{id:"311822",title:"Ms.",name:"Jenice",middleName:null,surname:"Lynch",slug:"jenice-lynch",fullName:"Jenice Lynch"}]},{id:"76652",title:"Internet of Things and Machine Learning Applications for Smart Precision Agriculture",slug:"internet-of-things-and-machine-learning-applications-for-smart-precision-agriculture",totalDownloads:696,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Agriculture forms the major part of our Indian economy. In the current world, agriculture and irrigation are the essential and foremost sectors. It is a mandatory need to apply information and communication technology in our agricultural industries to aid agriculturalists and farmers to improve vice all stages of crop cultivation and post-harvest. It helps to enhance the country’s G.D.P. Agriculture needs to be assisted by modern automation to produce the maximum yield. The recent development in technology has a significant impact on agriculture. The evolutions of Machine Learning (ML) and the Internet of Things (IoT) have supported researchers to implement this automation in agriculture to support farmers. ML allows farmers to improve yield make use of effective land utilisation, the fruitfulness of the soil, level of water, mineral insufficiencies control pest, trim development and horticulture. Application of remote sensors like temperature, humidity, soil moisture, water level sensors and pH value will provide an idea to on active farming, which will show accuracy as well as practical agriculture to deal with challenges in the field. This advancement could empower agricultural management systems to handle farm data in an orchestrated manner and increase the agribusiness by formulating effective strategies. This paper highlights contribute to an overview of the modern technologies deployed to agriculture and suggests an outline of the current and potential applications, and discusses the challenges and possible solutions and implementations. Besides, it elucidates the problems, specific potential solutions, and future directions for the agriculture sector using Machine Learning and the Internet of things.",book:{id:"9977",slug:"iot-applications-computing",title:"IoT Applications Computing",fullTitle:"IoT Applications Computing"},signatures:"R. Sivakumar, B. Prabadevi, G. 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Madhumathi"}]},{id:"56541",title:"Routing Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)",slug:"routing-protocols-for-wireless-sensor-networks-wsns-",totalDownloads:5805,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are achieving importance with the passage of time. Out of massive usage of wireless sensor networks, few applications demand quick data transfer including minimum possible interruption. Several applications give importance to throughput and they have not much to do with delay. It all rest on the applications desires that which parameter is more favourite. The knowledge of network structure and routing protocol is very important and it should be appropriate for the requirement of the usage. In the end a performance analysis of different routing protocols is made using a WLAN and a ZigBee based Wireless Sensor Network.",book:{id:"6038",slug:"wireless-sensor-networks-insights-and-innovations",title:"Wireless Sensor Networks",fullTitle:"Wireless Sensor Networks - Insights and Innovations"},signatures:"Noman Shabbir and Syed Rizwan Hassan",authors:[{id:"206600",title:"Mr.",name:"Noman",middleName:null,surname:"Shabbir",slug:"noman-shabbir",fullName:"Noman Shabbir"},{id:"206601",title:"Mr.",name:"Syed Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"syed-rizwan-hassan",fullName:"Syed Rizwan Hassan"}]},{id:"50065",title:"Heat Pipes for Computer Cooling Applications",slug:"heat-pipes-for-computer-cooling-applications",totalDownloads:5182,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"There is an increasing demand for efficient cooling techniques in computer industry to dissipate the associated heat from the newly designed and developed computer processors to accommodate for their enhanced processing power and faster operations. Such a demand necessitates researchers to explore efficient approaches for central processing unit (CPU) cooling. Consequently, heat pipes can be a viable and promising solution for this challenge. In this chapter, a CPU thermal design power (TDP), cooling methods of electronic equipments, heat pipe theory and operation, heat pipes components, such as the wall material, the wick structure, and the working fluid, are presented. Moreover, we review experimentally, analytically and numerically the types of heat pipes with their applications for electronic cooling in general and the computer cooling in particular. Summary tables that compare the content, methodology, and types of heat pipes are presented. Due to the numerous advantages of the heat pipe in electronic cooling, this chapter definitely leads to further research in computer cooling applications.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Mohamed H.A. 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