Quantities of potential agro-industrial waste (million tons) available for bioethanol production.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"144",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Speech Technologies",title:"Speech Technologies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book addresses different aspects of the research field and a wide range of topics in speech signal processing, speech recognition and language processing. The chapters are divided in three different sections: Speech Signal Modeling, Speech Recognition and Applications. The chapters in the first section cover some essential topics in speech signal processing used for building speech recognition as well as for speech synthesis systems: speech feature enhancement, speech feature vector dimensionality reduction, segmentation of speech frames into phonetic segments. The chapters of the second part cover speech recognition methods and techniques used to read speech from various speech databases and broadcast news recognition for English and non-English languages. 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We wish to have automatic devices/gadgets/instruments with no or minimal intervention from humans in their daily operation. Then only, these devices can qualify to call it is smart instruments. To fulfill this, one of the major requirements is to come up with highly sensitive, long-lasting, low-cost smart sensors. On the other hand, the healthcare industry demands low-cost, Lab-on-chip type biosensors for simple and rapid detection of various biomolecules or biogases. A sensor is an analytical device that detects the change in the environment and responds to some output in terms of a measurable analog resistance/voltage/current converted into a human-readable display or transmitted for further processing. In the last two decades, a significant amount of research has been devoted to the development of various types of gas sensors using different nanomaterials in the electronic and healthcare industry.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to provide the reader (research scholars, scientists, and engineers working in the field of sensors) an overview of the recent advances made in the development of various gas sensors for the electronic and healthcare industries for the betterment of the human lifestyle. Also, this book will intend to address existing challenges and a few future directions of research for easy integration and cost-effective fast sensing of such
\r\n\tgas sensors.
Petroleum-based fuels have been widely used by the human being in daily life and industry for hundreds of years; this has generated a depletion of fossil fuel reserves. In addition, the burning of fossil fuels has caused global climate changes (such as global warming). These concerns have led to the search and development of alternative fuels that are environmentally friendly, renewable, and sustainable. Biofuels such as bioethanol are considered an excellent alternative to mitigate these problems because the production of bioethanol uses renewable resources (such as lignocellulosic biomass) as a raw material; this reduces the dependence on fossil resources and produces cleaner combustion that contributes in a positive way to the environment. Lignocellulosic biomass, in the form of agro-industrial waste, has enormous potential as source energy, precisely as a precursor to bioethanol. The problem of agro-industrial waste in the ethanol production, the potential advantages for the environment, the main stages of production of bioethanol, and a comparison of different microorganisms (yeasts) used for their possible production at the industrial level will be discussed in this chapter. In addition, other bioalcohols that are generated during the production of bioethanol that can be used as high value-added products will be shown.
\nThe industry has become an essential part of human life; however, development activities produce much waste throughout the world. Large-scale production of agriculture has led to the release of huge quantities of residues. Industries in the agricultural sector generate a large number of residues (in the form of solids, liquids, and gases) throughout the year. Those residues can be used as animal feed, burned (causing an increase in air pollution), or deposited in landfills. The generation of these residues can result in several environmental problems and may cause contamination of air (generating CO2), contamination of surface water (groundwater seepage). Their elimination is a problem for the producing industries. Therefore, the recovery and re-utilization (recycling) of agro-industrial waste is of interest to industries. This large volume of residues, together with their slow degradation capacity, has stimulated research activities focused on the determination of the possible uses of this waste with a dual purpose. On the one hand, the elimination of an environmental problem (when the waste is discharged) causes the deterioration of the environment since it contains potential toxic compounds, and on the other, the search to produce other value-added products.
\nAgro-industrial wastes are generated from crop residues or animal feed and include materials such as cereals (corn, rice, wheat, sorghum), bagasses (cane, agave), wheat straw, husk, leaves, seed, stem, and others. Millions of tons of agricultural waste are generated all over the world. Table 1 shows the generation of agro-industrial wastes according to the region across the world. Rice straw/husk, wheat straw/husk, and sugarcane bagasse are the biggest agro-industrial wastes produced. Brazil, China, India, and the United States account for 60% of the crop residues produced [3]. The agricultural production of maize dominates in the United States and also in China (in less quantity); rice production is mainly found in China and India; cereal production such as wheat is dominant in Europe (outside), China, and India (as they are the major producers of wheat and rice in the world); sugar cane production takes place in Brazil (as major producer) and India. The large portion of agricultural residues generated every year showed that maize has a residue potential of more than 900 million tons of waste; wheat and rice have a residue potential of more than 600 and 400 million tons of waste, respectively. Sugar cane and soybean potentials are in a range of 450 and 350 million tons of waste, respectively [3]. Other studies have also reported that the global production of rice straw is 600–900 million tons per year [4].
\nResidue | \nAfrica | \nAmerica | \nAsia | \nEurope | \nOceania | \nSubtotal | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crops/grains | \n|||||||
Maize | \n63.58 | \n445.34 | \n245.75 | \n85.10 | \n0.53 | \n840.3 | \n[1] | \n
Oats | \n0.20 | \n5.08 | \n0.98 | \n11.95 | \n19.62 | \n37.83 | \n[1] | \n
Rice | \n34.49 | \n55.49 | \n948.30 | \n6.49 | \n0.31 | \n1045.08 | \n[1] | \n
Rye | \n0.10 | \n3.77 | \n2.54 | \n34.50 | \n0.81 | \n41.72 | \n[1] | \n
Sorghum | \n31.66 | \n33.76 | \n14.69 | \n1.06 | \n2.40 | \n83.57 | \n[1] | \n
Sugar cane | \n22.42 | \n241.15 | \n156.15 | \n0.00 | \n8.39 | \n428.11 | \n[1] | \n
Wheat | \n33.18 | \n169.19 | \n439.04 | \n305.75 | \n33.89 | \n981.05 | \n[1] | \n
Wheat straw | \n5.34 | \n62.64 | \n145.20 | \n132.59 | \n8.57 | \n354.34 | \n[1] | \n
Lignocellulosic biomass | \n|||||||
Bagasse | \n11.73 | \n87.62 | \n74.88 | \n0.01 | \n6.49 | \n180.73 | \n[2] | \n
Corn straw | \n0.00 | \n140.86 | \n33.90 | \n28.61 | \n0.24 | \n203.61 | \n[2] | \n
Oat straw | \n0.00 | \n3.04 | \n0.27 | \n6.83 | \n0.47 | \n10.61 | \n[2] | \n
Rice straw | \n20.9 | \n37.2 | \n667.6 | \n3.9 | \n1.7 | \n731.3 | \n[2] | \n
Sorghum straw | \n0.00 | \n0.00 | \n9.67 | \n0.35 | \n0.32 | \n10.34 | \n[2] | \n
Quantities of potential agro-industrial waste (million tons) available for bioethanol production.
The agro-industrial waste contains part of lignocellulosic material; this material is composed by cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin along with smaller amounts of pectin, proteins, and ashes [5]. Cellulose is the main structural component of the cell wall of plants, and it is in an organized fibrous structure (crystalline), constituting 30–50% of the cell wall. This linear polymer is composed of D-glucose subunits linked together by β 1–4 glycosidic bonds forming cellobiose molecules. These long chains (called elementary fibrils) are linked together by hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals forces that cause cellulose to pack into microfibrils. Hemicellulose and lignin cover the microfibrils forming a matrix. Hemicellulose is a heteropolysaccharide that covers the surface of cellulose fibers and contributes 10–40% of the biomass of the plant, has an irregular structure, and is chemically bound to the lignin in the cell wall. The main characteristic that differentiates hemicellulose from cellulose is that hemicellulose has branches with short side chains that consist of different sugars. These monosaccharides include pentoses (xylose and arabinose), hexoses (glucose, mannose, and galactose), and uronic acids (4-O-methyl-glucuronic, d-glucuronic acid, and d-galacturonic acid) and are linked by β 1–4 glucosidic bonds and occasionally by β 1–3 bonds [6]. Lignin provides rigidity to the cell wall of plants and contributes 15–30% of the biomass of the plant. It is an aromatic polymer of three-dimensional structure quite complex, very branched, and amorphous. Three phenyl propionic alcohols exist as monomers of lignin: coniferyl alcohol, p-coumaryl alcohol, and sinapyl alcohol. Alkyl-aryl, alkyl-alkyl, and aryl-aryl ether linkages hold these phenolic monomers together.
\nThe composition of these components can vary from one plant species to another. For example, wood has a higher amount of cellulose, while straw and wheat leaves increase the content of hemicellulose [7]. Besides, the relationships between the various components within a single plant vary with age, growth stage, and other culture conditions [6]. Practically, all biomass residues produced in agricultural and industrial activities, and even urban waste, have high concentrations of available lignocellulosic materials. Lignocellulosic materials represent the most abundant renewable resources on earth and therefore have been a great deal of interest in utilizing as energy resource. In the last decades, the bioconversion of lignocellulosic materials in products of commercial interest (biofuels, bioalcohols) has been searched. Agro-industrial wastes, which are byproducts of key industrial and economical activities, are attractive raw materials for the production of renewable fuels, like bioethanol. The great advantage of using these materials is that they are natural, biodegradable, and can often be extracted from waste or as byproducts of the agricultural or food industry. The advantage associated with these products is double, since the cost of the raw material becomes cheap and, also, an added value is given to the industrial waste or byproduct. The use of lignocellulosic biomass as a raw material for the production of biofuels (such as bioethanol) has been associated with a concept of biorefinery, which is key to the production of ethanol at an industrial level. However, the bioconversion of lignocellulosic wastes into useful products is an enormous environmental challenge.
\nCurrently, the world faces a progressive depletion of its energy resources, mainly fossil fuels based on non-renewable resources. At the same time, the consumption of energy grows at high rates and the intensive use of fossil fuels has increased the generation of gaseous pollutants released into the atmosphere, which has caused changes in the global climate. Through the use of renewable energy resources, it is possible to find part of the solution to the energy requirements in a friendly way for the environment. The global potential of bioenergy is represented in energy crops and lignocellulosic waste [1, 8]. The conversion of these raw materials into biofuels is an option for the exploitation of alternative sources of energy and the reduction of polluting gases [9]. In addition, the use of biofuels has important economic and social effects.
\nBioenergy companies focus on first-generation biofuels and involve the use of grains and raw materials directly related to human consumption (grains, sugarcane, etc.). The use of these raw materials implies that the processes to produce first-generation fuels are not sustainable and at the same time are considered not ethic (it comes from feedstocks directly related to human or animal feed). On the other hand, second-generation biofuels are those that use non-food raw materials such as waste from agro-industries (straw, bagasse, husks, effluents). The second-generation biofuels market is based on the basic principle that the majority will be produced from agro-industrial waste, which implies the creation of sustainable developments and clean and friendly companies with the environment. Governments envision the second-generation biofuels market as an innovative way to reduce costs in the disposal of waste materials and improve the production of clean, renewable, and sustainable energies, which in the long term partially replace the use of fossil fuels such as petroleum.
\nNowadays, bioethanol is the most attractive and important renewable fuel in terms of capacity and market value [10, 11]. Globally, bioethanol production has increased considerably in recent years and has gained importance in many parts of the world. The largest producer of bioethanol is located in America, and Asia stands second while Europe follows the list (Figure 1). Several reports have indicated the world production capacity of bioethanol; in 2012 and 2013, it was approximately 234 billion liters per year [12]. More than 128.5 billion liters of bioethanol were produced worldwide during 2014 [13], while for 2016, it increased to almost 144 billion liters [14]. Brazil and the United States are the main producers of first-generation bioethanol (which represent around 60% of world production) (Figure 1) [2]. In the United States, ethanol production increased from 175 million gallons to 15,800 million gallons in almost 20 years [12]. For 2017, the annual production of bioethanol was 27,050 million liters (the United States, Brazil, Europe, and China being the main contributors).
\nWorldwide fuel ethanol production in 2017.
The production of second-generation bioethanol is shown in Table 2. The production of bioethanol from agro-industrial waste has taken much interest about the first generation, due, the main feedstock for the production are residues, in that way avoiding the use of extensions of cultivable land to bioethanol production. In addition, as mentioned earlier, a product of added value is obtained from residues which also help to avoid a problem of waste accumulation. The selection of the agro-industrial feedstock is in function of the agricultural production and the interests of each country for transferring value to the produced wastes. Kim and Dale [2] indicated that area about 73.9 Tera grams (Tg) of dry wasted crops in the world could potentially produce 49.1 gigaliters (GL) per year of bioethanol. Also mentioned was that the lignocellulosic biomass could produce up to 442 GL per year of bioethanol and the total potential bioethanol production from crop residues and wasted crops is 491 GL per year (about 16 times higher than the world ethanol production in 2003).
\nResidue | \nAfrica | \nAmerica | \nAsia | \nEurope | \nOceania | \nSubtotal | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Waste crop | \n\n | |||||
Barley | \n0.12 | \n0.045 | \n0.83 | \n1.35 | \n0.13 | \n2.47 | \n
Corn | \n2.17 | \n4.29 | \n6.82 | \n1.09 | \n0.01 | \n14.38 | \n
Oat | \n0.02 | \n0.044 | \n0.04 | \n0.30 | \n0.001 | \n0.405 | \n
Rice | \n0.71 | \n1.61 | \n14.4 | \n0.02 | \n0.02 | \n16.76 | \n
Sorghum | \n1.55 | \n0.21 | \n0.37 | \n0.003 | \n0.0004 | \n2.13 | \n
Sugar cane | \n0.23 | \n0.55 | \n0.82 | \n— | \n0.0001 | \n1.60 | \n
Wheat | \n0.55 | \n0.78 | \n6.78 | \n2.70 | \n0.54 | \n11.35 | \n
Subtotal (1) | \n5.35 | \n7.529 | \n30.06 | \n5.463 | \n0.7015 | \n49.103 | \n
Lignocellulosic biomass | \n\n | |||||
Bagasse | \n3.33 | \n24.87 | \n21.3 | \n0.0004 | \n1.84 | \n51.34 | \n
Barley straw | \n— | \n3.2 | \n0.61 | \n13.7 | \n0.60 | \n18.11 | \n
Corn stover | \n— | \n40.47 | \n9.75 | \n8.23 | \n0.07 | \n58.52 | \n
Oat straw | \n— | \n0.799 | \n0.07 | \n1.79 | \n0.12 | \n2.77 | \n
Rice straw | \n5.86 | \n10.41 | \n186.8 | \n1.10 | \n0.47 | \n204.64 | \n
Sorghum straw | \n— | \n2.61 | \n— | \n0.10 | \n.09 | \n2.8 | \n
Wheat straw | \n1.57 | \n18.39 | \n42.6 | \n38.9 | \n2.51 | \n103.97 | \n
Subtotal (2) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Total (1 + 2) | \n16.11 | \n108.278 | \n291.19 | \n69.2834 | \n6.4015 | \n491.2535 | \n
Bioethanol presents some important differences about conventional fuels derived from petroleum. The main one is the high oxygen content, which constitutes about 35% by mass of ethanol. The characteristics of bioethanol allow a cleaner combustion (it emits low levels of non-combusted hydrocarbons, such as carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and other reactive organic gases that pollute the air) [12, 15]. Also, it improves the performance of the engines, which contributes to reduced pollutant emissions (with low emission of CO2 to the atmosphere), even when mixed with gasoline [9, 16]. In this way, bioethanol (and biofuels) helps to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and consequently mitigates the climate change. Also, the use of agro-industrial waste for the production of bioethanol helps to reduce their accumulation which is of great environmental concern. Farrell et al. [17] estimated (using the displacement method) a reduction of the 88% greenhouse gas emissions using lignocellulosic ethanol (from switchgrass). Schmer et al. [18] reported that ethanol from switchgrass reduces GHG emissions by 94% compared to GHG emissions from gasoline. Various studies have reported a reduction of 63–118% in life-cycle GHG emissions using ethanol from lignocellulosic feedstock in comparison to fossil fuel [9, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24].
\nThe main steps that are involved in the production of bioethanol from lignocellulosic wastes are 1) pre-treatment, 2) hydrolysis and 3) fermentation (Figure 2). An adequate process of pre-treatment and hydrolysis can increase the concentrations of fermentable sugars, which potentially would help to obtain greater quantities of bioethanol.
\nSchematic diagram of bioethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass. 1: Composition of lignocellulosic biomass; 2: Effects of pre-treatment on lignocellulosic biomass and main/representative inhibitory compounds generated during the process. Pre-treatment is required to separate the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin fractions; 3: Hydrolysis of pre-treated lignocellulosic material. Hydrolysis helps to convert polymeric carbohydrates (cellulose and hemicellulose) into fermentable sugars; 4: Fermentation process. The fermentation process by microorganisms converts the soluble sugars released during hydrolysis into ethanol and byproducts.
The aim of the pre-treatment is to disintegrate the lignocellulosic complex to make it more accessible for the hydrolysis stage; in this way, it helps decrease the crystallinity of the cellulose, increase the surface area of the biomass, remove the hemicellulose, and break the seal of the lignin. This process increases the porosity of the pretreated material and makes cellulose more accessible to enzymes so that the conversion of carbohydrates into fermentable sugars is achieved quickly and with higher yields. The pre-treatment methods can be divided into different categories: physical (grinding), chemical (alkaline, dilute acids, oxidizing agents, organic solvents), biological, or a combination of these.
\nAfter pre-treatment, cellulose and hemicellulose are released and converted to monomers which are known as saccharification (containing mainly glucose and pentose); the reaction can be catalyzed by diluted acids, concentrated acids, or enzymes (cellulases and hemicellulases). Acid hydrolysis (both concentrated and diluted) occurs in two stages, to take advantage of the differences between hemicellulose and cellulose. The first involves, essentially, the hydrolysis of the hemicellulose, conducted in accordance with the pre-treatment conditions discussed earlier. In the second stage, higher temperatures are applied, seeking to optimize the hydrolysis of the cellulose fraction [25]. The process with concentrated acid uses high temperatures and pressures, with reaction times of seconds to a few minutes, which facilitates the use of continuous processes. On the other hand, the processes with diluted acid develop under less severe conditions, but with typically long reaction times [26]. In the enzymatic process, hydrolysis is catalyzed by enzymes generically cellulases and requires at least three key enzymes, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, and β-glucosidases. Enzymatic hydrolysis is a prolonged process because the enzymes are hampered by the structural parameters of the substrate (hemicellulose/lignin) and the surface area. However, enzymatic hydrolysis has certain advantages over acid hydrolysis: the first is that by not using chemicals, it is an ecological alternative, a second is that they are carried out under moderate environmental conditions of temperature and pH, which reduces their cost in comparison with acid hydrolysis; they also avoid corrosion problems, and additionally, toxic byproducts (inhibitors) are not formed.
\nAfter hydrolysis, the product of the sugars is fermented to ethanol by microorganisms. The microorganisms can be either bacteria or yeast that can use one or more of the sugars present in the lignocellulosic material pretreated and hydrolyzed.
\nThe typical configuration used for the fermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates involves a sequential process in which hydrolysis (cellulose/hemicellulose) and fermentation are carried out in different units. This configuration is known as separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF). SHF has the advantage that each step can be carried out under optimal conditions of hydrolysis (45–50°C) and fermentation (30–35°C). SHF has the disadvantage that enzymes (cellulases/β-glucosidases) are inhibited by the glucose released during hydrolysis; therefore, to obtain optimum yields, it requires a lower charge of solids and the addition of a higher load of enzymes. In addition, due to the fact that the process is carried out in different steps, it has the disadvantage that increases its cost, which compromises its economic viability. An alternative to this process is the known simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), where hydrolysis and fermentation are carried out in a single unit. SSF considerably reduces cellulase inhibition problems (which improves yields and production bioethanol). Also, during the SSF method, the risk of contamination can be reduced (due to the ethanol generated), and the use of a single unit reduces the costs of the process. However, it has the disadvantage that each stage cannot be optimized (limiting and restricting the process). A variant of SSF is simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF) and non-isothermal simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (NSSF). SSCF consists of the enzymatic hydrolysis and co-fermentation of pentoses and hexoses in a single unit; the co-fermenting microorganisms need to be compatible regarding operating pH and temperature. In NSSF, hydrolysis and fermentation occur simultaneously in two different units at their optimum temperature; the hydrolysis reaction liquid passes to the fermenter. An alternative is consolidated bioprocessing (CBP), also known as direct microbial conversion (DMC). In this method, all the biological transformations involved in the production of bioethanol (enzyme production (cellulase), biomass hydrolysis (saccharification), fermentation of hexoses, and fermentation of pentoses) occur in a single unit with one or more microorganisms. This method is attractive because it reduces the number of units, the cost of the products, and simplifies its operation.
\nCurrently, the tendency of these methods focuses on carrying out the processes simultaneously in a smaller number of steps. The microorganisms are fundamental pieces in the production of lignocellulosic bioethanol. Microorganisms capable of fermenting both sugars with high yield are required. One of the main problems in the production of bioethanol from lignocellulosic hydrolysates is that not all microorganisms can assimilate and ferment pentoses to ethanol; the microorganisms conventionally used in the fermentation of bioethanol present this inconvenient. As mentioned earlier, hemicellulose can represent a large part of the lignocellulosic material, which can lead to a large number of available pentoses for fermentation. For this reason, the development and search for microorganisms capable of efficiently fermenting pentose to ethanol have led to a great research effort. Genetic engineering has been used to add pentose metabolic pathways in yeast and other microorganisms to effectively utilize the sugars present in lignocellulosic hydrolysates. In addition, several types of research have sought to improve the performance of microorganisms that already can ferment both sugars. Although success has been achieved in this regard, the fermentation of mixtures of the sugars of the lignocellulosic biomass has not yet reached a commercially viable level.
\nYeast strain | \nType of strain | \nWaste/medium | \nSugar concentration (g L−1) | \nEthanol concentration (g L−1) | \nQp | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Commercial | \nMineral medium | \n40 | \n18.2 | \n1.51 | \n[27] | \n|
Laboratory | \nSugarcane bagasse | \n30 | \n13.1 | \n0.18 | \n[28] | \n|
Laboratory | \nSugarcane bagasse | \n18.5 | \n2.2 | \n0.09 | \n[29] | \n|
Laboratory | \nSugarcane bagasse | \n18.5 | \n4.8 | \n0.17 | \n[29] | \n|
Laboratory | \nWheat straw | \n14.5 | \n2.4 | \n0.21 | \n[29] | \n|
Laboratory | \nWheat straw | \n14.5 | \n2.2 | \n0.20 | \n[29] | \n|
Laboratory | \nSpend coffee grounds | \n195.0 | \n11.7 | \n0.49 | \n[30] | \n|
Laboratory | \nSorghum stover | \n200.0 | \n68.0 | \n0.94 | \n[31] | \n|
Wild-type | \nGalactose and glucose | \n500.0 | \n96.9 | \n3.46 | \n[32] | \n|
Wild-type | \nCassava starch | \n195.0 | \n89.9 | \n1.35 | \n[33] | \n|
Mutated | \nIpomea carnea | \n72.1 | \n29.0 | \n1.03 | \n[34] | \n|
Laboratory | \nWater hyacinth | \n23.3 | \n7.34 | \n0.31 | \n[35] | \n|
Laboratory | \nWheat straw | \n— | \n36.2 | \n0.50 | \n[36] | \n|
Laboratory | \nSugarcane bagasse | \n18.5 | \n9.0 | \n0.29 | \n[29] | \n|
Laboratory | \nSugarcane bagasse | \n18.5 | \n5.1 | \n0.20 | \n[29] | \n|
Laboratory | \nWheat straw | \n14.5 | \n3.1 | \n0.25 | \n[29] | \n|
Laboratory | \nWheat straw | \n14.5 | \n2.3 | \n0.20 | \n[29] | \n|
Wild type | \nGlucose | \n20.0 | \n5.7 | \n0.23 | \n[37] | \n|
Laboratory | \nWheat straw | \n— | \n11.1 | \n0.20 | \n[38] | \n|
Laboratory | \nSorghum juice | \n194 | \n85.16 | \n1.42 | \n[39] | \n
Bioethanol production from different carbon sources.
Qp, volumetric ethanol productivity (g ethanol produced L−1 h−1).
Stress condition | \nLag phase | \nμ | \nRs | \nYx/s | \nqs | \nQs | \nYp/s | \nqp | \nQp | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | |||||||||
Control | \n0 | \n0.14 | \n3.83 | \n0.059 | \n2.47 | \n1.55 | \n0.49 | \n1.21 | \n0.30 | \n
HMF (7 g L−1) | \n0 | \n0.07 | \n1.74 | \n0.043 | \n1.67 | \n1.62 | \n0.45 | \n0.75 | \n0.29 | \n
Furfural (3 g L−1) | \n6 | \n0.08 | \n1.87 | \n0.047 | \n1.76 | \n1.65 | \n0.46 | \n0.82 | \n0.30 | \n
HMF (3.5 g L−1) + furfural (1.5 g L−1) | \n6 | \n0.12 | \n1.52 | \n0.045 | \n2.78 | \n1.65 | \n0.46 | \n1.29 | \n0.30 | \n
HMF (7 g L−1) + furfural (3 g L−1) | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
\n | |||||||||
Control | \n0 | \n0.16 | \n3.20 | \n0.053 | \n3.03 | \n1.66 | \n0.40 | \n1.22 | \n0.26 | \n
HMF (7 g L−1) | \n12 | \n0.10 | \n1.32 | \n0.049 | \n2.11 | \n1.59 | \n0.43 | \n0.91 | \n0.27 | \n
Furfural (3 g L−1) | \n6 | \n0.07 | \n1.75 | \n0.048 | \n1.60 | \n1.55 | \n0.48 | \n0.78 | \n0.30 | \n
HMF (3.5 g L−1) + furfural (1.5 g L−1) | \n6 | \n0.06 | \n1.25 | \n0.046 | \n3.46 | \n1.48 | \n0.49 | \n1.73 | \n0.29 | \n
HMF (7 g L−1) + furfural (3 g L−1) | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
Physiological parameters of
Lag phase (h); μ, specific growth rate (h−1); Rs, substrate consumption rate (g L−1 h−1); Yx/s, biomass substrate yield (g dry cell weight g substrate utilized−1); qs, specific substrate consumption rate (g substrate consumed g dry cell weight−1 h−1); Qs, volumetric substrate uptake rate (g substrate consumed L−1 h−1); Yp/s, ethanol yield on substrate (g ethanol produced g substrate utilized−1); qp, specific ethanol productivity (g ethanol produced g dry cell weight−1 h−1); Qp, volumetric ethanol productivity (g ethanol produced L−1 h−1).
The presence of inhibitors is another problem faced by yeast during the fermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates. The presence of inhibitory compounds originated in pre-treatment, and hydrolysis processes of lignocellulosic biomass can strongly inhibit the fermentation stage and generate irreversible cellular damage (which negatively affect yeast metabolism). Furan aldehydes such as 2-furaldehyde (furfural) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) are products of degradation of pentoses and hexoses released from hemicellulose and cellulose, respectively. Acetic, formic, and levulinic acids are the most common acids present in lignocellulosic hydrolysates. Acetic acid is formed by deacetylation of hemicelluloses, while formic and levulinic acids are products of HMF breakdown/degradation. In addition, formic acid can be formed from furfural under acidic conditions at elevated temperatures. A wide range of phenolic compounds is generated due to the decomposition of lignin and also by the degradation of carbohydrates during acid hydrolysis. Furans are considered the most representative and inhibitory toxic compounds of the fermentative capacities of yeasts. Furfural significantly reduces cell proliferation, ethanol production, inhibits several enzymes that are essential to central metabolism, including dehydrogenases, or by damaging and blocking the synthesis of DNA, RNA, proteins, carbohydrate metabolism, and changes in the cell wall. On the other hand, HMF damages membranes and nucleic acids, generates oxidative stress, and reduces NADH/NADPH and inhibition enzymes [44, 45].
\nFurfural and HMF have been studied mostly in
Furfural (g/L) | \nKinetic parameters | \n||
---|---|---|---|
Yp/s | \nYp/x | \nQp | \n|
Control | \n0.42 ± 0.012 | \n0.67 ± 0.006 | \n0.17 ± 0.013 | \n
0.5 | \n0.29 ± 0.022 | \n0.63 ± 0.012 | \n0.11 ± 0.063 | \n
1 | \n0.24 ± 0.013 | \n0.23 ± 0.030 | \n0.10 ± 0.001 | \n
2 | \nNG | \nNG | \nNG | \n
3 | \nNG | \nNG | \nNG | \n
4 | \nNG | \nNG | \nNG | \n
Control | \n0.42 ± 0.019 | \n0.22 ± 0.026 | \n0.17 ± 0.016 | \n
1 | \n0.18 ± 0.023 | \n0.12 ± 0.048 | \n0.05 ± 0.005 | \n
2 | \n0.18 ± 0.035 | \n0.01 ± 0.023 | \n0.05 ± 0.002 | \n
4 | \n0.17 ± 0.027 | \n0.09 ± 0.003 | \n0.04 ± 0.013 | \n
6 | \n0.15 ± 0.008 | \n0.09 ± 0.004 | \n0.04 ± 0.006 | \n
8 | \n0.12 ± 0.003 | \n0.08 ± 0.012 | \n0.04 ± 0.012 | \n
10 | \n0.10 ± 0.013 | \n0.06 ± 0.011 | \n0.04 ± 0.007 | \n
Kinetic parameters of fermentation by
Mineral medium (glucose 20 g L−1), 30°C, pH 4.5 and 100 rpm. Yp/s, ethanol yield on substrate (g ethanol produced g substrate utilized−1); Yp/x, ethanol yield on biomass (g ethanol produced g dry cell weigh−1); Qp, volumetric ethanol productivity (g ethanol produced L−1 h−1); NG, no growth detected.
In addition to the production of bioethanol, other byproducts (such as fusel oil) can be generated during the metabolic processes of the yeast in fermentation. Fusel oil is a mixture of higher alcohols (from amino acid metabolism) mainly composed by isoamyl alcohol, isobutanol, propanol, butanol, and other aromatic compounds, such as esters and acetates. Higher alcohols can be used as fuel or energy source (when burned) [47]. Esters can also be obtained from higher alcohols of fuel oil, which are used as solvents, flavoring agents, medicinal, and plasticizers [48]. Isoamyl esters (such as isoamyl acetate) are aromatic compounds that are widely used in the food and beverage industry (because they have important compounds of flavor and fragrance) [49]. Other aromatic compounds produced by yeasts, such as acetates, also show commercial applications and have been used as components in flavorings (ethyl acetate, isobutyl acetate, amyl acetates, and isoamyl acetate) and additives for perfume (isopropyl acetates, acetates of octyl, and methyl acetates). Ethyl acetate is one of the most important esters and can be used as a chemical solvent, resins, adhesives, and paints [50].
\nMany of the studies link the formation of various aromatic compounds such as fusel alcohols and fusel acids to the degradation of branched-chain and aromatic amino acids, via the Ehrlich pathway [51, 52]. The synthesis of higher alcohols synthesized in the yeast catabolism was proposed by Ehrlich 1907; from this finding, the Ehrlich pathway has been used as a basis for the modification of routes and enzymes involved in the formation of higher alcohols. Ehrlich pathway proceeds in three steps: first, the amino acid is transaminated to create an α-keto acid; next, this α-keto acid is decarboxylated to an aldehyde; and finally, the aldehyde is reduced to an alcohol or oxidized to a fusel acid, depending on the redox status of the cells. In addition to their synthesis via the Ehrlich pathway, α-keto acids are intermediates in the biosynthesis of certain amino acids and therefore constitute a link between anabolic and catabolic processes. Depending on metabolic fluxes, unbalanced amino acid synthesis can also contribute to the synthesis of aromatic molecules [53].
\nStrain | \nEthanol | \nHigher alcohols | \nEsters | \nAldehydes | \nMethanol | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
48.0 | \n26.612 | \n1.742 | \n1.027 | \n31.07 | \n|
54.5 | \n33.769 | \n2.023 | \n0.868 | \n27.907 | \n|
47.5 | \n84.68 | \n84.9 | \n25.8 | \n3.8 | \n|
44.9 | \n62.08 | \n112.7 | \n27.3 | \n3.6 | \n|
49.7 | \n101.61 | \n120.7 | \n25.6 | \n4.3 | \n|
46.0 | \n67.71 | \n101.9 | \n23.7 | \n3.8 | \n|
47.1 | \n81.53 | \n105.3 | \n12.6 | \n3.7 | \n|
49.9 | \n75.2 | \n106.3 | \n33.3 | \n3.8 | \n|
45.9 | \n75.4 | \n118 | \n17.7 | \n4.1 | \n
Generation of ethanol (g L−1), higher alcohols (mg L−1), esters (mg L−1), aldehydes (mg L−1), and methanol (mg L−1) at the end of fermentation.
Hydrolysis and separate fermentation (SHF).
Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF).
Compound (mg L−1) | \nStrain | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
AR5 | \nERD | \nMC4 | \nSLP1 | \nOFF1 | \n|
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | |
Acetaldehyde | \n31.42 | \n20.47 | \n30.05 | \n33.59 | \n25.30 | \n
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | |
Ethyl acetate | \n1.21 | \n1.32 | \n1.24 | \n4.11 | \n4.29 | \n
Isoamyl acetate | \n0.00 | \n0.00 | \n0.00 | \n0.00 | \n0.00 | \n
Ethyl lactate | \n0.65 | \n1.22 | \n1.17 | \n0.59 | \n0.61 | \n
Ethyl hexanoate | \n6.41 | \n7.34 | \n6.77 | \n6.93 | \n8.19 | \n
Ethyl octanoate | \n1.03 | \n0.90 | \n0.89 | \n1.00 | \n1.01 | \n
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | |
Ethanol | \n4910 | \n5120 | \n5300 | \n5270 | \n4340 | \n
1-propanol | \n5.92 | \n5.57 | \n5.54 | \n6.89 | \n6.63 | \n
Isobutanol | \n4.51 | \n5.03 | \n3.58 | \n20.48 | \n16.87 | \n
Butanol | \n5.04 | \n3.32 | \n3.76 | \n1.78 | \n1.43 | \n
Amyl alcohol | \n21.63 | \n19.88 | \n22.06 | \n47.78 | \n41.74 | \n
2-phenyl-ethanol | \n0.34 | \n0.33 | \n0.38 | \n0.32 | \n0.34 | \n
Ethanol and volatile compounds produced by strains
Usually, in Mexico, the strains of
The use of bioethanol as fuel has helped to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and the problems of pollution worldwide; also, the use of lignocellulosic waste for the production of second-generation bioethanol benefits the environment. However, to produce bioethanol, one of the critical points in the process is fermentation, due to the lack of robust microorganisms that can efficiently convert lignocellulosic hydrolysate sugars to ethanol. In the last years, the yeast
The authors were supported by research fellowships from the National Council of Science and Technology from Mexico and the Mexican Ministry of Energy (FSE CONACYT-SENER 245750, 248090).
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
“Greenspace” the word itself is so vast for the academicians that it has been used by researchers differently in different contexts. With the revolutions in the research of sustainability, the term “green” not only symbolizes trees and vegetation but is also used as an adjective for environment-friendly built environments and even technologies. In urban planning, the term “greenspace” is referred to as the vegetation cover of the spatial area. Greenspace is an urban space that fulfills various esthetics, air purification, conservation of ecology, etc. Urban green spaces (UGSs) in cities exist as natural or semi-natural, managed parks and gardens, supplemented by scattered vegetation pockets associated with roads and random green spaces [1].
Some traditional and cultural parameters, including health, ecological, social, and recreational, remain a major deterministic factor for the optimum usability of these spaces. These UGS can be accessible or inaccessible within city areas. Accessibility of green spaces is an important aspect to assess its impact. There are many UGS within the city area which are inaccessible to the public, and thus citizens are not able to avail themselves of its best benefits. In such cases, green space may not perform its function. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the context of green spaces in urban planning. To further elaborate the green space, ‘public open spaces’ is another term that can further help understand the concept, functionality, and psychological impact of the population affected by green spaces. UGS include natural elements like green belts, soil, water, parks, etc. have a positive effect on human wellbeing, as shown in Figure 1.
UGS in Chandigarh city, India (Chandigarh is the first the planned city of India by architect-planner Le Corbusier and is famous for its green spaces integration in the master plan). (Source: author).
The sustenance of human life on Earth is entirely due to a natural environment and large biodiversity functions. Fresh air, water, fruits, woodlands and minerals are all provisioned by various ecosystem services. Green spaces in cities serve as a natural gathering place for the community, fostering social interaction and integration. They also promote individuality and belongingness to urban areas. The effectiveness of UGS to attenuate air pollution is enhanced by vegetation density. Urban greenery provides a safe and healthy atmosphere for walking, jogging, and running and a conducive environment for social contact and physical and leisure activities. Consuming the maximum benefits of city greens requires them to remain unaltered by the urban infrastructure such as the buildings, highways, and other infrastructural components. The current times require greens to be planned as ecological functional spaces coexisting to support the human functions of recreation, esthetics, leisure activities and conserving environmental values.
Vacant built-up space remains as elapsed wasteland or gaps between buildings and other constructions. These spaces have a high potential for reconstruction and repurposing by integrating them into the public, and for creating stunning spaces by distinguishing their specific character. For example, the exact characteristic of a former railway track is that it connects two regions and can be renovated into a green corridor. Depending on their location, abandoned areas can be converted into different facilities. Every city has such vacant spaces that are waiting to be adapted to the current urban fabric so that they can be part of the total cityscape.
An environmental justice issue that affects so many communities is the lack of green space. Most cities have green areas throughout them for the health of the citizens. In areas that are predominantly lower income or a minority group tend to have less green space. Green spaces are very important to maintain good air quality and promote exercise [2]. There are many cases of this environmental justice problem that were acknowledged and even fixed. A few examples are Tartu, Estonia, Faro, Portugal, and Phoenix, Arizona. Green space is something everyone should have equal access to, but due to the environmental justice problem certain groups are deprived of easily accessible green space.
Living near a green space might even help you live longer. A scientific review published in The Lancet Planetary Health found urbanites living near a park or a garden had a lower risk of premature passing. In their work, the researchers used a vegetation index to measure the density of greenery in locales. Using their scale, infertile areas composed of rocks or sand would score closer to a zero, while an area like a lush tropical rainforest would score closer to one.
The chapter holistically covers and generalizes concepts and concerns associated with UGS across urban planning domain. The chapter is written based on the review and analysis of secondary data available in the form of published literature from reputed data sources, government reports and based personal observation of the author may during the course of study.
The green space can be differentiated from open space as it constitutes only a two-dimensional land area that has not been modified to buildings, highways, and other infrastructural components. Greens should be mainly classified into an ecological function space (flora and fauna, physical infrastructure (drainage, stormwater management, and water quality conservation), and human function (provision for recreational, aesthetical, emotional, and leisure activities, preservation of environmental values, and solar access). Green space may consist of a vast range of pre-hold and leasehold land tenure with different use and access rights. Green space may also find its share in further land-use planning.
In the early 1700s, garden squares and parks were firstly introduced in urban areas. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the parkway movement, headed by Frederick Law Olmsted, led to the belief that green space was an important cultural and social element of the urban form. The idea of integrating green space into the urban development process came out with the regeneration of the environmental movement in the 1960s [3]. Although public access is defined for various green spaces, green space does not imply public accessibility automatically. Here the green space categories the open spaces which support human socio-cultural and health requirements, biodiversity preservation as well as discussion related to historical green space perspective [4, 5].
There are different types of green spaces like food production areas, national parks, grasslands, green belts, and playfield (like a golf course) that are predominately utilized for corps and live stocks, habitation to animals and medicinal herbs, cattle grazing, the barrier between the pavement and human settlement, and sports activity respectively. Green space categories intermingled with the next one, parks and gardens, where the needs of individuality for recreation and enjoyment are fulfilled [6, 7]. Table 1 shows the Indian UGS typology according to the designated documents with different contexts, categories, classification, and other hierarchies.
Many cities in India have a categorization of spaces that are derived from literature (Table 2). And then, there is a hierarchy of classification of categorized spaces. The planned cities have systematic cataloging of green spaces like the recreational spaces, green areas and tourist areas. Each town has its USP (unique selling point), and it offers the spaces it has according to its function. Table 3 showcases the different cities of India and how they have their green spaces categorized, their further classification and the hierarchy.
Documents | Context | Category | Classification | Hierarchy |
---|---|---|---|---|
UDPFI (1996) | Open spaces | Recreational facilities | Parks and open spaces Sports centers and playgrounds Botanical and zoological parks Water bodies/other natural features Places of tourist interest | Housing cluster Sector Community District Sub-city center |
URDPFI (2014) | Open spaces | Recreational space Organized green Other common spaces (such as vacant lands/open spaces including flood plains, forest cover etc. In plain areas) | Recreational | Recreational P-1 Playgrounds/stadium/sports complex P-2 parks and gardens—public open spaces P-3 multi-open space (Maidan) Organized green Housing cluster Neighborhood Community District/zone Sub-city center |
Urban Green Guideline (2014) | Green spaces | Urban greens | Reserved forest Protected forest District park Neighborhood park Tot-lots Playgrounds Green belts (buffer) Green strip | Tot lot Playground Neighborhood park Community park |
Indian UGS typology.
Typology | International typology | Indian typology |
---|---|---|
Amenity green space | Recreational green space Parks and gardens Outdoor sports areas Green street space Private green space Green roofs Courtyard Greenery at housing estates Greenery at commercial buildings | Reserved forests Protected forests National parks Sanctuary |
Functional green space | Green trail Car parking space Pedestrian area Stormwater retention area Old landfills/dumps Productive green space Remnant farmland City farms Cemeteries/churchyards | City parks District parks Neighborhood parks Tot lots |
Linear green space and open spaces | River and canal banks Transport corridors—road/rails | Green belts (buffers) Green strips Transport corridors |
Natural and semi-natural spaces | Wetlands Woodlands Vacant land Post-industrial land | Playgrounds |
Green corridors | Tree belts Canal and riverbanks Disused railways | |
Allotments, community gardens, and urban farms | Allotments Community gardens City farms | |
Outdoor sports facilities | School playing fields Community playing fields | |
Provision for children and young people | Facilities for young people Community parks Children’s play area | |
Privately usable areas | Facade greening Roof garden Front garden Courtyard Balcony | |
Leisure areas | Campsite Multifunctional leisure facility Sports ground | |
Eco-sensitive areas | Waterlogged Marshy Swampy |
Categorization of green spaces according to the typology.
City name | Categorization of spaces | Classification of categorized spaces | Hierarchy of classification of categorized spaces |
---|---|---|---|
Jaipur | Recreational space/tourism zone | G1 eco sensitive areas G2 green zones G3 parks | Parks Gardens Stadium Sports ground |
Jodhpur | Recreational space | Parks and open spaces Stadium and play grounds Fair and tourism Public entertainment | No further classification |
Sriganganagar | Recreational space | Parks, open spaces and playground stadium | No further classification |
Chandigarh | Recreational space/green areas | Sports facilities Cremation ground Cultural facilities | Organized open space Forest Agriculture |
Naya Raipur | Recreational space | Open spaces | Film city Parks and play areas Stadium and sports complex Nature resort/theme park Reserved forest Botanical park, jungle safari |
Lucknow | Recreational space/green areas | Parks and open spaces | No classification |
Pune | Recreational space | Community hall Museum/theaters Parks and open spaces | No classification |
Varanasi | Recreational space | Gardens, open spaces and urban forest | No classification |
Panaji | Recreational space | City level parks and playgrounds | Housing area park Neighborhood park Community park District park |
Pudducherry | Recreational space/tourism zone | Open space | Parks Gardens Stadium |
Categorization of green spaces according to the typology.
Figure 2 shows an overall view of UGS and countries’ happiness worldwide. This map highlights regional differences in the green space distribution due to climate; countries near the Equator in tropical climates have relatively high UGSs, while countries in the 20–30 latitude range have exceptionally low UGSs due to the dry climate. The UGS increases with latitude in higher-latitude regions. On the other hand, Northern and Western European and North American countries display relatively high happiness scores. Western Asian countries also show relatively high happiness with a low UGS, indicating that the relationship between happiness and green space is not trivial.
UGS and happiness index of countries worldwide (a) The map of urban green space and happiness in 60 developed countries. The size and color of circles represent the level of happiness and urban green space in a country, respectively. The markers are placed on the most populated cities of each country. (b) Histogram of happiness (c) Histogram of UGS (d) Histogram of log-GDP.
The distribution of UGS and happiness over the world. (a) The map of UGS and happiness in 60 developed countries. The size and color of circles represent the level of happiness and UGS in a country, respectively. The markers are placed on the most populated cities of each country. (b)–(d) The histograms of (b) happiness, (c) UGS and (d) logarithmic GDP per capita (log-GDP). We use the logarithm of the total NDVI per capita as an indicator of UGS and the logarithm of GDP per capita as a measure of wealth.
The usage of Greenspace for recreation and leisure purposes led to the identification of its economic, cultural, environmental, and social values, which further increased the attention on its management and planning. In this chapter, the focus is on the relationship of Greenspace to human interaction on various levels of livability, recreational purposes and improved quality of life. The other perspective describes urban vegetation, such as parks, yards, and gardens related to a green stuff kind of open space. This perspective may be defined as a subsidiary of a comprehensive notion of Greenspace, i.e., limited to the built-up environment subsection of open space.
UGS are critical for making our cities sustainable and energy-efficient [8]. However, for UGS to contribute to the optimum, they have to be planned, designed, developed and managed/maintained appropriately so that they are accessible both in terms of area and population coverage. It is a fact that urbanization in India will continue unabated. The Urban Greenspaces generate diverse ecosystems of substantial significance for human wellbeing and human activities, shaping their dynamics. Many green spaces in cities disconnected from the wider environment tend to lose biodiversity due to continuous construction activities. Hence, protecting green spaces in isolation will often fail to sustain the capacity of urban ecosystems to generate value and have to be well integrated into the overall city landscape.
Figure 3 shows the distribution, parts and sub-parts of the UGS.
Synonymous nature of UGS.
Furthermore, the socio-cultural, functional, health-related aspects are labeled for a specific place, i.e., “Greenspace”, as a park or recreational area [9]. Sprawling population, commerce, industries, transportation accelerated the gross domestic production, varied product availability to the consumers, and more excellent connectivity. With the high-rise demand of time, the researchers explored the correlation between these sectors and related aspects of “Greenspace”.
Typology | Definition |
---|---|
Natural land | Unoccupied/unused lands, left unturned by the authorities or the locals, come under this category. Grasslands are also a big part of the natural land group. |
Green belts | Green belts of buffers include green girdle, park belt, rural belt, agricultural belt, country belt etc., which generally refers to a stretch between towns or regions separating one from the other. These areas are dominantly farmlands as they support agriculture and related functions. Green belts are established to keep in check the growth of the built-up regions, preserve neighboring towns from merging and also maintain a unique character of a town. |
National parks | National park is an area that is protected and conserved due to the presence of remarkable natural flora, fauna, geological formations and natural scenic spots. |
Reserved forests | Area duly notified under the Indian Forest Act, 1927 or the State Forest Acts having complete protection. All activities inside are prohibited unless expressly permitted. |
Protected forests | They are found in urban and peri-urban areas secured by fencing or constructing a compound wall, or both. Here no construction activity is allowed. |
District parks | It is a designated term per the hierarchy of green spaces in an urban city. It is a prominent use of a vast green area and developed as a crucial green space in a city. As per UDPFI guidelines, one district park serves 500,000 of the population in plain areas. |
Typology | Definition |
---|---|
Campsite leisure | Land that is dedicated to camping acquires a significant part of the green space category, especially in the trekking zones of any country |
Wetlands/marshy land | A wetland is a part of the ecosystem flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally. Wetlands are considered amongst the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal species. |
Functional green space | Spaces like cemeteries, pedestrian area, landfills, farms, etc., are functional green spaces. These areas acquire land which is usable for the users. |
Playing fields | As part of any institution/university/school, fields serve as a decent open area for any city. It enables the users to use it for any leisure/formal purposes. |
Typology | Definition |
---|---|
Linear green space | Areas like pedestrians, river canals, street trees are included in Linear Green Space. It adds to the esthetic and usability value of any city. |
Green stripe | A green strip is developed on vacant land, for instance, land under high tension power supply lines. It is also developed along the arterial roads, separating residential areas from other land uses. |
Green roof/facade | Green roofs are the most popularly deployed form of roofs; they are generally lightweight and low cost. They are purposely fitted or cultivated with vegetation. They are also be known as living roofs, eco-roofs or vegetated roofs. They can reduce both heating and cooling loads in buildings. This has positive implications in terms of their energy consumption. The green roofs and facades increase the esthetic value of the scape. |
Neighborhoods parks | It is developed at the neighborhoods level for a population of 10,000. Neighborhoods Parks are conveniently located within the developed residential areas, preferably within walking distance. It is planned on a site of 2000−4000 m2 |
Indian city | Typology |
---|---|
Chandigarh: The capital city has a forest and tree cover of 35.5% in its 114-km2 area. Chandigarh has become the greenest city in the country. The tree cover saved the city from becoming an all-concrete jungle, a fate that has overcome many Indian towns. | The green belts of Chandigarh also facilitate a healthy population of diverse birds. The parks along the spine of Chandigarh include Rajendra Park, Bougainvillea Garden, Leisure Valley Garden, Zakir Rose Garden, Shanti Kunj, Bamboo Valley Garden, Bulbous Hibiscus Garden, Fragrance Garden and Dahlia Garden. |
See Figure 4.
Indian city | Typology |
---|---|
Delhi: The capital of India is one of the greenest capitals in the world due to the consistent emphasis on greening and strict monitoring of tree cutting. | Recently, the parks and garden society has been set up to coordinate the greening activities in Delhi. The city has some well-maintained parks and gardens like Lodhi Gardens, Mughal Gardens, Deer Park, Budha Jayanti Smarak Park, Indraprastha Millennium Park and The Garden of Five Senses besides the Ridge. |
Plan of Chandigarh.
See Figure 5.
City abroad | Typology |
---|---|
New York – Central Park: Central Park is an urban park in New York City located between Manhattan’s Upper West and Upper East Sides. It is the fifth-largest park in the city, covering 843 acres (341 ha). It is the most visited urban Park in the United States, with an estimated 42 million visitors annually as of 2016, and is the most filmed location in the world. | The Park has natural-looking plantings and landforms, having been almost entirely landscaped when built in the 1850s and 1860s. It has eight lakes and ponds created artificially by damming natural seeps and flows. Several wooded sections, lawns, meadows, and minor grassy areas. There are 21 children’s playgrounds and 6.1 miles (9.8 km) of drives. |
Plan of Delhi.
See Figure 6.
City abroad | Typology |
---|---|
London – Hyde Park: Hyde Park is famous for being the largest Park in Central Park and the royal parks of London and its speaker’s corners. | Hyde Park is a Grade I-listed major park in Central London. It is the largest of four Royal Parks that form a chain from the entrance of Kensington Palace through Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park, via Hyde Park Corner and Green Park, past the main entrance to Buckingham Palace. The Park is divided by the Serpentine and the Long Water lakes. |
Plan of New York Central Park.
See Figure 7.
Plan of London Hyde Park.
Different direct accessibility Greenspace typologies provide ecological benefits such as ambient temperature, air and noise pollution reduction, water harvesting, and a barrier between pavement and locality. Green Space provides indirect health benefits instead of direct benefits. These green spaces offer various herbs, vegetables, cereals, fruits, etc., supporting human health. Flourished greenspaces promote tourism, health wellness product vending and fetch high real sale values for the properties near parks and greenways. Apart from these direct benefits, many researchers have established many indirect benefits of Greenspace, which will be discussed later in this chapter.
Recreation opportunities, Areas that are culturally and historically valuable. It has an impact on physical and mental health. Green spaces provide a refreshing contrast to the harsh shape, color, and texture of buildings and stimulate the senses with their simple color, sound and smell. Particular types of green space may offer a bigger diversity of land uses and opportunities for a wide range of activities, help to foster active lifestyles, and can be of real benefit to health.
Green Spaces add to the Landscape features of any cityscape; screened views are formed from different angles of the city. Growing trees and experiencing nature is a path to a positive passive lifestyle.
Air pollution reduction, Sound Control, Glare and Reflection reduction. Impacts on urban climate through temperature and humidity control. Urban forests act as temperature buffers providing shade in the summer and windbreaks in the winter in addition to reducing noise pollution and CO2 levels and providing a habitat for wildlife [10]. Urban greening improves air, water, and land resources by absorbing air pollutants, increasing water catchment in floodplain surfaces, and stabilizing soils.
Biotopes for flora and fauna in any urban environment is benefitted and, in turn, help the environment. Trees absorb pollutants; moderate the impact of humans, absorbing pollutants and releasing oxygen. They contribute to maintaining a healthy urban environment by providing clean air, water and soil. Green vegetation has been shown to lower wall surface temperatures by 17°C, which led to a reduced air conditioning load by an average of 50%. They improve the urban microclimate and maintain the balance of the city’s natural urban environment [11]. They preserve the local natural and cultural heritage by providing habitats for various wildlife and conserving a diversity of urban resources.
Tourism is increased due to the aesthetical change in any scape. The property value is increased—the value of market-prices benefits [12]. Property owners value urban greenery by the premium they pay to live in the neighborhood of UGS and public parks. Plots and flats adjoining Park add to the value. In densely populated areas, this effect is even more noticeable. For example, the view of green spaces and proximity to water bodies increases the real estate prices. The impact of neighborhood parks on the transaction price of multi-storied residential units in cities illustrates that neighborhood parks could increase the cost.
Humans appear to adapt to almost anything in their environment, including air pollution, noise and environmental dullness. Man’s apparent ability to adapt may be his most significant liability. On the one hand, it allows him to adjust to slowly developing adverse conditions; on the other, it could easily threaten his survival. Adaptability permits human adjustment to damaging environmental circumstances we aren’t aware of. When environmental conditions deteriorate to a point where they are readily apparent, it may be too late to reverse the cycle. If an individual has a feeling of wellbeing in the built environment that surrounds him, it is reflected in his activities. The type of space that covers us can either stimulate or be in habitus. Some have tried to isolate how spaces (man-made and open space) play a behavior role in our way of life and specific ways of thinking. While these studies can be rationalized from many perspectives, a case can be made that the type and amount of spaces in our urban areas do, to some degree, shape our social behavior. As urban life becomes more stressful, the more significant the influence of open space [13]. Stress is most pronounced in low-income neighborhoods.
Higher-income neighborhoods outside our major cities tend to be less densely populated, which may reduce the resident’s perceived need for public open space. Often, the lower a neighborhood’s economic scale is, the less likely it becomes for that neighborhood to have the available space and recreational activities required for good physical and mental development.
Placing an economic value on urban open space related to public benefits is a difficult task. Land value in a free enterprise system depends on supply and demand. The value of the real estate is directly proportional to the market demand, potential use, and rights of ownership within its geographic locality. Publicly owned open space used for recreation does not fit into the regular private land market. The parcel’s value as open space cannot be measured in dollars in the same way as land or improvements for a commercial venture.
One method of estimating the economic value of public open space is to monitor the success of a program and determine the revenue that is directly or indirectly generated by it [14]. At the same time, public parks are primarily supported by tax dollars appropriated through the general fund.
More indirectly, open space generates revenues by enhancing the value of adjacent private properties. For example, a 1977 study in Chicago concluded that property prices were $1000 higher for parcels within one block of an urban park as compared to a similar area. Hammer [15] estimated that for each acre of a public park adjacent to a stream, sur-rounding private property values would increase an average of $2600.
Ecological considerations directly related to land and resource preservation often are neglected. These include the function of open space for water-shed management, environmental quality, and esthetic appreciation.
Greenbelts adjacent to natural water bodies can reduce sedimentation, increase preservation, reduce the need for excessive flood control projects and lessen flood damage [16]. Areas of open space can:
Ensure groundwater recharge.
Improve water quality by reducing soil erosion and sedimentation.
Increase recreational benefits, such as nature study, fishing and boating.
Sustain wetlands, which provide wildlife habitats.
Absorb peak water discharge and naturally filter some of the suspended pollutants.
Keep lake and stream levels more constant over the entire year.
Enhance the community appearance.
The benefits of green spaces for our cities are well documented, but they are seldom given desired attention with other computing land uses such as the residential, commercial and industrial use within the urban planning process. Negligence by planning authorities and decision-makers results in not meeting the quantitative and qualitative standards of green spaces and results in their unequal distribution on the spatial scale. Inaccessible green spaces within urban centers also raise concerns regarding city dwellers’ utilization. Primarily new developments in urban centers diminish the future opportunities for recreational provision, and most often, the existing green spaces are not very well managed. Various UGS planning and management issues are thus identified in the subsequent subsections.
The quality of green space is a critical determinant to assess its value to the urban population. In generic terms, the quality of green space is understood in terms of its esthetic outlook and the level of facilities served by it. But in the spatial planning domain, the density of vegetation and the spread of tree crowns can be realized as they essentially lead to the several ecological and social benefits associated with green space. Improved physical and mental health, reduced stress levels, and increased happiness and satisfaction amongst citizens indicate the existence of superior quality greens in the city. Scenarios of degenerating UGS quality are well reported across many cities [17]. The city of Bengaluru in India has seen a decrease of 78% in green cover over the course of four decades, along with its deteriorating quality. These scenarios can be related to rising accounts of air pollution, obesity, shrinking health, and social and psychological collapse amongst the citizens. Overall degenerating quality of the greens and cities can be associated with multiple factors such as lack of maintenance, not choosing native trees, urban sprawl on green belts and ecological areas, deterioration of green riverfronts and loss of biodiversity in forests.
Policy frameworks in an urban planning setup are intended to guide associated decision-makers in the field towards achieving suitable outcomes related to various city infrastructures. Provision, maintenance and broadening of appropriate green covers in cities require policy measures supporting the existence and promotion of several ecosystem services delivered by UGS. Recommendations made by World Health Organization (WHO) suggests the availability of a minimum of 9 m2 of green space per person, ceases the intent at large of appropriate green space provision policy as it follows the ‘one size fits all approach and neglects varying physical and social circumstances across world cities [18]. Furthermore, catering to large densities in urban centres, many cities fail to meet the standard. For example, (see Table 4) amongst many Indian cities, only a few cities like Chandigarh, Delhi, and Bangalore meet the WHO standard, and numerous like Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, Chennai, and Hyderabad miss it on a large scale.
City | City area (km2) | City population in million (census 2011) | Area of UGS (km2) | Per capita UGS (m2 per person) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chandigarh | 114 | 1.05 | 50 | 47.37 |
Delhi | 1484 | 16.34 | 324.44 | 19.84 |
Bangalore | 709 | 8.43 | 150 | 17.80 |
Mumbai | 735 | 18.45 | 122 | 6.61 |
Ahmedabad | 464 | 5.57 | 21.8 | 3.91 |
Surat | 326.5 | 4.46 | 11.84 | 3.32 |
Chennai | 176 | 8.69 | 11 | 1.26 |
Hyderabad | 172 | 7.75 | 8.72 | 0.88 |
Per capita UGS in Indian cities.
Source: author.
The Ministry of Urban Development sets out urban and regional development plan formulation and implementation (URDPFI) guidelines for, Government of India and suggests appropriate urban development standards. It identifies UGS as part of organized greens within the city’s social infrastructure and categorizes them based upon their spatial hierarchy as housing area, neighborhood, community, district and sub-city parks (see Table 5). The population to be served per unit and associated area requirements are mentioned within these categories. Such standards meet the quantitative aspects of UGS, but attention to their physical distribution and accessibility in regards to providing the serving radius is missed out.
S. no. | Category | Population served per unit | Area requirement (ha) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Housing area park | 5000 | 0.50 |
2 | Neighborhood park | 15,000 | 1.00 |
3 | Community park | 1,00,000 | 5.00 |
4 | District park | 5,00,000 | 25.00 |
5 | Sub city park | 10,00,000 | 100.00 |
Categories of UGS in Indian cities as per URDPFI guidelines.
Source: URDPFI, volume 1.
Indian cities broadly vary in topography, and thus while setting out UGS standards and policy measures, it is crucial to incorporate their diverse local climate context and cultural practices, which these standards miss out on largely.
Developing the proper functionality of an UGS is vital to make it enduring. In the context of UGS associating them with the recreational programming during the planning process, it drives them to become more functionally sound and exciting and vibrant for citizens use. But a large number of green spaces in urban centers lack on this front as greens existing across the riverfront, green belts and even large cities scale greens are usually found with the least footfall and thus are encroached by slums and squatters [19]. Even in low hierarchy greens such as local or neighborhood parks, the absence of supporting recreational amenities such as sitting area, walking pathways, sports facilities, biking trails, open gyms, etc. are either not found or are not so well maintained. One of the studies in the Alexandria city of Egypt brings forth the lack of recreational programming of UGS and how it negatively affects the usability of city greens by the urban citizens (see Figure 8).
Inappropriate recreational programming in Al Shalalat park Alexandria, Egypt. (Source: 2003; De Sousa; thinking brownfields into green space in the city of Toronto).
Improving the UGS scenarios in our cities requires strategic measures with the coordinated efforts of all decision-makers and the stakeholder’s participation. These measures would intend to improve the qualitative and quantitative structure of urban greens in our cities, ensuring equitable distribution and making the greens accessible for citizens. Improving the planning process, strengthening the spatial data, enhancing quality greens, applying ecological principles, using altered greening practices and promoting public participation are discussed in the subsections below as the strategies for UGS improvements.
UGS assists sustainable development by being environmentally, socially and economically viable. The accustomed green planning process involves using standards approach wherein a set of standards are used while deciding greens provision. The standards approach ensures enough green spaces exist in cities, but it often compromises other vital aspects. UGS should be of satisfactory quality, adequate quantity, well-distributed and variably accessible [19, 20]. The process of determining standards should be appropriate for the greens’ of the greens and should be custom made. They are using local intensive methods such as neighborhood index which are more suitable for the green planning process. The planning process needs to be flexible enough to take in the political change occurring in the cities and should integrate a multi-disciplinary approach involving natural, social, economic, planning, and legal components.
UGS are a system of ever-evolving complexity, and to plan them effectively, spatial information is required that is fine, vigorous, and constantly updated. Geographic Information System (GIS) is one such tool that processes the geospatial data from satellite imagery, aerial photography and remote sensors helping to understand the current green spaces needs. It puts together vast amounts of spatial information and thus assists in analyzing the areas of priorities for UGS and determining the feasibility of developing new green sites in our cities [21]. In GIS, one can run numbers on queries, monitor fluctuations, predict environmental effects and thus help urban planners seek amplified visibility into the available data. Improved public participation is also achieved by using GIS tools for planning UGS, as people can get to know the actual ground reality to be achieved.
For adequate UGS planning, the existing green spaces in the city need to be addressed first. The stub semi-natural land with quality vegetation and varied, rich species can produce sound recreational and biodiverse spaces. The choice of vegetation plays a crucial role in determining and enhancing the quality of greens in a space. Choosing a natural species composition that supplements the biodiversity of the area is required. In cities undergoing densification, innovative greening techniques such as green roofs, green walls, street sites, and renaturation are very beneficial to improving green quality [22]. On an architectural scale, green needs to be saved by making effective plans. Also, site trees should not be cut during the construction phase. Proper distribution of UGS within the cities should be ensured to enhance their accessibility and visibility. Efforts to green the city streets should be made using various shrub species in order to improve the overall quality of UGS.
The efficacious planning of city greens can be achieved by utilizing ecological principles such as greenways, green fingers, and green belts. Using these principles aims at availing the optimal use of UGS geometry, thus enhancing their accessibility and diversity. Greenways act as a UGS management tool and are usually developed linearly across cities, contributing effectively to city greens. They are created along roads, railways, rivers and ridges helping to preserve green spaces and bring green vegetation into urban areas. Green fingers are conceptualized in the shape of human fingers and have green spaces set in a radial form spreading from city centre to periphery [23]. They bring green vegetation into the core of settlements and their adjoining areas, enabling citizens easy access to UGS. Green belts are set out to act as a protective mechanism checking the outward growth of cities. They are usually created in a ring form at city outskirts to prevent urban sprawl. They also acted as city boundaries separating one city from another. They contributed mainly to preserving city vegetation by safeguarding peripheral land for agriculture, forestry and recreation.
Within compact, dense cities, the land availability is less and thus, altering greening practices are required to fulfill the cities UGS requirements. In such cases practice of green roofs and walls comes to the rescue. Green roofs are the roof of a building covered with vegetation [19]. They not just provide esthetically pleasing landscapes but also create a habitat for wildlife and lower air temperature and mitigate the urban heat island effect. Providing green roofs increases property value in addition to many other benefits. Green wall, on the other hand, is a vertical greening typology wherein the walls are covered with vegetation. It can be used to enhance green spaces on land by using effective multi-level greenery designs. To encourage more and more people to use green roofs and walls, various policy measures in terms of economic incentives and tax exemption is required. Also, spreading environmental knowledge regarding them will increase the willingness of more people to implement these alternative greening measures.
The end-users of the UGS are city residents, and thus it is essential to involve them in the planning process. Public participation programs need to be thoughtfully planned and provide all the necessary information to the stakeholders. The urban planners and decision makers need to be open-minded and committed to considering the stakeholder’s inputs. To have active participation, the stakeholders need to explain the decision-making process and have a visual presentation clearly. For effective public participation, the demographic structure of the area needs to be identified, and further, the goals for UGS needs to be set accordingly [24]. Developing a questionnaire based on the area profile, demographics and UGS requirements should be formulated. To educate the citizens regarding UGS, workshops, seminars, and expert discussions can be conducted, which will also help the decision makers better identify local needs and demands.
With the rapid urbanization occurring in our cities, the need for sustainable development is more than ever. UGS are significant contributors to sustainable development as they provide us with several ecological services. They assist carbon sequestration, reduce the urban heat island effect, act as a barrier for noise pollution and bring down air pollution. The built environment is majorly affected by the UGS as they comprise recreational spaces for citizens that promote social inclusion in communities. Urban planners play a significant role in the provision of UGS in our cities. They are the primary decision-makers guided by the various standards, policies, laws and legislations. But most of the time, UGS seldomly take a back seat in the planning process over other land use such as residential, commercial, industrial and institutional. Therefore, it is essential for urban planning to address the challenges associated with UGS and suggest various strategies and measures. Indian cities face many challenges with the incredible pace of urbanization, such as less quantity of UGS and inappropriate quality. UGS is not equitably distributed in many cities and is not easily accessible [25]. The intended purpose not being served causes dissatisfaction amongst the city residents. To improve the situation of UGS in our cities, it is utterly vital to improve the planning process and at the same time strengthen the spatial data available to the decision-makers [26]. It is primarily important to work on enhancing the quality of UGS and incorporate various ecological principles available to us in the planning process. In cities undergoing densification and reduced land availability, alternative greening practices such as green roofs and walls can be of great help. Above people are all that avail the UGS, so it’s imperative to involve them in the planning process. It is equally essential for the youth to take this up in their hands of responsibility, and that is only possible if they have been given a chance, ensured support and most importantly, allotted funds for improving the UGS.
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The basis for calculating the optimal movement route is a ground surface layer, which is then modified by algorithmic and criterion relationships with the layers of hypsometry, weather attack, and the activities of enemy and friendly units. The result of mathematical model calculations is a time-optimized and safe movement route displayed on the topographic basis. The experiments realized have verified the function of the optimal movement route model when neither the reconnaissance group nor the autonomous vehicle was observed by the enemy. The total time of the UGV with the use of the TDSS to cover the route of maneuver was 67 minutes shorter than the real time of the BRAVO group movement with the use of the TDSS and 105 minutes shorter than the real time of the ALFA group without the use of the TDSS. The comparison of responses to the attack shows that the BRAVO group using the Maneuver Control System (MCS CZ) as part of the TDSS has destroyed the attackers faster by 71 seconds than the ALFA group without the use of the TDSS.",book:{id:"7779",slug:"path-planning-for-autonomous-vehicles-ensuring-reliable-driverless-navigation-and-control-maneuver",title:"Path Planning for Autonomous Vehicle",fullTitle:"Path Planning for Autonomous Vehicles - Ensuring Reliable Driverless Navigation and Control Maneuver"},signatures:"Jan Nohel, Petr Stodola and Zdeněk Flasar",authors:[{id:"162332",title:"Prof.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Stodola",slug:"petr-stodola",fullName:"Petr Stodola"},{id:"286639",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Nohel",slug:"jan-nohel",fullName:"Jan Nohel"},{id:"287297",title:"Prof.",name:"Zdenek",middleName:null,surname:"Flasar",slug:"zdenek-flasar",fullName:"Zdenek Flasar"}]},{id:"51781",doi:"10.5772/64730",title:"Application of Sampling-Based Motion Planning Algorithms in Autonomous Vehicle Navigation",slug:"application-of-sampling-based-motion-planning-algorithms-in-autonomous-vehicle-navigation",totalDownloads:2363,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"With the development of the autonomous driving technology, the autonomous vehicle has become one of the key issues for supporting our daily life and economical activities. One of the challenging research areas in autonomous vehicle is the development of an intelligent motion planner, which is able to guide the vehicle in dynamic changing environments. In this chapter, a novel sampling-based navigation architecture is introduced, which employs the optimal properties of RRT* planner and the low running time property of low-dispersion sampling-based algorithms. Furthermore, a novel segmentation method is proposed, which divides the sampling domain into valid and tabu segments. The resulted navigation architecture is able to guide the autonomous vehicle in complex situations such as takeover or crowded environments. The performance of the proposed method is tested through simulation in different scenarios and also by comparing the performances of RRT and RRT* algorithms. 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Thus, these vehicles require flow control techniques to reduce flow phenomena such as boundary layer separation or laminar separation bubble (LSB) affecting aerodynamic performance negatively. This chapter presents a detailed review of traditional passive control techniques for flight vehicle applications operating at low Reynolds numbers. In addition to the traditional methods, a new concept of the pre-stall controller by means of roughness material, flexibility and partial flexibility is highlighted with experimental and numerical results. Results indicate that passive flow control methods can dramatically increase the aerodynamic performance of the aforementioned vehicles by controlling the LSB occurring in the pre-stall region. The control of the LSB with new concept pre-stall control techniques provides lift increment and drag reduction by utilizing significantly less matter consumption and low energy. In particular, new types of these methods presented for the first time by the chapter’s authors have enormously influenced the progress of separation and LSB, resulting in postponing of the stall and enhancing the aerodynamic performance of wind turbine applications.",book:{id:"6864",slug:"autonomous-vehicles",title:"Autonomous Vehicles",fullTitle:"Autonomous Vehicles"},signatures:"Mustafa Serdar Genç, Kemal Koca, Hacımurat Demir and Halil Hakan Açıkel",authors:null},{id:"50979",doi:"10.5772/64064",title:"Cloud Robotics and Autonomous Vehicles",slug:"cloud-robotics-and-autonomous-vehicles",totalDownloads:2379,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Recently, a good amount of research has been focused on the development of the autonomous vehicles. Autonomous vehicles possess great potential in numerous challenging applications, for example, autonomous armoured fighting vehicles, automated highway systems, etc. To enable the usage of autonomous vehicles in such challenging applications, it is important to ensure the safety, efficiency, reliability and robustness of the system. Most of the existing implementations of the autonomous vehicles operate as standalone systems limited to onboard capabilities (computations, memory, data, etc.), which limit their potential and performance in real-world applications. The advent of the Internet and emerging advances in the cloud infrastructure suggests new methodologies where vehicles are not limited to onboard capabilities. Processing is also performed remotely on cloud to support different operations and to increase the proficiency of decision-making. This chapter surveys the research to date in the evolution of autonomous vehicles, cloud and cloud-enabled autonomous vehicles, with the limitations of existing systems, research challenges and possible future directions. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/15891",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"15891"},fullPath:"/profiles/15891",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()