Calculated and measured corrosion data for alloy and composite coatings
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10983",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Conifers - Recent Advances",title:"Conifers",subtitle:"Recent Advances",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Conifers include a wide range of species that are spread all over the world. These species have wide diversity, variable stand structures ranging from monospecific monocohort to multispecific multicohort, and produce an assortment of products and services, the most frequent of which is timber. This book is a collection of contributions, both reviews and research studies, from different fields and perspectives on the management, regeneration, growth, diversity, and production of conifer stands. The book also addresses the effect of wildfires on conifer ecosystems and respiratory allergies to conifers.",isbn:"978-1-83969-777-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-776-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-778-4",doi:null,price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"conifers-recent-advances",numberOfPages:242,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3e524d29fc3f95c3389efbd41463dab6",bookSignature:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves and Teresa Fonseca",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10983.jpg",numberOfDownloads:611,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:null,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 28th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 27th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194484/images/system/194484.jpg",biography:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves is an Assistant Professor with Habilitation in the Department of Rural Engineering, University of Évora, Portugal, and a researcher at the Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development (MED). She holds a Ph.D. in Forestry. Dr. Gonçalves has authored more than 100 publications and participated in 20 research projects. Her research is focused on silviculture and modelling in pure, mixed, and even-aged and uneven-aged stands, and forest management and planning integrated into a GIS environment.",institutionString:"University of Évora",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"11",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"79412",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Fidalgo Fonseca",slug:"teresa-fidalgo-fonseca",fullName:"Teresa Fidalgo Fonseca",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79412/images/system/79412.png",biography:"Teresa Fidalgo Fonseca has a Ph.D. in Forestry Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal. She works at UTAD where she directs courses in Dendrometry, Forest Inventory, Forest Management, and Forest Resource Modelling in graduate and post-graduate programs. She conducts research in the scientific domains of her specialty areas, being the author of scientific and technical publications of international dissemination. She is a member of the Forest Research Centre, School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon and is a modeler at the CAPSIS community. She is Deputy of Division 1 (Silviculture) of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) and coordinator of the research unit 1.01.10 Ecology and silviculture of pine IUFRO.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"141",title:"Plant Biology",slug:"environmental-sciences-plant-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"80840",title:"Maritime Pine, Its Biological and Silvicultural Traits for the Basis of Natural Resources: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102860",slug:"maritime-pine-its-biological-and-silvicultural-traits-for-the-basis-of-natural-resources-an-overview",totalDownloads:63,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Aiton) is a forest tree species with a high representation in southwestern European countries, in particular Portugal, Spain, and France. The species traits and their flexibility and plasticity are of importance both for timber and to the sustainability of the forest systems. Extensive research has been made on the maritime pine systems and productions. The aim of this study is to review the state-of-the art on the knowledge of the species, their forest systems, and their productions, to identify vulnerabilities and to summarize tools to help its management. The specific objectives of this review are: i) characterizing maritime pine, its distribution, genetic material and provenances, the biotic and abiotic disturbances, the diversity and sustainability of its forest systems; (ii) its management, encompassing the silvicultural systems and practices; (iii) to list existing growth models, simulators and decision support systems; and (iv) present information on wood technology, including sylvotechnology, wood properties, and their use.",signatures:"Teresa Fidalgo Fonseca, Ana Cristina Gonçalves and José Lousada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80840",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80840",authors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"},{id:"79412",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",surname:"Fidalgo Fonseca",slug:"teresa-fidalgo-fonseca",fullName:"Teresa Fidalgo Fonseca"},{id:"316782",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"Lousada",slug:"jose-lousada",fullName:"José Lousada"}],corrections:null},{id:"79899",title:"Complexity of Regeneration Dynamic at the Ecocline between Mixedwood and Coniferous Domains of the Southernmost Boreal Zone in Eastern North America",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101565",slug:"complexity-of-regeneration-dynamic-at-the-ecocline-between-mixedwood-and-coniferous-domains-of-the-s",totalDownloads:56,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To explain the ecocline between the southern mixedwood and the northern coniferous bioclimatic domains dominated, respectively, by balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.) and black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P.), 59 field sites and 7010 sample plots (from the Quebec Ministry of Forests, Wildlife, and Parks), with no major disturbances, were selected throughout the two bioclimatic domains. Regeneration (seedlings and saplings), mortality (difference between seedlings and saplings) of balsam fir, and black spruce (saplings) were examined, accounting for parental trees, main soil type (clay and till), summer growing degree-days above 5°C (GDD_5), and total summer precipitation (May–August; PP_MA). Balsam fir regeneration was more depended on parental trees and soil type than black spruce. Balsam fir mortality was related to seedling competition, species composition of the canopy, and the soil type. GDD_5 and marginally PP_MA were beneficial and detrimental for respectively balsam fir and black spruce regeneration. The ecocline mixedwood/coniferous bioclimatic domains was attributed to a northward gradual decrease of balsam fir regeneration and increase of its mortality, due to cooler temperatures, shorter growing seasons, and decrease of the parental trees. However, balsam fir persists above this ecocline, where parental trees populations and good establishment substrates occur.",signatures:"Yassine Messaoud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79899",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79899",authors:[{id:"418467",title:"Dr.",name:"Yassine",surname:"Messaoud",slug:"yassine-messaoud",fullName:"Yassine Messaoud"}],corrections:null},{id:"79583",title:"Research Progress on Iron-Heart Cunninghamia lanceolate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101286",slug:"research-progress-on-iron-heart-em-cunninghamia-lanceolate-em-",totalDownloads:54,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cunninghamia lanceolate (Lambert.) Hooker is one of the main fast-growing timber forest species in southern China which has a long history of cultivation and spreads across 28 provinces, cities, and regions. Recently, a variant of fir was discovered in the Xiaoxi National Nature Reserve in Hunan Province. The heartwood is hard as iron and its ratio is more than 80%, with the especial character of anti-corruption. It is a natural germplasm resource, called Iron-heart Cunninghamia lanceolate. Study on it is still in the stage of data accumulation. In this paper, we studied it from three points as follows: (1) Plus tree selection and construction of germplasm resources nursery. (2) Study on cone and seed quality. (3) Genetic structure analysis of natural population. The research of Iron-heart Cunninghamia lanceolate lays a theoretical foundation for the protection, development, and utilization of the black-heart wood germplasm resources of Iron-heart Cunninghamia lanceolate in the future.",signatures:"Ninghua Zhu, Xiaowei Yang, Zhiqiang Han and Xiao Can",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79583",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79583",authors:[{id:"327745",title:"Prof.",name:"Ninghua",surname:"Zhu",slug:"ninghua-zhu",fullName:"Ninghua Zhu"},{id:"333518",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaowei",surname:"Yang",slug:"xiaowei-yang",fullName:"Xiaowei Yang"},{id:"425579",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhiqiang",surname:"Han",slug:"zhiqiang-han",fullName:"Zhiqiang Han"},{id:"442689",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiao",surname:"Can",slug:"xiao-can",fullName:"Xiao Can"}],corrections:null},{id:"79264",title:"Conifers: Species Diversity and Improvement Status in Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101111",slug:"conifers-species-diversity-and-improvement-status-in-kenya",totalDownloads:128,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A wide range of exotic conifer species have been successfully introduced in Kenya since 1910 for the purpose of supplying wood, mainly for timber, pulp, and plywood industries. Among the conifers introduced, Cupressus lusitanica and Pinus patula have adapted well to local growing conditions and are now the key species widely planted in commercial plantations. The other conifer species are planted at secondary level or as ornamentals. In order to increase productivity, the key conifer species have been subjected to genetic improvement through selection, breeding, and hybridization. Results of tree improvement work on C. lusitanica and P. patula showed growth and productivity increase from 20 to 25 m3/ha/yr. for C. lusitanica and from 25 to 30 m3/ha/yr. for P. patula. Scaling up conifer plantations using the tree improvement technologies drawn for the two species is one of the strategies for closing the annual wood supply–demand deficit which is currently estimated at 10.3 million m3. It is also one of the strategies for achieving 10% tree cover which is currently at 7.2%. The strategy encompasses the application of principles of tree breeding, improved germplasm, silviculture, pests and disease control. This presentation is a review of the status of conifer species since their introduction in Kenya.",signatures:"Joram M.E. Mbinga, Stephen F. Omondi and Alice A. Onyango",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79264",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79264",authors:[{id:"417577",title:"Ms.",name:"Alice A.",surname:"Onyango",slug:"alice-a.-onyango",fullName:"Alice A. Onyango"},{id:"417583",title:"Mr.",name:"Joram",surname:"M.E. Mbinga",slug:"joram-m.e.-mbinga",fullName:"Joram M.E. Mbinga"},{id:"428588",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",surname:"F. Omondi",slug:"stephen-f.-omondi",fullName:"Stephen F. Omondi"}],corrections:null},{id:"80260",title:"Larch: A Promising Deciduous Conifer as an Eco-Environmental Resource",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101887",slug:"larch-a-promising-deciduous-conifer-as-an-eco-environmental-resource",totalDownloads:56,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Larch species are widely distributed in the northern hemisphere where permafrost and seasonal frozen soil exist. This species with heterophyllous shoots has been intensively planted in northeast Asia as well as in northeast China as the principal afforestation species for restoring agricultural lands to forests from 1999. Although approximately 15 species exist in the northern hemisphere and they are easy to hybridize. Among them, Japanese larch grows the fastest and was exported to Europe as a breeding species from early 20s. Although Japanese larch is tolerant to cold, it suffered from various biological stresses. After nearly 40 years of vigorous breeding effort, hybrid larch F1 (Dahurian larch × Japanese one) was developed with simple propagation methods. With the use of free-air CO2 enriched (FACE) systems, we revealed growth responses of the F1 and its parent larches to environmental conditions. From experiments, F1 showed high responses to elevated CO2 and O3 but not so much to N loading. As future perspectives for larch plantations as an important eco-environmental resource, we expect to afforest F1 seedlings infected with ectomycorrhizae (e.g., Suillus sp.) for efficient afforestation at nutrient-poor sites and at the same time for the production of delicious mushrooms.",signatures:"Laiye Qu, Yannan Wang, Oxana Masyagina, Satoshi Kitaoka, Saki Fujita, Kazuhito Kita, Anatoly Prokushkin and Takayoshi Koike",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80260",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80260",authors:[{id:"197794",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Takayoshi",surname:"Koike",slug:"takayoshi-koike",fullName:"Takayoshi Koike"},{id:"417458",title:"Dr.",name:"Laiye",surname:"Qu",slug:"laiye-qu",fullName:"Laiye Qu"},{id:"417460",title:"Dr.",name:"Saki",surname:"Fujita",slug:"saki-fujita",fullName:"Saki Fujita"},{id:"417463",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannan",surname:"Wang",slug:"yannan-wang",fullName:"Yannan Wang"},{id:"417464",title:"Dr.",name:"Oxana",surname:"Masyagina",slug:"oxana-masyagina",fullName:"Oxana Masyagina"},{id:"417466",title:"Dr.",name:"Satoshi",surname:"Kitaoka",slug:"satoshi-kitaoka",fullName:"Satoshi Kitaoka"},{id:"417467",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazuhito",surname:"Kita",slug:"kazuhito-kita",fullName:"Kazuhito Kita"},{id:"426363",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatoly",surname:"Prokushkin",slug:"anatoly-prokushkin",fullName:"Anatoly Prokushkin"}],corrections:null},{id:"81792",title:"Pinus patula Plantations in Africa: An Overview of Its Silvicultural Traits and Use under SDG",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104889",slug:"-em-pinus-patula-em-plantations-in-africa-an-overview-of-its-silvicultural-traits-and-use-under-sdg",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pinus patula Schiede ex Schltdl. & Cham. is a forest tree species native to Mexico, widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. In Africa, the plantation of the species has gained considerable interest being represented in different African countries, and probably being the most widely planted pine in tropical Africa. The species traits and the diversity of wood use to highlight the importance and usefulness of the species in the tropical regions of the African continent. The aim of this chapter is to review the state-of-the-art on the knowledge of the species, namely their characteristics and their growth dynamics, present information on productions, silvicultural management and biotic vulnerabilities, and summarize the effects on biodiversity and relevance on carbon stock. Knowledge of species biological and silvicultural traits supports decision-making on sustainable forest management and contributes to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals of UN Agenda 2030.",signatures:"Wubalem Tadesse and Teresa Fidalgo Fonseca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81792",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81792",authors:[{id:"79412",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",surname:"Fidalgo Fonseca",slug:"teresa-fidalgo-fonseca",fullName:"Teresa Fidalgo Fonseca"},{id:"462433",title:"Dr.",name:"Wubalem",surname:"Tadess",slug:"wubalem-tadess",fullName:"Wubalem Tadess"}],corrections:null},{id:"81743",title:"Management of Pinus pinaster Aiton for Wood and Resin Production: A Technical-Financial Feasibility Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104855",slug:"management-of-em-pinus-pinaster-em-aiton-for-wood-and-resin-production-a-technical-financial-feasibi",totalDownloads:26,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Maritime Pine sector is an important agent for promoting economy and sustainable development in Portugal. Among the products explored in these forests are wood and resin. The objective of this work was to evaluate the technical and financial viability from the creation of three simulated exploration scenarios: Wood Exploration (W), Resin (R) and Wood + Resin (WR), for this it was defined a loss of 16% of wood volume in resined forest stands and created operational models that defined the costs, investments and revenues that made it possible to prepare cash flow for each scenario and apply the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) feasibility analysis indicators, Net Current Value (VAL), Net Profitability Index (NPI) and Discounted Pay Back (DPB). Scenario R presented the best indicators, however, with absolute values that were not attractive and that the W and WR scenario presented viability but with a DPB at 10 years of age. The loss of wood was not compensated by resin production. The indicators of the WR scenario fell short of those observed in scenario R. Increased market price of resin and scale gain can overcome wood loss and ensure added value in the joint exploration of wood and resin.",signatures:"André Sandim, Maria Emília Silva, Ana Cristina Gonçalves, Margarida Tomé and Teresa Fidalgo Fonseca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81743",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81743",authors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"},{id:"79412",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",surname:"Fidalgo Fonseca",slug:"teresa-fidalgo-fonseca",fullName:"Teresa Fidalgo Fonseca"},{id:"417673",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria",surname:"Emília Silva",slug:"maria-emilia-silva",fullName:"Maria Emília Silva"},{id:"417923",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"André",surname:"Sandim",slug:"andre-sandim",fullName:"André Sandim"},{id:"418477",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarida",surname:"Tomé",slug:"margarida-tome",fullName:"Margarida Tomé"}],corrections:null},{id:"79942",title:"Recent Megafires Provide a Tipping Point for Desertification of Conifer Ecosystems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101595",slug:"recent-megafires-provide-a-tipping-point-for-desertification-of-conifer-ecosystems",totalDownloads:130,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Recent megafires and gigafires are contributing to the desertification of conifer forest ecosystems due to their size and severity. Megafires have been increasing in their frequency in the past two decades of the 21st century. They are classed as such because of being 40,469 to 404,694 ha in size, having high complexity, resisting suppression, and producing desertification due to erosion and vegetation type conversion. Increasingly, gigafires (>404,694 ha) are impacting coniferous forest ecosystems. These were once thought of as only pre-20th century phenomena when fire suppression was in its infancy. Climate change is an insidious inciting factor in large wildfire occurrences. Fire seasons are longer, drier, hotter, and windier due to changes in basic meteorology. Conifer forests have accumulated high fuel loads in the 20th and 21st centuries. Ignition sources in conifer forests have increased as well due to human activities, economic development, and population demographics. Natural ignitions from lightning are increasing as a result of greater severe thunderstorm activity. Drought has predisposed these forests to easy fire ignition and spread. Wildfires are more likely to produce vegetation shifts from conifers to scrublands or grasslands, especially when wildfires occur with higher frequency and severity. Severe erosion after megafires has the collateral damage of reducing conifer resilience and sustainability.",signatures:"Daniel G. Neary",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79942",authors:[{id:"40845",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel G.",surname:"Neary",slug:"daniel-g.-neary",fullName:"Daniel G. Neary"}],corrections:null},{id:"79503",title:"Respiratory Allergy to Conifers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101217",slug:"respiratory-allergy-to-conifers",totalDownloads:81,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The conifers, from the latin meaning “cone carrier,” include about 650 species distributed in seven families. They are found all over the world, and the most known conifers are the cypresses, the junipers, the yews, the larches, the firs, or the pines. The most allergenic pollen is emitted by the Cupressaceae/Taxaceae family with mainly five different genera: Cupressus, Hesperocyparis, Juniperus, Cryptomeria, and Chamaecyparis. The symptomatic period starts in November and ends in April. In Mediterranean areas, Cupressus sempervirens is the most common pollinating species. Five main cypress allergens have been thoroughly described. Depending on the geographic area and the studied population, the prevalence of cypress allergy in the general population ranges from 0.6% to 3%, and 9–65% of outpatients consulting an allergist are sensitized to cypress pollen. This prevalence is increasing likely to be due to the modifications of the environment. Rhinitis is the most prevalent clinical symptom, while conjunctivitis is the most disabling. Clear-cut improvements of the quality of life are observed upon an effective and safe specific immunotherapy. Associations with food allergy based on molecular allergen cross-reactivities were described resulting in sometimes severe symptoms. Pollens from Pinaceae family, especially pines or firs, although abundant, do not demonstrate a significant clinical impact.",signatures:"Denis Charpin, Hélène Sénéchal and Pascal Poncet",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79503",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79503",authors:[{id:"417409",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Charpin",slug:"denis-charpin",fullName:"Denis Charpin"},{id:"427383",title:"Dr.",name:"Pascal",surname:"Poncet",slug:"pascal-poncet",fullName:"Pascal Poncet"},{id:"428124",title:"Dr.",name:"Hélène",surname:"Sénéchal",slug:"helene-senechal",fullName:"Hélène Sénéchal"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6894",title:"Conifers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"08346de6b4e92146db7819ccbefd4130",slug:"conifers",bookSignature:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6894.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9727",title:"Silviculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22ee60f177a2963821d834c66c466115",slug:"silviculture",bookSignature:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9727.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10167",title:"Forest Biomass",subtitle:"From Trees to Energy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"44e2683e29770ccb1462894a48e2afb5",slug:"forest-biomass-from-trees-to-energy",bookSignature:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves, Adélia Sousa and Isabel Malico",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10167.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10359",title:"Landraces",subtitle:"Traditional Variety and Natural Breed",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0600836fb2c422f7b624363d1e854f68",slug:"landraces-traditional-variety-and-natural-breed",bookSignature:"Amr Elkelish",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231337",title:"Dr.",name:"Amr",surname:"Elkelish",slug:"amr-elkelish",fullName:"Amr Elkelish"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"67216",slug:"corrigendum-to-open-abdomen-the-surgeons-challenge",title:"Corrigendum to: Open Abdomen: The Surgeons’ Challenge",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67216.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67216",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67216",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67216",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67216",chapter:{id:"64137",slug:"open-abdomen-the-surgeons-challenge",signatures:"Juan José Santivañez Palominos, Vergara Arturo and Cadena Manuel",dateSubmitted:"May 7th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 10th 2019",book:{id:"7046",title:"Wound Healing",subtitle:"Current Perspectives",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",publishedDate:"May 10th 2019",bookSignature:"Kamil Hakan Dogan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7046.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30612",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamil Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Dogan",slug:"kamil-hakan-dogan",fullName:"Kamil Hakan Dogan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"257817",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Cadena",fullName:"Manuel Cadena",slug:"manuel-cadena",email:"manuelcade@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"64137",slug:"open-abdomen-the-surgeons-challenge",signatures:"Juan José Santivañez Palominos, Vergara Arturo and Cadena Manuel",dateSubmitted:"May 7th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 10th 2019",book:{id:"7046",title:"Wound Healing",subtitle:"Current Perspectives",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",publishedDate:"May 10th 2019",bookSignature:"Kamil Hakan Dogan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7046.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30612",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamil Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Dogan",slug:"kamil-hakan-dogan",fullName:"Kamil Hakan Dogan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"257817",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Cadena",fullName:"Manuel Cadena",slug:"manuel-cadena",email:"manuelcade@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7046",title:"Wound Healing",subtitle:"Current Perspectives",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",publishedDate:"May 10th 2019",bookSignature:"Kamil Hakan Dogan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7046.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30612",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamil Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Dogan",slug:"kamil-hakan-dogan",fullName:"Kamil Hakan Dogan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"12062",leadTitle:null,title:"Public Transportation",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c045089da37d46be1ee7e5e74f93cc93",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12062.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 28th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 7th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49726",title:"A New Approach — In-Situ Codeposition of Composite Coatings",doi:"10.5772/61935",slug:"a-new-approach-in-situ-codeposition-of-composite-coatings",body:'
In most cases, materials have a limited lifetime, which strongly depends on the actions of external factors and the operating environment. Occasionally, chemical or electrochemical reactions with the environment take place, which will sooner or later damage functionality by attacking the surface. Because of the atomic structure, the surface of a material or a component is the most vulnerable site for various forms of attacks and, therefore; it might be deemed. These attacks could be present individually or in combination of mechanical, chemical, electrochemical or thermal in nature [1]. The coating processes which maximize the lifetime of the materials can be classified as evaporation, hot metal processes, painting, thermal spraying, and
Among the processes concerning the production of nanostructured composites, the electrodeposition technique has further demonstrated the following benefits: a smoother surface, a better bonding between particles and a metal, an easier control of the thickness of the coating, appropriacy to automation, availability for obtaining metallic alloys and composite coatings, and, finally, a possibility to achieve higher microhardness [2].
It is known that combining the best properties of different materials to obtain one material with excellent properties is the main idea of fabricating composites.
In the present chapter, entitled
In this method, a metallic protective layer is applied to a surface as a coating for the component typically carried out in aqueous solution. This process is supported by using an external voltage source generally called rectifier. On the other hand, for electroless deposition, a reduction medium is present in the electrolyte. The latter process is widely used for non-conducting materials’ coating such as ceramics and plastics. The electrochemical method (electrocoating, electroplating) is used for deposition onto electrically conducting substrates.
Electrochemical deposition onto an object is achieved by putting a negative charge on it to be deposited and immersing into a solution which contains a salt of the metal. The metallic ions of the salt carry a positive charge are thus attracted to the object providing electrons to reduce the positively charged ions to metallic form when they reach the negatively charged object [1].
In this complex phenomenon, there are many factors that affect the process, consequently the properties and the performance of the material. These factors can be classified in four groups basicly.
Substrate: material of the substrate and the preparation before plating.
Electrolyte: composition, pH value, temperature, filtration and agitation.
Coating metal: main coating metal or alloy.
System parameters: current type and density.
The factors are described in Section 3.1 in details for both electrodeposition and electro co-deposition techniques.
In a coating system four different zones are described by Holleck [3] when protecting materials with coatings. These are:
Substrate;
Substrate-coating interface;
Coating and;
Coating-environment interface (see Figure 1).
The first layer is substrate where potential hydrogen embrittlement effects are of concern. Commonly, metals are preferable for this layer, steel for engineering application in particular. The second zone is the basis metal interface. In this region adhesion of the coating and diffusion between the coating and substrate takes place. The coating itself is described as the third zone where composition and microstructure determine the properties and factors. The interactions between environment and the coating has to be taken into account in terms of corrosion and/or wear in the final zone environmental interface.
Obviously, numerous layers are influenced in more than one zone. This phenomenon could be illustrated by the following examples. Firstly, porosity and/or stress in the substrate, rather than just in the coating, can noticeably change coating properties. Secondly, porosity can affect corrosion resistance and mechanical behaviour, such as tensile properties. Another one is hydrogen embrittlement as a factor not only for the substrates (concentrates heavily on steels) but also for some coatings. This is a generic term used to describe a wide variety of fracture phenomena having a common relationship to the presence of hydrogen as a solute element in the alloy or as a gas in the atmosphere [4]. Nickel, aluminium, titanium [5] and even electroless copper coatings [6] exhibit the phenomenon. It explains that any material can weaken by this effect [7].
Zones in a coated material
The rest of the zones and the properties affected are clarified in Section 3.2 because these zones are related to the coating itself and the interfaces between coating.
Codeposition of metals with ceramic particles is a new technique for obtaining hard, wear resistant coatings; therefore, its application to our daily life has not been studied in the engineering field enough. The deposition of two or more materials on a substrate simultaneously is defined as “electrolytic codeposition” or “electrolytic composite coating”. In this process, both materials (the matrix and the reinforcement) are subjected to the surface and the desired properties can be obtained in one step process easily. When considering the codeposition of Cr and SiC, the metal matrix (Cr) increases the hardness and the wear resistance of the material. Additionally, the reinforcement (SiC) improves corrosion behaviour and boosts both, the hardness and the wear resistance of the structure.
First examples of electro codeposited composite coatings are known to have been used for antislip stairs of marines which are Ni matrix sand (SiO2) particles. Fink and Prince investigated the self lubricant properties of Cu-Graphite electrolytic composites for car engine applications in 1928. At the beginning of the sixties, the interest in this specific topic was increased and researchers were focussed on the engineering applications of these specific coatings. Especially, the interest in the application of Ni-SiC and Ni-PTFE in the automobile industry has grown significantly in the last decades.
From this perspective, codeposited composite coatings have excellent wear resistance and permit emergency dry-running of machinery. The following examples of practical utilisation illustrate the benefits of the mentioned coatings: Ni matrix coatings with 8-10% vol. of SiC are used to increase the life of internal combustion engine cylinder bores; composite coatings based on CrxCy (chromium carbide) in a Co matrix are used as wear resistant coatings in gas turbines. Cr deposits with Al2O3 inclusions are used in piston rings for diesel engines. Diamond embedded into a Ni matrix form the cutting edge in tools such as chainsaws, grinding discs or dental drills [1].
A number of scientists have investigated the mechanism of the electrodeposition of composites. The mechanisms proposed by most of them include these steps [1]:
Electrophoretic movement of positively charged particles to the cathode;
Adsorption of the particles on the cathode surface by Van der Waals forces;
Embedding of the particles into the layer.
There are a variety of models with a quantitative approach to the incorporation rate of the particles into the matrix; however the current and most widely-known one has been suggested by Roos et al. in 1990 [8].
Similarly, Wan-chang Sun et al. [9] described codeposition process for Ni-Al2O3 system in three steps. This is illustrated in Figure 2.
Schematic description of the three-step method of composite coating
These steps can be summerized for Ni-Al2O3/graphite system as follows:
nickel pre-plating and electrophoretic deposits of Al2O3 and graphite particles,
composite after nickel deposition in the three step, and
composite after removing the excess particles loosely adsorbed to the surface [9].
The factors affecting the coating structure, subsequently, the properties and the performance of the material were given in previous sections (see Section 2.1 and 2.2). This section focuses on the specification of these factors; besides, the additional ones, which belong to the codeposition process, are described, namely zeta potential, particle size, circulation of the suspension (particle additional electrolyte) which belong to the codeposition process.
The main idea of coating processes is to protect the main material, to be specific, substrate, from environmental conditions, and to improve its mechanical properties. Undoubtedly, the perfect choice for such engineering applications is steel due to its unique properties. Even though this material group has a lot of advantages, the surface of the steel substrate has to be protected by several coating techniques. Electrical conductivity of steel substrates allows them to be coated by electrolytic deposition techniques, including electro codeposition. The quality of the substrate should be chosen according to the application and is the important detail; it should be coherent with the coating material properties-side (such as hardness and modulus of elasticity).
The preparation of the substrate before plating is another point to be taken into consideration. The coatings with perfect properties have no meaning without a good adhesion. Adhesion between the coating and the substrate identifies the coating quality and determines the life time of this structure. The preparation generally includes chemical and/or mechanical cleaning steps to remove contaminants from its surface [8].
Electrolytes are prepared either acidic (nickel, copper, zinc and tin coating baths) or basic (zinc, cadmium, brass, gold and silver baths). It is important to know the pH in order to control and maintain the electrolyte composition stable for long term use. The electrolytes above or below specified pH values which show the acidic-basic characteristics affect and, generally decrease the coating quality [10].
In their research, Jia Man et al. [11] studied the zeta potential to describe the surface electrical behavior of nano-particles. Changes in the pH value of electrolyte can influence zeta potential. That means, zeta potential and pH are closely related to each other to determine the dispersive condition of particles in electrolytes.
Temperature has two opposite effects on this process. On the one hand it increases the diffusion, and on the other hand, it also increases the crystal growth rate. It allows the grain size reduction, but decreases the cathode polarisation and because of hydrogen release this effect transforms the coating morphology into the spongy structure. Due to this reason, temperature should be adjusted and kept stable throughout the process [10].
Zeta potential (ζ) of the particles is an essential parameter for the codeposition of composite coatings and provides details about the dispersion mechanisms of the particles. Simply, zeta potential can be defined as the value of attractive and repulsive forces between the particles. The behaviour of the particles in aqueous media is not determined by the surface charge but by zeta potential [10].
Zeta potential is directly related to pH due to the fact that in many aqueous systems, H+ ions are the main ion content which determine potential. The value of zeta potential is measured by zetameter in millivolts, which is important for the explanation of the colloidal suspension stability. The higher the zeta potential, the better the stability of colloidal suspensions [10]. This prevents the suspended particles from bein agglomerated. Stability can be achieved mainly by two ways. These are:
providing the particles electrically charged; and
coating the suspended particles by a protective chemical (surfactant) [12].
J. Man et al. revealed pH and zeta potential effect on the α-Al2O3 particle codeposition. Results showed that H+ absorbsion of particles at low pH can prevent the agglomeration of metallic ions, lower the size of grains and directly affect the particle content in the matrix [11]. Zeta potential and particle content versus pH value are given in Figure 3. It is obvious that zeta potential decreases with the increase of pH.
Zeta potential (left) and particle content (right) versus pH value [
In the case of ultrafine particles, a suitable surfactant, which, after ionising in solution, adsorbs on the surface of the particles allowing them to orient themselves according to their electric charge, is frequently added. Hence, the repulsive electrostatic forces minimise coagulation of the particles.
Meguno et al. accepted zeta potential as an effective quantitative parameter. According to their research, zeta potential values of both α-SiC and γ-SiC are negative but as a function of decreasing pH, the potential increases and reaches positive values for lower pH. In another study Lee and Wan mentioned that increasing the copper sulphate bath concentration and decreasing pH, zeta potential of α-Al2O3 approaches positive values. On the other hand, it is the oppsite for γ-Al2O3 under the same conditions. This situation explains why α-Al2O3 particles are codeposited much more than γ-Al2O3 particles [13].
A further factor affecting the coating structure is defined as the electrolyte composition. In other words structure and the stability of electrolyte affect crystal formation rate direcly. With the higher crytal formation rate, fine grained and better coatings coherent to the substrate can be obtained. In order to countervail the local ion concentration decrease near cathode surface, a motion can be given to the substrate. This is supported by the cathode motiont generally but in some coating processes it is satisfied by the circulation of the electrolyte by several methods. In this case, there is a possibility of sticking the precipitated contaminants on the cathode surface. It is better filtering the electrolytes periodically to prevent the coatings from unwanted contaminations [10].
The coating baths are usually agitated by several methods.
These are:
Cathode motion (vertical, horizontal or rotating) [8];
Low pressure gas blowing into the electrolyte or unbalanced air circulation [13];
Magnetic or mechanical stirring [13];
Circulating by pumps [14];
Agitation in an electrolyte which can sometimes be invarious combinations. To give an example, Tudela et al. used both the mechanical stirrer and ultrasonic agitation simultaneously. Figure 4 shows the sketch of the setup belong to their experimental set-up [16].
Schematic showing (a) front, (b) lateral, and (c) top views of the set-up [
Three main objectives for the agitation use are maintaining the temperature homogenous in the coating bath and carring both the metal ions and the suspended particles to the cathode surface.
The properties of composite coatings also depend on the particle size and distribution of the second phase. The second phase particles have to be suspended in the electrolyte uniformly. For this purpose, the tendency to settle under gravity must be constantly overturned using stirring, pumping electrolyte flow, ultrasonic agitation or air injection where it is desired to achieve a uniform distribution of the second phase through the matrix.
While the fine particles are suspended in the electrolyte easily, the coarser ones tend to agglomerate and/or settle by the gravitational force. Consequently, because of the aggressive circulation of the electrolyte effect the codeposition conversely, stabilizing the suspension has much more importance in this specific process. In this situation there are two alternatives. One of them is using submicron or nano particles in the electrolyte and the other one is adding surface active chemicals (surfactant) into the electrolyte to solve the stabilization problem totally or partially. This phenomenon is explained in Section 3.1.4.
The properties of electrodeposited metals or alloys can be substantially modified by arranging the codeposition of fine particles with the metal or alloy. Such particles may be inorganic (oxides, carbides, diamond), metallic (chromium) or organic (PTFE). The amount of second-phase incorporated particles will be a function of the deposition which has to be taken into account [11-12].
Until quite recently electrodeposition was carried out using direct current (DC) [1]. DC electrolysis can be represented with the connection of two electrodes immersed in solution to the output of a DC power supply (rectifier). The cathode may itself be a metal or might be a semiconductor or a non-metallic conductor such as graphite. The primary purpose of this is to complete the electrical circuit.
Another type of current used in electrodeposition is pulse current (PC, pulse plating or pulse electrodeposition). In pulse electrodeposition the potential or current is alternated swiftly between two different values. It is possible to control the film properties in an atomic order by regulating the pulse width and amplitude [8].
Huang et al. compared DC and PC on chromium coatings and found that the coatings fabricated using PC are showing less surface cracks than that of the coatings fabricated using DC. Additionally, corrosion resistance of these coatings is higher than that of the coatings obtained under DC conditions [8].
Another research group studied three different electrodeposition methods (direct, pulse, and pulse reverse current). According to their results, nanocomposite coatings’ microhardness values significantly improved. When compared to the methods, hardness values were shown higher in the PRC coated materials due to increased reinforcement content (see Figure 5a). Additionally, Ni-Co alloy matrix nanocomposites exhibited better wear resistance as compared to pure Ni–Co alloy coatings [17].
Similarly, Nemes et al. [18] focused on both current type and frequency which are effective parameters of codeposition process. For all the same conditions oxide (CeO2) addition increase the overall hardness (see Figure 5b). These results are affected by not only the codeposited ceramic content but also by the decrease of the grain size and the increase of deposit compactness affect [18].
Hardness results of two different research due to process conditions
The properties of electrodeposits are important for several engineering applications. A fundamental concern of materials science is the connections between structure and properties, which is true for both bulk and coated materials. Properties of the electrodeposited composites are defined by the properties of the reinforcements used. Metal matrix is the phase for particles to be embedded. The particles used in applications such as diamond, SiC,and Al2O3 can be applied by vacuum coating techniques [1, 13-14] on metallic substrates. However, for the substrates that have girift geometry it is hard to obtain homogenous coatings with high adhesion. Metals and ceramics show different physical properties, such as thermal expansion coefficient; thus, multilayered structures could be necessary to acqiure better adhesion for codeposition process.
Electrochemically codeposited composite coating applications are devided into three groups. These are: dispersion hardening, wear, and electrochemical activity [13]. Dispersion hardening effect can be seen easily for oxide, nitride, carbide, and boride codeposited composite coatings when compared to pure metallic coatings. Dispersion hardening is defined as the increase against deformation. The main mechanism of deformation is motion of dislocations. The reinforcement in the composite coating structure blocks the dislocation motion and, as a result, strengthens the increase. Although there is no particular study of this phenomenon, grain size reduction can be seen in the matrix for codeposited composite coatings, which is thought to be the reason of increase in hardness. In scientific research, synergistic effect of grain size reduction and particles are given together [13]. Hardness is related to particle size, agglomeration reduction and volume fraction of the particles in the metal matrix. Similarly, dislocation motion is defined with the distance of particles distributed in the coating layer. Increase in hardness is strongly affected by both the distance between particles and the volume fraction. However, it should be known that there is no limitless hardness increase in dispersion hardening, affected by reinforcement particles [13].
Composite coatings are commonly used in wear applications. Particle reinforcement to high and low frictional materials increases the wear resistance. Applications in equipments and contact surfaces of the motional parts of motors’ can significantly extend their lifetime [13]. Composite coatings containing ceramic particles such as BN, diamond, SiC, WC, and Al2O3 show better abrasive wear resistance than the pure metallic coatings. Ramesh [19] found that Ni-TiC composite coatings with the volume ratio of 3% TiC showing four times less wear loss than the metallic Ni coatings.
In another research, open circuit potentials (the OCP curves) clarified that the values for in-situ co-deposited samples were shifted toward nobler potentials when compared. In addition, polarization curves of the coated samples were shifted toward the lower current densities. Upon the reversal of scanning, the increase in the zero-current potential also indicated the increased corrosion protection due to the in-situ phase transformations of electro codeposited composite coatings in inert atmospheres [15].
Porosity is the main sources of discontinuities in electrodeposites. It can noticeably affect corrosion behaviour, mechanical, and electrical properties, and also diffusion characteristics. It is influenced by the substrate, the plating solution and its operating conditions, and post-treatments [15]. An efficient method to minimize porosity is to use an under plate.
Moreover, the grain size of the coating metal affects several properties of the coating structure. The following properties change in size, hardness, surface roughness, brightness, resistance to deformation, stress, corrosion, and several mechanical properties. For a decorative coating, brightness is the major property, whereas the other properties are most important for industrial and engineering applications. If the grains consisting of the coating metal are coarser, coating will be both less hard and mat. On the contrary, metallic coating will be harder, smoother and brighter. Besides, coatings with finer grain size are expected to be less porous when compared to the coatings with coarser grains [10].
It is known that the reinforcement of ceramic particles dispersed in the metal matrix can increase the overall composite coating hardness by two possible hardening mechanisms. One of them is the dispersion of sub-micron sized hard particles in the matrix and another one is the grain size refinement of the metal matrix assisted by dispersed ceramic second phase particles. Therefore, according to the Hall-Petch effect, an increase in the hardness of matrix can be expected [20].
Bahkit & Akbari [21] revealed the synergistic effect of grain size reduction and particle reinforcement on the composite coatings fabricated by sediment codeposition technique (SCD). In Figure 6, both metallic and composite coatings’ hardness and grain size measurements are given, respectively.
Hardness (left) and grain size (right) of unalloyed, Ni-45Co, microcomposite and nanocomposite coatings produced by SCD [
It is clearly seen that average particle size used in the process also affect the properties under same deposition conditions especially the grain size refinement of the metal matrix.
The particles can create a dispersion-hardening effect so that they hinder the formation of dislocation in the grain, and act as pinning agents. Analogically, they can also hinder grain growth caused by annealing [8].
Reduction in the size of the particles in the composite coating increase the abrasion resistance. The reason for this case is less delimitation of the particles in the metal matrix. In a study on Cr-Al2O3 composite coatings, researchers indicated the reduction in the wear strength and brittleness when the amount of the particles was too big [10].
Another way to reduce the wear loss of surfaces moving relatively is to decrease the friction coefficient or lubrication. SiC particles create a lubricant film on the surface of Ni-SiC coatings. Because of the lubrication the wear resistance of the composite structure increases up to 2-3 times of a pure Ni coating. This has been proved by similar studies [10].
The distribution of the particles and the second phase are important to obtain homogenous coatings. Otherwise, properties can chance locally, regions to regions and can cause the decrease of coatings’ lifetime. This would be because of local corrosion attacs and/or wear loss. However, it is hard to obtain a homogenous structure since it can be controlled by agitation of the electrolyte during the co-deposition process. For more details on several agitaton types, revise Section 3.1.5.
The indentation hardness of materials can be measured in several ways by forcing an indenter having specific geometry [22]. The hardness and Young’s modulus, two of the most commonly measured mechanical properties of materials, can be determined in an easy and reliable way due to the development of depth-sensing indentation equipment [23].
Furthermore, dynamic indentation method is more beneficial than the conventional Vickers microhardness testing in two aspects. Apart from microhardness the dynamic indentation method can also provide well-defined mechanical parameters such as elastic modulus of the material. Secondly, difficult and inaccurate optical observation and measurement of diagonal length of the indent/impression is no longer required because of the continuous monitoring of the load and depth of an indentation [24].
With the development of the nanoindentation technique, the mechanical properties within a sub-micron or nano scale have been widely discussed. The techniques are expected to be convenient for measurement of the mechanical properties of thin films [14].
The greater hardness values for composite coatings can be attributed to the greater hardness values of the reinforcements. The explaination of this phenomenon is based on the rule of mixture for composite materials. The rule states that the hardness of a composite can be formulated based on the volume fraction and the hardness of each individual component [20].
It is also known that the amount of wear volume (Q) during the wear tests is directly proportional to the compressive load (W), sliding distance (x) and inversely proportional to the hardness (H). It can be expressed by the Archard Equation (Eq.1) given below, where ko is a non-dimensional wear coefficient that is specific to each material [20].
On the contrary, H/E ratio of materials gives an extremely close agreement to their raking in terms of wear behaviour. This is detailed by a similar research [25].
Some of the experimental results are given in Section 4.3 in comparison for in-situ codeposition process. According to these results, one can easily understand the relation between hardness and elastic modulus and also how the second phase particles change these properties.
Adhesion of the coatings can be identified both qualitatively and quantitatively by a specific testing method called scratch test. This test is applied according to the procedure of mechanical failure modes and adhesion strength of ceramic materials. It is appropriate for adhesion measurement and possible failure modes prediction of metallic and ceramic substrates coated by thin ceramic films. This method does not give a characteristic value of the material. Instead, it reveals a practical engineering approach for substrate-coating system because the results are obtained depending on the several test parameters. Details of the test method can be reached from ASTM-C1624 standard [26].
Corrosion is known to be influenced by a variety of factors. It is not possible to separate corrosion from many of the other property issues related to coatings. For the proper selection of a coating, it is necessary to take its position, with respect to its substrate in the galvanic series for the intended application, into consideration [27]. Decorative nickel-chromium coatings developed for automotive industry applications are a suitable example of the application of materials science and electrochemistry for the corrosion protection of materials.
There are several examples of electro codepositited composite coatings for corrosion protection [28-30]. According to these results, it is supported that corrosion resistance of composite coatings increase significantly with respect to the pure metallic or alloy coatings [15, 21]. This phenomenon is suggested to be the effect of the inert properties of the reinforcements.
For the Ni-Co alloy matrix SiC reinforced composite coatings, Bahkit & Akbari [21] expressed the corrosion behaviour of these coatings through potentiodynamic polarization curves (Figure 7). Calculated corrosion current densities and measured corrosion potentials are summerized in Table 1.
The potentiodynamic polarization curves of alloy coating and composite coatings
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ni-Co | \n\t\t\t-346 | \n\t\t\t177.26 | \n\t\t\t120.9 | \n\t\t\t-354 | \n\t\t\t6.570 | \n\t\t\t4.75 | \n\t\t
Microcomposite | \n\t\t\t-277 | \n\t\t\t71.94 | \n\t\t\t162.1 | \n\t\t\t-257 | \n\t\t\t0.137 | \n\t\t\t158.48 | \n\t\t
Nanocomposite | \n\t\t\t-201 | \n\t\t\t71.18 | \n\t\t\t176.5 | \n\t\t\t-199 | \n\t\t\t0.050 | \n\t\t\t439.46 | \n\t\t
Calculated and measured corrosion data for alloy and composite coatings
Based on the data, Ni-Co/SiC nanocomposite coating has the highest corrosion potential whereas the pure alloy coating (Ni-Co) has the lowest. Additionally, the corrosion current density of nanocomposite coating is lower than the micro scale SiC reinforced composite coating and shows the higher corrosion resistance (Rp) [21].
Additional examples belong to the main topic of the present chapter, in-situ codeposition, and the relation between metal matrix and inert reinforcements are given in Section 4.3.
To give some examples for the practical wear applications of coatings, one can count chromium, electroless nickel, precious metals, anodized aluminium and so on [31]. But for engineering applications pure metallic coatings, or the conventional coatings mentioned are not enough to satisfy. Based on this idea, researchers have been focussed on recent advancements include codeposition of dispersed particles with metals. There are two alternatives to improve the wear resistance of a composite coating. The first method is to use hard particles in the metal matrix so as to increase the strenght of the surface against to the other frictive part. The second way includes creating the composite structure by using self lubricant reinforcements such as graphite, MoS2, h-BN and WS2 [16, 32-34].
Due to their specific study [9], as a function of graphite particle content in the electrolyte, reduction in the hardness is appeared but decrease in the wear loss (Figure 8a). It can be expressed by the self lubricant property of graphite. Furthermore, the phenomenon of composite friction/wear for Ni-Al2O3/graphite composite structure are described in Figure 8b as shown.
Wear loss versus graphite content in the electrolyte (a) and the schematic illustration of composite friction/wear phenomenon [
Friction coefficient and wear loss of composites initially decrease and then increase slowly back with the graphite particle concentration in the electrolyte. The results show an optimum graphite concentration in the electrolyte as 1.5g/L. Under this condition, the lowest friction coefficient, relatively high microhardness, and less wear loss was obtained.
Stress in coatings also adversely affects properties. Nowadays, a variety of options are available for stress reduction of coatings. These include: choice of substrate plating solution, use of additives, and higher plating temperatures. A number of theories have been assumed regarding the origins of stress, however, none of them covers every single situation. Several methods for stress measurement vary from the simple rigid strip technique to complicated methods. Both phase transformations in the composite and additional post-treatment of the coatings can decrease residual stress value in a composite coating [12].
Until this section some of the details, advantages and additional performance criterias, related to the properties, were given about electo codeposition technique. When considering this technique, which is applied to metal-ceramic couples for some decades, researchers are tend to deposit the reinforcement and the metal directly. This technique is called
Some of the research groups improved ex-situ codeposition technique in last few years to eliminate the disadvantages. The new technique modified by researchers is called
There are some advantages of in-situ codeposition technique when compared to the conventional codeposition (ex-situ method) route. These are:
Reinforcement should be fabricated separately before electro deposition process in ex-situ production method. In this situation, the size of the reinforcement particles limited by the initial particle size and for practical applications size of the particles are rarely in sub-micron scale because of the economic reasons of nano particle production routes.
Another advantage of in-situ method is particle-matrix interface. Surface structure of second phase particles and contaminants can cause a weak wettability between the particles and the matrix phase and this would be effective for the final properties of the composite structure. Especially the mechanical properties. On the other hand, coherently developed interface between the reinforcement and the matrix can be obtained strongly in in-situ production method.
Additionally, thermally stable ceramic particles transformed in the composite structure can be distributed homogenously by this method. It is well known that homogeneity in the composite materials bring enhanced mechanical properties with itself.
All the advantageous and disadvantageous are summerized in Table 2.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
X Seperately reinforcement fabrication | \n\t\t\t√ Phase transformation during process | \n\t\t
X Particle size is limitted | \n\t\t\t√ Controllable second phase size | \n\t\t
X Weak particle-matrix interface | \n\t\t\t√ Coherently developed interface | \n\t\t
X Possible but hard to achieve homogeneity | \n\t\t\t√ Homogenous particle distribution | \n\t\t
√ Applicable with any oxide, boride, nitride, carbide, and also polymers | \n\t\t\tX Limited by the matrix metal and chemical affinity between additionals | \n\t\t
√ No need for additional process | \n\t\t\tX Generally need additional heat-treatment | \n\t\t
Comparison summary of two methods
In-situ codeposition method includes phase transformations and these come from additional post-treatments (heat-treatment) generally. There is a major point to be known about heat-treatment processes. It is called the stability of oxidation products such as carbides, nitrides, and oxides under different temperature and atmosphere conditions. Scientific reality that lies down this phenomenon is the change (decrease and increase) in the free energy of these components as a function of temperature (and aslo partial gas pressure). The tendency is important to predict the way of phase transformations according to the heat-treatment processes and defined by using special diagrams called Ellingham Diagrams which show the free energy change versus temperature [35].
Traditionally, in electro codeposition technique for fabrication of metal-ceramic composites, ex-situ method is used [36-39]. In this method, ceramic particles are codeposited on cathode directly from the electrolyte (ceramic particle containing suspension). During the last decade, much attention has been paid to the preparation of metal matrix composites by a method that combines several techniques with an in-situ reaction method providing some advantages [40]. Differently, phase transformation of codeposited particles, such as carbon black with an additional heat treatment step has its special attention in this specific production route. It is because carbon is the unique element to compose carbide phase by in-situ transformation. From this perspective, the production route for this kind research includes both the codeposition of less studied carbon structures and in-situ phase transformation of metal matrix, such as chromium and various size of carbon black particles. Additionally, many different carbon sources in in-situ method codeposition can be used. To give some examples, they can be directly carbon based particles, such as carbon black and graphite, or steel substrate itself, and etc.
Based on some former studies [14] the following section discusses fabrication of Cr-C composite coatings on steel substrates by electro codeposition technique and transformation of the layers into chromium matrix, carbide, and/or nitride reinforced composite phase structures with an additional heat treatment process for enhanced corrosive and mechanical applications. The discussion is based on the comparison of the similar research in the sphere.
The present section includes the production of functionally modified hard chromium coatings with a new approach. In addition to this, the observations of the property-performance relation for a specific Cr-C composite coating fabrication are provided. According to the experimental studies researchers fabricated three different coating groups. The identification of these groups are given in Table 3.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tTraditional hard Cr coating (reference coating) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tElectrodeposited Cr/Cmicro composite (heat-treated under N2 atmosphere) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tElectrodeposited Cr/C micro composite (heat-treated under Ar atmosphere) | \n\t\t
Identification of the samples [15]
XRD patterns are shown by annealing as-deposited Cr–C coatings, crystallization into a crystalline structure would occur. In the same results, it is clearly identified that for the Cr-C composite coatings give peaks that belong to carbide (Cr23C6), nitride (Cr2N), oxide (Cr2O3) and pure metallic Cr phases after annealing (800oC/3h N2 or Ar). The results showed that a small amount of Cr2O3 and Cr23C6 phases transformed under inert gas atmosphere (Ar) in some regions. On the other hand, change in heat treatment atmosphere (N2) formed a new phase structure with the form of Cr2N.
When compared the surface morphologies micro-cracked structure is visible along the surface for metallic chromium (fabricated by conventional methods). The similar surface structure with cracks is seen for the sample heat treated under Ar atmosphere with an increased crack width and density against the reference sample. Nevertheless, nitride phase formation modifies the surface denser and makes it crack-free with respect to the reference coating (see Figure 9 for details) [15].
SEM micrographs of Sample-R, -N, and -A from the cross section and the surface
Researchers have revealed that nitride formation takes place near the cracks and enlargens nitride-gas interface by the oxidation mechanism as expected [35]. Similarly, an interlayer is formed between the interfaces of coating and substrate. The cross-section of Sample-A gives the same interlayer lying between the coating-substrate interfaces (dark grey contrast). Since atomic carbon in the Cr-C layer can diffuse faster than chromium, the excess carbon atom in the Cr-C layer tends to form carbide phases [41]. The reason for this phenomena is the diffusion of C atoms from the steel substrate to the coating. Carbon atoms diffused from then transform to carbide phase due to the high chemical affinity of C atoms to the Cr atoms [42].
According to the EDS analysis taken, it was assumed that the dark regions are nitride phase for Sample-N and carbide formation occurred in the matrix and also along the interface for the both samples (Sample-N and Sample-A) [42]. Additionally, some of the zones are identified as nitride containing field and some not only nitride phase but also carbide. This is explained by the N atoms diffusion from atmosphere into the and finally nitride phase formation in the micro-cracks [35].
Until this point, the details which render the study specificly are given about phase structure, transformations, and morphological structure of the composite coatings fabricated by this new method. The technique repeatedly shows its importance when considering the experimental results on both corrosion and mechanical behaviour.
Here are the results summarizing this specific study of the corrosion behaviour of coatings mentioned. Open-circuit potentials and cyclic polarization curves of steel substrate (1040) and, Sample-R, -N, and -A in aerated 3.5wt% NaCl solution are demonstrated in Figure 10 and some quantitative corrosion results are given in Table 4 in details.
Open-circuit potentials (left) and cyclic polarization curves (right) of steel substrate (1040), and Sample-R, -N, and -A in aerated 3.5wt% NaCl solution [
Corrosion test results reveale that the passive current density of the heat-treated samples are lower than those of the untreated samples. That means it is possible to change the corrosion behaviors of the coatings by atmosphere controlled heat-treatments. In addition, Sample-N exhibits the higher polarization resistance and the lower corrosion current density as compared to the others.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Sample-S | \n\t\t\t-635 | \n\t\t\t5.65x10-6\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.99 | \n\t\t
Sample-R | \n\t\t\t-587 | \n\t\t\t1.53x10-6\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t21.40 | \n\t\t
Sample-A | \n\t\t\t-394 | \n\t\t\t4.85x10-7\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t42.28 | \n\t\t
Sample-N | \n\t\t\t-124 | \n\t\t\t2.90x10-8\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t538.77 | \n\t\t
Quantitative corrosion data of steel substrate and, Sample-R, -N, and -A [15]
It is clearly seen from the SEM micrographs of the coatings that countless number of superficial cracks exist all over the surface. Some of them lying from the coating surface through the cross-section. According to the microstructures it becomes clear that the presence of micro-cracks in Cr coating is the main reason on the corrosion resistance decrease. When it comes to the heat-treated samples, it is improved by the crack-filling effect of Cr2N phase formation as seen in the cross-sectional images.
After the corrosion property, hardness and elastic modulus values are investigated for this study due to the heat-treatment effect on the in-situ phase transformations. It is shown that these phase formations are in a competition with stress relaxation on the hardness of composite coatings. While the relaxation decreases the hardness value, phase formations support the increase in the total hardness. The mentioned hardness values were decreased up to 480Hv level for only carbide formed composite coatings (see Table 5).
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Sample-R | \n\t\t\t147 | \n\t\t\t14.1 | \n\t\t\t1381 | \n\t\t
Sample-A | \n\t\t\t115 | \n\t\t\t4.9 | \n\t\t\t481 | \n\t\t
Sample-N | \n\t\t\t155 | \n\t\t\t6.2 | \n\t\t\t604 | \n\t\t
Hardness and elastic modulus data of Sample-R, -N, and -A [12]
Nevertheless, this value is about 600Hv for the composite coatings which have both carbide and nitride phase. This result can be explained solely by the in-situ nitride formation with a crack filling effect. Similar results are explained on the elastic modulus increase for this specific research.
Two ways to improve the wear resistance of a composite coating were explained previously. One of them is to decrease the friction coefficient. The results of this study showed that the friction coefficient decrease was found to be about 50% for the samples in which nitride formation occurred. As a result of this effect, it is possible to suggest that the need of lubrication, vibrations and over heating can be decreased for engineering machinery applications by using these type functionally modified surfaces [12].
To take into account the adhesion behaviour of these composite coatings, there are no adhesive damage observed up to 30N maximum load for these samples (Sample-N, and -A). Only a little amount of cohesive damage occurred. In contrast, for the nitride formed samples this effect was seen much less. The coherence between the coating and the substrate is explained and supported by the diffusion of C atoms from the substrate to the coating and the formation of carbide interface for the samples.
Finally, as another mechanical result, residual stress values of the coatings were measured for these electro codeposited composites in this research. It is stated that the reference sample, which has only the pure metallic chromium phase, showing tensile stress in a high level as it was expected. Against, residual stresses are compressive and found to be about -380MPa and -664MPa for the Sample-A and -N, respectively, while it is about +225MPa for Sample-R (reference coating). The reason for the decrease of residual stress is given as the increase in the volume of the in-situ transformed ceramic phase structures (see Figure 11 for details) [12].
Intensity-angle, intensity-sin2(Psi) fit curves residual stress values calculated from
The coatings are compared with respect to the conventional hard chromium coatings. In regard to the electrochemical behavior, the chromium-carbon black composite coatings heat-treated under nitrogen atmosphere showing a rehabilitated crack-free microstructure, exhibited better corrosion resistance than the conventional hard chromium structures. Therefore, the increase in corrosion potential suggests improvement of corrosion resistance due to the formation of carbide/nitride. Characteristic properties, such as hardness, and modulus of elasticity are determined for carbide and nitride formed composite coatings. It is observed that the following phase transformations support the recovery of friction-wear characteristics and accordance of substrate-coating interface belonging to the material. According to the detailed inspections, it is assigned that the definite results directly correlate with both the magnitude and the direction of the residual stresses. As a result, the corrosion behaviour and the mechanical properties of the in-situ electro codeposited coatings are believed to be controlled by microstructure and surface properties of the metallic chromium layer, which is modified by the formation of carbide and/or nitride phase, and can be used for many engineering applications instead of traditional metallic coatings.
In the pharmaceutical industry, plants and plant products are continually used as sources of drugs and excipients. In particular, plant-derived polymers have contributed significant roles in drug delivery systems where they function as excipients [1]. Excipients refer to the non-pharmacological ingredients that are required to convert the Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) into a dosage form. The International Pharmaceutical Excipients Council (IPEC, 1995) defines excipients as all substances contained in a dosage form other than the active substance or finished dosage form, which have been appropriately evaluated for safety and are included in a drug delivery system [2]. Excipients are included in drug delivery systems to assist in processing during manufacture, protect, support, enhance stability, bioavailability and patient acceptability, help in product identification, or enhance any other aspects of the drug delivery system’s overall safety and effectiveness during use or storage [2, 3, 4]. Far from being just a random combination of ingredients, a pharmaceutical formulation is a well-rationalized formulation designed to satisfy quality and performance. Excipients are essential in the drug development process, as well as the formulation and administration of stable dosage forms [2]. Excipients are required in drug formulations to guarantee the potency, safety, predictability and reproducibility of the release of the API as well as its palatability and suitability for the patients [3].
The interest in excipients of plant origin over semi-synthetic or synthetic excipients is not far-fetched: low toxicity, relative abundance, cost-effectiveness and non-irritant nature make them preferable to others sources [5]. Plant-based polymeric excipients can be used in different pharmaceutical formulations where they act as diluents or bulking agents, thickeners, binders, disintegrants, suspending agents, emulsifiers, film formers, matrix formers, release modifiers, sweeteners and mucoadhesive polymers [6, 7, 8, 9]. These natural polymers would have to fulfill the requirements of an ideal excipient to be successful candidates for use as excipients in various formulations for pharmaceutical use. The requirements for an ideal excipient includes being pharmacologically inert, non-toxic and non-irritant as well as being non-reactive with drug or with other substances present in the formulation and the packaging. In addition, they must be easy to handle, cost-effective and readily available for the sustainable manufacture of the pharmaceutical product. Numerous plant polymers fulfill many of these requirements and have found application in pharmaceutical formulations. These include Inulin; a polysaccharide obtained from plant sources like; onion, garlic, artichoke and chicory, starches which are polymeric carbohydrates with large glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds, gums, and mucilage such as: acacia gum, tragacanth gum, locust bean gum, okra mucilage, seaweed polysaccharides which include carrageenan, agar and alginates, microbial polysaccharides such as: xanthan gum and pullulan obtained by the fermentation of carbohydrate products by specific bacteria or fungus, and polysaccharides of the plant cell wall with cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin being the main polymers of this group [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
Pectin, a structural heteropolysaccharide, is considered the second most abundant component of the cell wall of all terrestrial plants [17, 18]. It is a hydrophilic polymer that is biodegradable, biocompatible and non-toxic, making it a good biomaterial for packaging, coating and various pharmaceutical applications. Pectin is normally produced during the initial stages of growth of the primary cell wall and constitutes about one-third of the dry substance of the cell wall of some monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants [19]. A white to light brown powder, pectin is found in numerous fruits and vegetables. The main raw materials for pectin production are dried citrus peels or apple pomace, both by-products of juice production that are often discarded as waste. Alternative sources of pectin extraction include sugar beet waste from sugar manufacturing, mango waste from mango canning factories and sunflower seeds used for extracting edible oil, waterleaf leaves, cocoa husk, and potato pulps [20, 21, 22, 23].
Pectin is the methylated ester of polygalacturonic acid which contains 1, 4-linked α-D-galacturonic acid residues and a variety of neutral sugars like arabinose, galactose, rhamnose and lesser amounts of other sugars [24, 25]. It can be classified into different types based on the degree of esterification or the number of methoxy groups that substitutes the carboxylic acid moiety on the galacturonic acid residues [26]. The degree of esterification influences the gelation mechanism, processing conditions and properties of the pectin [18, 27]. High methoxyl pectin is primarily used for gelation and has a degree of esterification greater than 50%. It requires a large amount of sugar and is acid-sensitive. Because of hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions between the pectin chains, high methoxyl pectin forms a gel at low pH and a high concentration of soluble particles [28]. Low methoxyl pectin has a degree of esterification of less than 50% and is widely used in the food industry to form low sugar jams since it does not require a large amount of sugar for gelation. It shows less sensitivity toward acidity and requires Ca2+ ions to form gel [29]. Low methoxyl pectin is generally formed by the de-esterification of high methoxy pectin using acids, alkali, pectin methylesterase and ammonia in alcohol or concentrated aqueous ammonia. Monovalent cation i.e. alkali metal salts of pectin is normally soluble in water while di- and trivalent cations are partially or completely insoluble in water. When dissolved, pectin decomposes rapidly by de-esterification or depolymerization. The rate of decomposition depends on the pH and temperature of the solution. The maximum stability of pectin is at pH 4 [30]. Low pH and high temperature increase the rate of degradation due to hydrolysis of the glycosidic linkage. At alkaline pH, pectin is rapidly de-esterified and degraded even at room temperature [31].
In this Chapter, the sections that follow would review in detail, some important pharmaceutical applications of pectin and possible modifications to enhance the future uses of pectin in pharmaceutical formulations.
The polymer pectin has been put to several uses since its discovery over 200 years ago. Though its major application has been in the food industry where it has been used as a gelling agent, emulsifier, stabilizer, thickener, and more recently as a food packaging material, where they as used as edible films on fruits and vegetables etc. The most important use of pectin is based on its ability to form gels, hence its potential as an excipient; pectin has been used as a binding agent [32, 33] in tablets, carrier for drug delivery to the gastrointestinal tract from matrix tablets, and as a controlled-release matrix in tablet formulations [34, 35, 36]. It has also been used as a sustained release drug delivery system in gel beads prepared by the ionotropic gelation method [19, 37, 38], colon-specific drug delivery vehicle [39], and film-coated dosage forms. Gel formation is caused by hydrogen bonding between free carboxyl groups on the pectin molecules and between the hydroxyl groups of neighboring molecules [40]. Most of the unesterified carboxyl groups in pectin occur as partially ionized salts in a neutral or very slightly acid dispersion of pectin molecules. [41]. Those that are ionized produce a negative charge on the molecule, which together with the hydroxyl groups causes it to attract layers of water [38]. Because of their negative charge, the repulsive forces between these groups can be strong enough to preclude the creation of a pectin network. When acid is added, the carboxyl ions are converted to mostly unionized carboxylic acid groups [38]. The attraction between pectin and water molecules is lowered by a reduction in the number of negative charges, which also lowers the forces of repulsion between pectin molecules. Sugar further decreases the hydration of the pectin by competing for water [41]. These conditions decrease the ability of pectin to stay dispersed. When cooled, the unstable dispersion of less hydrated pectin forms a gel, a continuous network of pectin holding the aqueous solution. High methoxyl pectin produces gels with sugar and acid. Unlike Low methoxyl pectin, high methoxyl pectin does not contain sufficient acid groups to gel or precipitate with calcium ions, although other ions such as aluminum or copper cause precipitation under certain conditions [25]. The degree of esterification (DE) affects the rate at which gel formation takes place [38]. A higher DE causes a more rapid setting. Slow-set pectins (with DE 58–65%) gel at lower soluble solids and greater levels than rapid-set pectins (DE > 72 per cent). Low methoxyl pectins require the presence of divalent cations (usually calcium) for proper gel formation [38].
The ability of pectin to absorb water, swell and form bioadhesive bonds with biological tissue has found application in the preparation of mucoadhesive formulations such as patches [42]. Pectin has also been found useful as a demulcent in throat lozenges where it gives temporary relief for minor discomfort and protects irritated areas in sore mouth and sore throat [43]. The antihemorrhagic effect of pectin has also been utilized in wound healing as medical adhesives [44].
Pectin has been shown to have foam stabilizing and emulsification potential since the protein and hydrophobic acetyl groups of pectin can act as anchors on the oil particle surface, thus decreasing the surface tension [45]. Other areas of use have been as an emulsifier in oil: water emulsions [46, 47], and as a viscosity enhancer in lipid digests [48]. Pectin slows gastric transit thus helps control energy intake and hence its use by weight-watchers, since the large water-binding capacity of pectin reduces contact between intestinal enzymes and food, thus prolonging gastric emptying half-life, allowing a marked reduction in quantity and frequency of eating [49]. Furthermore, its interaction with polyphenolic compounds leads to systemic anti-inflammation [50].
In the pharmaceutical industry, pectin has been used both for its health benefits and as an excipient. Pectin as an active agent was formerly used in diarrhea mixtures, in conjunction with kaolin and sometimes bismuth compounds, and in wound dusting powders and ulcer dressings where pectin appears to have some specific activity in promoting healing [25]. It has been found to have certain health benefits such as reducing cancer development, lowering blood cholesterol and blood glucose level through the different domains of the pectin structure, and stimulating the immune response [51, 52, 53, 54, 55].
Pectin’s application has spread to water treatment where it is used as a biosorbent to remove heavy metals [47] and in urinary excretion of toxic minerals such as lead, cadmium, strontium, or arsenic [56, 57, 58]. In cosmetics, it is used as a plasticizer, texturizer and adhesive [59], and in biomedical applications, where it is used as a biomaterial ink to fabricate patient-specific scaffolds when cross-linked with 3-glycidyloxypropyl trimethoxysilane (GPTMS) [60]. Some examples of drug products that contain pectin are presented in Table 1.
Brand Name | Ingredients/strength | Dosage form | Manufacturer |
---|---|---|---|
Berry Breezer Throat Drop | 7 mg/1 | Lozenge | Topco Associates USA |
Burts Bees Throat Soothing | 10.5 mg/1 | Lozenge | L. Perrigo Company USA |
CVS Clean Label Throat Relief Pops | 12 mg/1 | Lozenge | CVS Pharmacy USA |
Grape Throat Relief Lollipop | 10 mg/1 | Lozenge | Topco Associates USA |
Little Remedies Sore Throat Pops | 5.4 mg/1 | Lozenge | Medtech Products Inc. USA |
Ludens Assorted Flavors | 2.8 mg/1 | Lozenge | Prestige Brands Holdings, Inc. USA |
Sundown Honey Soothers Lollipops | 0.1 g/100 g | Lozenge | The Nature’s Bounty Company USA |
Throat Coat Lemon Ginger Echinacea | 5 mg/4.2 g | Lozenge | Traditional Medicinals, Inc. USA |
Axcel Kaopec Suspension | Pectin (20 mg/5ml) + Kaolin (1 g/5ml) | Suspension | Kotra Pharma (M) Sdn. Bhd. |
Benylin DM With Pectin Freezer Pops | Pectin (150 mg/unit) + Dextromethorphan hydrobromide (7.5 mg/unit) | Liquid | Mcneil Consumer Healthcare Division of Johnson & Johnson Inc |
Cepacol Sore Throat and Coating | Pectin (5 mg/1) + Benzocaine (15 mg/1) | Lozenge | Reckitt Benckiser |
Cepacol Sore Throat Plus Coating | Pectin (5 mg/1) + Benzocaine (15 mg/1) | Lozenge | Combe Incorporated |
Diaret Liq | Pectin (150 mg/30 mL) + Kaolin (3.078 g/30 mL) | Liquid | Produits Francais Labs Inc. Canada |
Diaret Tab | Pectin (45 mg/tab) + Aluminum hydroxide (70 mg/tab) + Attapulgite (350 mg/tab) + Zinc phenolsulfonate (30 mg/tab) | Tablet | Produits Francais Labs Inc. Canada |
Diban Cap | Pectin (71.4 mg) + Atropine sulfate anyhdrous (9.7 mcg) + Attapulgite (300 mg) + Hyoscyamine sulfate (0.0519 mg) + Opium (12 mg) + Scopolamine (3.3 mcg) | Capsule | Wyeth Ayerst Canada Inc. |
Orabase Paste | Pectin (13.3%) + Carboxymethylcellulose sodium (13.3%) + Gelatin (13.3%) | Paste | Convatec Inc. |
Organix Complete | Pectin (1.7 mg/1) + Levomenthol (2.5 mg/1) | Lozenge | Pro Phase Labs, Inc. |
Herbon Berry Buddies | Pectin (10 mg/1) + | Lozenge | Purity Life Division of SunOpta |
Some commercial drug products containing pectin.
Pectin is an important biomaterial that has numerous pharmaceutical applications. Its application, however, largely depends on its material properties such as degree of esterification (DE), degree of blockiness (DB), ash value and solubility. This section will focus on these properties and how each affects the application of pectin pharmaceutically.
The DE of pectin is the ratio of esterified D-galacturonic acid (GalA) groups to total GalA groups [34, 61]. Depending on the species, tissue, and maturity of the plant, the DE can have a wide range. In general, the structure of pectin is mostly composed of homogalacturonan (HG), regions (partially 6-methylated and 2- and/or 3-acetylated poly-α(1–4)-D-galacturonic acid residues), alternating with rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I), regions (branched α(1–2)-L-rhamnosyl-α(1–4)-D-galacturonosyl chains substituted with side chains of mainly α-L-arabinofuranose and α-D-galactopyranose) [18, 62]. The interconnection of HG “smooth” (responsible for the gelling capability) and RG-I “hairy” (play a gel-stabilizing role) regions, in relative proportions determine the flexibility and rheological properties of the polymer in solution [63, 64]. The gelling mechanism of pectin is dictated by its degree of esterification (total methoxyl content) [65]. Pectin based on the DE can be classified as high methoxyl (HM) pectin with DE > 50% or low methoxyl (LM) pectin DE < 50%, which are either the conventionally demethylated or the amidated molecule [66, 67, 68]. The two groups of pectin gel by different mechanisms. To form gels, high methoxyl pectin requires a minimum amount of soluble solids and a pH of around 3.0.
HM pectins are generally hot water-soluble, thermally reversible, and often contain dextrose (a dispersion agent) to prevent lumping. Conversely, LM pectins produce gels independent of sugar content, are less sensitive to pH compared to the HM pectins, and require the presence of a controlled amount of calcium or other divalent cations for gelation [41].
The specific application to which pectin will be put is a function of its gelling behavior, which is dependent on its DE, the monosaccharide content (HG), and the spatial disposition of the cross-linking blocks (RG) [69]. While HM pectins have been used in tablet formulations as a binder, controlled-release matrix and taste masker through complexation with bitter molecules, the LM pectins have been used as sustained-release matrices in microspheres produced by ionotropic gelation [19, 53, 69].
Pectin, an anionic cell wall polysaccharide through its non-methyl esterified galacturonic acid units, interacts with divalent cations [40, 47]. At pH values above the pKa of pectin (2.8 to 4.1), non-methyl esterified GalA residues can be negatively charged, giving pectin the ability to interact with cations [34, 70]. Thus, the lower the DE of pectin, the higher the number of non-methyl esterified GalA residues present, the higher the cation-binding capacity. Due to LM pectin’s higher number of negatively chargeable carboxyl groups (non-methyl esterified carboxyl groups) compared to HM pectin, it exhibits a higher charge density, further showing that the cation-binding capacity of pectin increases with decreasing DE [40, 70, 71]. Studies have shown that regardless of the method used, a stronger and higher bound interaction occurs between pectin with decreasing DE and cations (Fe2+, Zn2+, or Ca2+) [47]. Furthermore, the DE and the intramolecular distribution of the non-methyl esterified carboxyl groups within the pectin determine pectin’s anionic nature and associated functionality [72, 73]. Interestingly, less described in the literature is the influence of the distribution pattern of non-methyl esterified GalA units on the cation-binding capacity of pectin compared to DE [47].
Daas et al. first quantified the relative occurrence of blocks of non-methyl esterified GalA units within a pectin chain as the degree of blockiness, DB [47, 74]. Apart from the DB, the absolute number of non-methyl esterified GalA units present in blocks can be expressed as the absolute degree of blockiness (DBabs). Both parameters (DB and DBabs) were established by exhaustive enzymatic degradation of pectin using endo-polygalacturonase (endo-PG) of
Applications to which a high DB is required would thus mean high cation-binding capacity and hence the use of LM pectins and the converse is true.
The ash content of pectin is a valuable tool in determining the purity as well as the gel-forming capability of the polymer. The ash content of pectin has been found to increase as the yield of pectin decreases [80]. High levels of ash in pectin may be caused by elevated concentrations of negatively charged carboxylic groups of pectin and the counterions in solution during pectin precipitation [41]. However, for gel formation, low ash content (≤ 10%) is a more favorable criterion as this will aid in determining the applicability of the polymer [47, 81, 80]. Ash content along with the anhydrouronic acid value of pectin has also been used to determine its purity [82, 83].
Pectins are soluble in pure water. The solubility appears to depend on the valency of the cation salt; monovalent cation salts of pectin and pectic acids are usually soluble in water, while the di- and trivalent cation salts are weakly soluble or insoluble in water. Dry powdered pectin hydrates very rapidly when added to water, but tends to form clumps. These clumps are semidry packets of pectin within a highly hydrated outer coating. Dry mixing the powder with water-soluble carrier material can prevent the formation of clumps or by the use of specially treated pectin that has improved dispersibility [20, 83]. Studies have shown that pectin extracted with distilled water showed a high yield and low ash content when compared to other solvents [79]. High ash content and the drying process of the extracted pectin, however, may reduce the solubility of pectin [47]. It has been shown too that a decrease in the esterified carboxylic group reduced the solubility of extracted pectin; this insolubility of the extracted pectin is probably due to the presence of electrolytes in de-methylated pectic acid [47]. Thus, pectins with lower DE are less hydrophilic [69].
Dilute pectin solutions are Newtonian in behavior but at a moderate concentration, they exhibit the non-Newtonian, pseudo plastic behavior characteristics. Solubility, viscosity, and gelation are generally related. Whatever factors increase gel strength will increase the gelling tendency, viscosity, decrease solubility, and vice versa [84].
Another property of pectin that could affect its application is its antioxidant activity. However, there are limited studies to show how this property may be applied to either the food industry or the pharmaceutical sector [85].
The presence of several hydroxyl and carboxyl groups distributed along its backbone as well as a certain amount of neutral sugars presented as side chains gives pectin the capability of producing a broad spectrum of derivatives with modified or new functional properties. Various methods used for pectin modification include substitution (alkylation, amidation, quaternization, thiolation, sulfation, oxidation, etc.), chain elongation (cross-linking and grafting) and depolymerization (chemical, physical, and enzymatic degradation). Saponification (a process catalyzed by mineral acids, bases, salts of weak acids and primary aliphatic amines) can also be used to modify pectin chemically. Modification induced by pH changes can produce new fragments that have their solubility and biological activities altered [86]. Enzymatic modification of pectin has been achieved by using endo-polygalacturonase (Endo-PG), resulting in highly selective and specific structural changes in the polymer backbone. This modification leads to the cleavage of glycosidic linkages between two non-esterified α-D-galacturonic acid residues inside the HG fragment, which is depolymerisation. The enzymatic modification method can alter the macromolecular structure of pectin and can yield modified pectin with newer and improved properties and functionalities [87].
A new hydrolyzed polyacrylamide-graft-sodium alginate (PAAmg-SA) and diclofenac sodium-loaded interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) beads of pectin were developed using the ionic gelation method. The results of the investigation verified that hydrolyzed PAAm-g-SA and pectin cross-linked with aluminum ion (Al3+) and glutaraldehyde could form an optimal matrix material for the production of IPN beads to support the sustained release of diclofenac sodium [88]. In another study, for the nasal administration of tacrine hydrochloride (an anti-Alzheimer drug), mucoadhesive microparticles based on chitosan/pectin polyelectrolyte complexes were prepared. The microparticles were produced by spray drying followed by lyophilization and direct spray drying. The study thus demonstrated the potential of the chitosan/pectin polyelectrolyte complexes to function variously in mucoadhesive microparticles [89, 90]. The chitosan/pectin molar ratio influenced the water uptake and tacrine hydrochloride permeation [90, 91].
Emerging advanced manufacturing technology in the field of tissue engineering and pharmaceutical formulations is the use of 3D bioprinting technology. 3D printing is an additive manufacturing technology in which objects are constructed in a layer-by-layer manner achieved by heat fusion, ultraviolet light (UV), and chemical bonding [91]. Spritam®, a fast disintegrating orodispersible tablet containing levetiracetam for epilepsy was the first 3D printed drug product approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2015 [91]. To sustain the manufacturing of these types of drugs using this new technique, biomaterials that are green and non-toxic, derived from renewable sources and can be processed through 3D bioprinting are being developed [42, 60]. Common techniques include powder bed printing, vat polymerization (VP), and fused deposition modeling (FDM) [92]. A major disadvantage of the FDM technology is the need to insert printing materials into a nozzle in the form of a solid filament, which is non-existing for many pharmaceutical materials, thus necessitating the transformation of pharmaceutical-grade materials, including active pharmaceutical ingredients (API), into FDM-suitable filaments using techniques like hot-melt extrusion (HME). However, thermolabile therapeutics are not suitable for extrusion via FDM, due to potential degradation concerns [93]. The use of bio-inks for extrusion-based bioprinting at room or body temperature has shown clinical potential in achieving personalized treatment [92]. For example, Long et al. developed a personalized 3D printed wound dressing composed of chitosan and pectin with the ability to control dimensional properties such as thickness and pore size using an extrusion-based bioprinter [91, 92], while allowing for facile lidocaine incorporation for immediate pain relief [94]. Pectin from citrus peels has also been cross-linked with (3-glycidyloxypropyl)trimethoxysilane (GPTMS) through a one-pot procedure to obtain freeze-dried porous pectin sponges with varying porosity, water uptake, and compressive modulus [42]. The addition of GPTMS improved the printability of pectin due to an increase in viscosity and yield stress [95]. Without the use of any additional support material, three-dimensional woodpile and complex anatomical-shaped scaffolds interconnected with micro and macro pores were, therefore, bioprinted [96]. Thus showing the great potential of pectin cross-linked with GPTMS as biomaterial ink to fabricate patient-specific scaffolds that could be used to promote tissue regeneration
Pectin over the years has “metamorphosed” from just being a gelling agent for the production of jam and confectionaries to a biomaterial with health benefits to being useful as an excipient in drug delivery systems and more recently even personalized 3D printed medicine. This is as a result of a better understanding of its structure, mechanism by which it gels, and its properties such as degree of esterification and degree of blockiness, which has aided its classification and application.
The pharmaceutical industry has a material that can be explored in different functional dimensions as the usefulness and functionality of pectin unfolds.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Content alerts
",metaTitle:"Content alerts",metaDescription:"Content alerts",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/content-alerts",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Content alerts
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Content alerts
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6654},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5945},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2452},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12681},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1014},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17701}],offset:12,limit:12,total:133951},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"17"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11461",title:"Advances in Nanowires Synthesis and Applications to Sensing Technologies \ufeff",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"94ce46811974b75b5efded35f161ea18",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Felix Kutsanedzie, Dr. Annavaram Viswadevarayalu, Dr. Akwasi Akomeah Agyekum and Dr. Isaac Asempah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11461.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"443651",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Kutsanedzie",slug:"felix-kutsanedzie",fullName:"Felix Kutsanedzie"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11464",title:"Carbon Nanotubes - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Potential Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ce526ec78ed00c4f5f08ffb4548ff388",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Dr. Abdullah Mohammed Ahmed Asiri and Prof. Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11464.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11754",title:"Nanozymes - Simulation, Design, and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7d040dd70e3021d1c7da668be1263616",slug:null,bookSignature:"D.Sc. Rafael Vargas-Bernal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11754.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"182114",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Vargas-Bernal",slug:"rafael-vargas-bernal",fullName:"Rafael Vargas-Bernal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11755",title:"Nanoclay - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b716126dd284217d47a657db8ae22ef4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Walid Oueslati",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11755.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"176192",title:"Dr.",name:"Walid",surname:"Oueslati",slug:"walid-oueslati",fullName:"Walid Oueslati"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11756",title:"Quantum Dots - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Contemporary Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0dd5611c62c91569bd2819e68852002a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11756.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11757",title:"Nanorods - Synthesis, Properties, Toxicity and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fb27f444442e8f039b560beae93e6873",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Tejendra Kumar Gupta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11757.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"345089",title:"Prof.",name:"Tejendra Kumar",surname:"Gupta",slug:"tejendra-kumar-gupta",fullName:"Tejendra Kumar Gupta"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12259",title:"Nanopores",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f170098e663d39a3431be01f1afeece8",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Suresh Sagadevan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12259.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"473599",title:"Dr.",name:"Suresh",surname:"Sagadevan",slug:"suresh-sagadevan",fullName:"Suresh Sagadevan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:39},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:66},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:122},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:7},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",subtitle:"Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc00a66513e51003e5dbbc0294e0fc3d",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma-challenges-and-opportunities-of-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg",editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",slug:"hydrolases",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:"Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",slug:"cell-culture-advanced-technology-and-applications-in-medical-and-life-sciences",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10193",title:"Multidisciplinary Experiences in Renal Replacement Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4738671bb3e815744d1e04df7ba879",slug:"multidisciplinary-experiences-in-renal-replacement-therapy",bookSignature:"Ane C.F. Nunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10193.jpg",editors:[{id:"55270",title:"Prof.",name:"Ane",middleName:null,surname:"Claudia Fernandes Nunes",slug:"ane-claudia-fernandes-nunes",fullName:"Ane Claudia Fernandes Nunes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10983",title:"Conifers",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3e524d29fc3f95c3389efbd41463dab6",slug:"conifers-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves and Teresa Fonseca",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10983.jpg",editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10539",title:"Ginseng",subtitle:"Modern Aspects of the Famed Traditional Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f388543a066b617d2c52bd4c027c272",slug:"ginseng-modern-aspects-of-the-famed-traditional-medicine",bookSignature:"Christophe Hano and Jen-Tsung Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10539.jpg",editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10881",title:"Drug Repurposing",subtitle:"Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca3f2d5ca97b457d38a2442b36d3ac7",slug:"drug-repurposing-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10881.jpg",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4423},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10774",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:"protein-detection",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1164",title:"Sexology",slug:"urology-sexology",parent:{id:"204",title:"Urology",slug:"urology"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:17,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1164",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5529",title:"Sexual Dysfunction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0975454a14d04823d05d12d95cc9f619",slug:"sexual-dysfunction",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5529.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"55509",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69105",title:"Sexual Dysfunction, Depression and Antidepressants: A Translational Approach",slug:"sexual-dysfunction-depression-and-antidepressants-a-translational-approach",totalDownloads:2149,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Major depression is frequently associated with sexual dysfunctions. Most antidepressants, especially selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), induce additional sexual side effects and, although effective antidepressants, deteriorate sexual symptoms, which are the main reason that patients stop antidepressant treatment. Many strategies have been used to circumvent the additional sexual side effects, but results are rather disappointing. Recently, new antidepressants have been introduced, vilazodone and vortioxetine, which seem to lack sexual side effects in the early registration trials. Much research with large numbers of depressed patients and adequate methodological tools still has to confirm in daily use the absence of sexual side effects of new antidepressants. Animal models that in an early phase of drug development may predict putative sexual side effects of new antidepressants are extremely useful and could speed up development of new antidepressants. A rat model of sexual behavior is described that has a very high predictive validity for sexual side effects in man. Several characteristics of present antidepressants with regard to sexual dysfunctions are also present in the rat model and establish its validity. The animal model can also be used in the search for new psychotropics without sexual side effects or for drugs with sexual stimulating activity.",book:{id:"5529",slug:"sexual-dysfunction",title:"Sexual Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Sexual Dysfunction"},signatures:"Jocelien D.A. Olivier, Diana C. Esquivel Franco, Marcel D. Waldinger\nand Berend Olivier",authors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"},{id:"157663",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Waldinger",slug:"marcel-waldinger",fullName:"Marcel Waldinger"},{id:"197644",title:"Dr.",name:"Jocelien D.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"jocelien-d.a.-olivier",fullName:"Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"197646",title:"MSc.",name:"Diana C.",middleName:null,surname:"Esquivel Franco",slug:"diana-c.-esquivel-franco",fullName:"Diana C. Esquivel Franco"}]},{id:"55430",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69106",title:"A “Snip” in Time: Circumcision Revisited",slug:"a-snip-in-time-circumcision-revisited",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The publication of an Italian study on etiology and interactions of frenulum breve, frenulectomy, and premature ejaculation, and the results of a popular Austrian sex study initiated a survey on this topic, accompanied by collecting a small sample of data in an urban practice environment in Germany. Since frenulectomy, for practical reasons, often leads to a complete removal of the prepuce, circumcision has come to the fore anew. Moreover, under the heading, “Ending a myth: male circumcision is not associated with higher prevalence of erectile dysfunction,” a recent study relating circumcision to sexual dysfunction has been published. In this chapter, an overview of research results as well as of psychological and clinical aspects of circumcision and associated subjects is given. There seem to be advantages of circumcision as to sexual dysfunction and premature ejaculation. Depending on etiopathology, some treatment options may require psychosomatic reasoning.",book:{id:"5529",slug:"sexual-dysfunction",title:"Sexual Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Sexual Dysfunction"},signatures:"Götz Egloff",authors:[{id:"194175",title:"M.A.",name:"Götz",middleName:null,surname:"Egloff",slug:"gotz-egloff",fullName:"Götz Egloff"}]},{id:"55700",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69104",title:"Erectile Dysfunction Associated with Cardiovascular Risk Factors",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-associated-with-cardiovascular-risk-factors",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Objectives: (1) Determine erectile dysfunction (ED) prevalence in patients with cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF). (2) Assess ED incidence in relation to the extent of controlling CVRF. Methodology: Patients: Enrolled participants came to the health centres in the study area. In accordance with the incidence of diseases with cardiovascular risks (CVR) in the Basic Health Regions of the study area, sample size was calculated with a 95% confidence interval and an alpha error of 0.005, resulting in a sample of 210 people, of which 30 could not complete the study for various reasons (change of address, death, refused to complete questionnaire, etc.). A full awareness and diffusion campaign was organized with talks and leaflets. Letters: A standard letter was given to patients which explained the importance of sexual health, offering them an appointment with a DUE (Diploma in Nursing) survey taker. The questionnaire was devised by the research group and was given by a fully trained DUE survey taker. Previously, contact was made with all the health centres, physicians and nursing staff to give them information on ED and CVRF and to inform them about the work to be done in their health region. Those patients who did not come to the appointment were telephoned to insist on the importance of attending and completing the questionnaire. Variables analysis: We analysed age, level of education, civil status, height, weight and body mass index (BMI), SBP, DBP, smoking habit, number cigarettes/day, year smoking began, ex‐smoker, year smoking stopped, alcohol consumption, grams alcohol/week, as well as consumption of other drugs, frequency and type. Blood test: glucose, haemoglobin glycated haemoglobin, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, artherogenic index, creatinine, urea, GOT, GPT, gamma‐GT and PSA. Urine test: micro‐albuminuria, proteinuria and creatinine clearance. ECG: Diabetes diagnosed at least 1 year ago and prescribed drugs to treat it. High blood pressure diagnosed at least 1 year ago and prescribed drugs to treat it. Dyslipidaemia (hypercholesterolaemia) diagnosed at least 1 year ago and prescribed drugs to treat it. Concomitant diseases of at least 1 year and drugs (up to 3) SHIM questionnaire and ED according to SHIM. Statistical analysis: an observational, descriptive, analytical, cross‐sectional study. Qualitative variables are presented as exact values and a percentage; quantitative variables as the mean and standard deviation (SD). A means comparison was done with the Student’s t‐test for independent groups, or the Mann‐Whitney U test if normality conditions (using the Kolmogorov‐Smirnoff or Shapiro‐Wilks test) were not fulfilled. The chi‐squared test was used for qualitative variables. Results: Of the 210 selected people, 179 completed the questionnaire (85.2%). The mean age was 64.5 ± 11.6 years. When analysing all the study variables in relation to the main variable, presence or absence of ED, age played an important role in ED appearing as ED incidence rises with age. Blood pressure had no significant relationship with the studied variable, and the same hold for BMI and its subdivision into normal weight and obesity. As regards toxic habits, neither cigarette smoking nor alcohol consumption influenced the presence of ED. The same hold for the sociological‐type variables (civil states, level of education). Regarding the biochemical variables from blood tests, a significant relationship with the atherogenic index and its recoded variable at high and low atherogenic risk (p < 0.04) was noted. In the glycaemic profile, a glycaemia mean of 126 mg/dl was obtained in the ED presence group, which is the cut‐off point proposed by ADA117 (American Diabetes Association) to consider a subject diabetic. Likewise, glycated haemoglobin presented figures in the two groups can be considered an alternation of a practically diabetic glucose metabolism. In our study, the presence of diabetic disease, high blood pressure (HBP) and dyslipidaemia showed no significant relationship with ED presence for each disease. However, in the combination of these diseases, a statistically significant relationship was seen when CVR increases, according to the Framinghan tables. Neither did each disease’s duration show a significant relationship with ED presence nor significant differences for the drugs used to treat the three pathologies were found. The coronary risk calculated according to the Framinghan tables indicated a statistically significant result, as did excessive risk (the difference between the coronary risk and the average assigned per age) for ED presence. The LISAT 8 test suggested that ED affected health‐associated quality of life and was statistically significant in two items of sex life and economic situation and was borderline statistically significant in the general life and working life items. Conclusions: There is a high ED prevalence in patients with high CVR. When ED improves, the better CVRFs are controlled. These patients’ pluripathology implies aggressive polymedication which doctors must consider as it increases the risk of ED.",book:{id:"5529",slug:"sexual-dysfunction",title:"Sexual Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Sexual Dysfunction"},signatures:"Ángel Celada Rodríguez, Pedro Juan Tárraga López, José Antonio\nRodríguez Montes, Ma Loreto Tarraga Marcos and Carmen Celada\nRoldan",authors:[{id:"193842",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro J",middleName:null,surname:"Tarraga Lopez",slug:"pedro-j-tarraga-lopez",fullName:"Pedro J Tarraga Lopez"},{id:"193850",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Celada",slug:"angel-celada",fullName:"Angel Celada"},{id:"203619",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez Montes",slug:"jose-antonio-rodriguez-montes",fullName:"Jose Antonio Rodriguez Montes"},{id:"203623",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Celada",slug:"carmen-celada",fullName:"Carmen Celada"}]},{id:"55210",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69107",title:"Hypogonadism in Male Sexual Dysfunction",slug:"hypogonadism-in-male-sexual-dysfunction",totalDownloads:1346,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Normal testosterone level is influencing all the steps of the male psychosexual development: intrauterine neonatal and final psychosexual development.. At pubertal stage, the quality of testosterone secretion is conditioning the development of the mature male phenotype. In adult life, eugonadism sustains desire, arousal, determines spontaneous erections, facilitates stimulated erection, influencing the response rate to medication. Moreover, eugonadism sustain daydreaming and phantasies, both needed for a normal sexual life. The pathogenic mechanism of all these actions is presented. Talking about hypogonadism means not only the classical types of hypogonadism: due to classical testicular disease of central, hypothalamic and hypophysis disease, but also the partial testosterone deficiency induces by aging (late onset hypogonadism), weight increase (up to 30% of males with metabolic syndrome and 50% of males with diabetes) or secondary hypogonadism described in chronic use of steroids or after long exposure to stress, especially in young males. All these types of hypogonadism, that affect young, middle aged or old males will be presented separately. A therapeutic approach that is individualized for each type of hypogonadism, should consider positive and possible negative effects and all alternatives will be presented: life style changes, sustained weight loss, increase exercise, supplemental therapy, pro fertility treatment.",book:{id:"5529",slug:"sexual-dysfunction",title:"Sexual Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Sexual Dysfunction"},signatures:"Dana Stoian, Ioana Mozos, Marius Craina, Corina Paul, Iulian Velea,\nAdalbert Schiller and Mihaela Craciunescu",authors:[{id:"71595",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Mozos",slug:"ioana-mozos",fullName:"Ioana Mozos"},{id:"182103",title:"Dr.",name:"Dana",middleName:"I",surname:"Stoian",slug:"dana-stoian",fullName:"Dana Stoian"},{id:"182104",title:"Prof.",name:"Marius",middleName:null,surname:"Craina",slug:"marius-craina",fullName:"Marius Craina"},{id:"182245",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela",middleName:null,surname:"Craciunescu",slug:"mihaela-craciunescu",fullName:"Mihaela Craciunescu"},{id:"183185",title:"Prof.",name:"Adalbert",middleName:null,surname:"Schiller",slug:"adalbert-schiller",fullName:"Adalbert Schiller"},{id:"194084",title:"Dr.",name:"Puiu",middleName:null,surname:"Velea",slug:"puiu-velea",fullName:"Puiu Velea"},{id:"194085",title:"Dr.",name:"Corina",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"corina-paul",fullName:"Corina Paul"}]},{id:"55391",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69092",title:"Introductory Chapter: Sexual Dysfunction - Introduction and Perspective",slug:"introductory-chapter-sexual-dysfunction-introduction-and-perspective",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"5529",slug:"sexual-dysfunction",title:"Sexual Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Sexual Dysfunction"},signatures:"Berend Olivier",authors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55430",title:"A “Snip” in Time: Circumcision Revisited",slug:"a-snip-in-time-circumcision-revisited",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The publication of an Italian study on etiology and interactions of frenulum breve, frenulectomy, and premature ejaculation, and the results of a popular Austrian sex study initiated a survey on this topic, accompanied by collecting a small sample of data in an urban practice environment in Germany. Since frenulectomy, for practical reasons, often leads to a complete removal of the prepuce, circumcision has come to the fore anew. Moreover, under the heading, “Ending a myth: male circumcision is not associated with higher prevalence of erectile dysfunction,” a recent study relating circumcision to sexual dysfunction has been published. In this chapter, an overview of research results as well as of psychological and clinical aspects of circumcision and associated subjects is given. There seem to be advantages of circumcision as to sexual dysfunction and premature ejaculation. Depending on etiopathology, some treatment options may require psychosomatic reasoning.",book:{id:"5529",slug:"sexual-dysfunction",title:"Sexual Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Sexual Dysfunction"},signatures:"Götz Egloff",authors:[{id:"194175",title:"M.A.",name:"Götz",middleName:null,surname:"Egloff",slug:"gotz-egloff",fullName:"Götz Egloff"}]},{id:"55509",title:"Sexual Dysfunction, Depression and Antidepressants: A Translational Approach",slug:"sexual-dysfunction-depression-and-antidepressants-a-translational-approach",totalDownloads:2149,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Major depression is frequently associated with sexual dysfunctions. Most antidepressants, especially selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), induce additional sexual side effects and, although effective antidepressants, deteriorate sexual symptoms, which are the main reason that patients stop antidepressant treatment. Many strategies have been used to circumvent the additional sexual side effects, but results are rather disappointing. Recently, new antidepressants have been introduced, vilazodone and vortioxetine, which seem to lack sexual side effects in the early registration trials. Much research with large numbers of depressed patients and adequate methodological tools still has to confirm in daily use the absence of sexual side effects of new antidepressants. Animal models that in an early phase of drug development may predict putative sexual side effects of new antidepressants are extremely useful and could speed up development of new antidepressants. A rat model of sexual behavior is described that has a very high predictive validity for sexual side effects in man. Several characteristics of present antidepressants with regard to sexual dysfunctions are also present in the rat model and establish its validity. The animal model can also be used in the search for new psychotropics without sexual side effects or for drugs with sexual stimulating activity.",book:{id:"5529",slug:"sexual-dysfunction",title:"Sexual Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Sexual Dysfunction"},signatures:"Jocelien D.A. Olivier, Diana C. Esquivel Franco, Marcel D. Waldinger\nand Berend Olivier",authors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"},{id:"157663",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Waldinger",slug:"marcel-waldinger",fullName:"Marcel Waldinger"},{id:"197644",title:"Dr.",name:"Jocelien D.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"jocelien-d.a.-olivier",fullName:"Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"197646",title:"MSc.",name:"Diana C.",middleName:null,surname:"Esquivel Franco",slug:"diana-c.-esquivel-franco",fullName:"Diana C. Esquivel Franco"}]},{id:"55700",title:"Erectile Dysfunction Associated with Cardiovascular Risk Factors",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-associated-with-cardiovascular-risk-factors",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Objectives: (1) Determine erectile dysfunction (ED) prevalence in patients with cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF). (2) Assess ED incidence in relation to the extent of controlling CVRF. Methodology: Patients: Enrolled participants came to the health centres in the study area. In accordance with the incidence of diseases with cardiovascular risks (CVR) in the Basic Health Regions of the study area, sample size was calculated with a 95% confidence interval and an alpha error of 0.005, resulting in a sample of 210 people, of which 30 could not complete the study for various reasons (change of address, death, refused to complete questionnaire, etc.). A full awareness and diffusion campaign was organized with talks and leaflets. Letters: A standard letter was given to patients which explained the importance of sexual health, offering them an appointment with a DUE (Diploma in Nursing) survey taker. The questionnaire was devised by the research group and was given by a fully trained DUE survey taker. Previously, contact was made with all the health centres, physicians and nursing staff to give them information on ED and CVRF and to inform them about the work to be done in their health region. Those patients who did not come to the appointment were telephoned to insist on the importance of attending and completing the questionnaire. Variables analysis: We analysed age, level of education, civil status, height, weight and body mass index (BMI), SBP, DBP, smoking habit, number cigarettes/day, year smoking began, ex‐smoker, year smoking stopped, alcohol consumption, grams alcohol/week, as well as consumption of other drugs, frequency and type. Blood test: glucose, haemoglobin glycated haemoglobin, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, artherogenic index, creatinine, urea, GOT, GPT, gamma‐GT and PSA. Urine test: micro‐albuminuria, proteinuria and creatinine clearance. ECG: Diabetes diagnosed at least 1 year ago and prescribed drugs to treat it. High blood pressure diagnosed at least 1 year ago and prescribed drugs to treat it. Dyslipidaemia (hypercholesterolaemia) diagnosed at least 1 year ago and prescribed drugs to treat it. Concomitant diseases of at least 1 year and drugs (up to 3) SHIM questionnaire and ED according to SHIM. Statistical analysis: an observational, descriptive, analytical, cross‐sectional study. Qualitative variables are presented as exact values and a percentage; quantitative variables as the mean and standard deviation (SD). A means comparison was done with the Student’s t‐test for independent groups, or the Mann‐Whitney U test if normality conditions (using the Kolmogorov‐Smirnoff or Shapiro‐Wilks test) were not fulfilled. The chi‐squared test was used for qualitative variables. Results: Of the 210 selected people, 179 completed the questionnaire (85.2%). The mean age was 64.5 ± 11.6 years. When analysing all the study variables in relation to the main variable, presence or absence of ED, age played an important role in ED appearing as ED incidence rises with age. Blood pressure had no significant relationship with the studied variable, and the same hold for BMI and its subdivision into normal weight and obesity. As regards toxic habits, neither cigarette smoking nor alcohol consumption influenced the presence of ED. The same hold for the sociological‐type variables (civil states, level of education). Regarding the biochemical variables from blood tests, a significant relationship with the atherogenic index and its recoded variable at high and low atherogenic risk (p < 0.04) was noted. In the glycaemic profile, a glycaemia mean of 126 mg/dl was obtained in the ED presence group, which is the cut‐off point proposed by ADA117 (American Diabetes Association) to consider a subject diabetic. Likewise, glycated haemoglobin presented figures in the two groups can be considered an alternation of a practically diabetic glucose metabolism. In our study, the presence of diabetic disease, high blood pressure (HBP) and dyslipidaemia showed no significant relationship with ED presence for each disease. However, in the combination of these diseases, a statistically significant relationship was seen when CVR increases, according to the Framinghan tables. Neither did each disease’s duration show a significant relationship with ED presence nor significant differences for the drugs used to treat the three pathologies were found. The coronary risk calculated according to the Framinghan tables indicated a statistically significant result, as did excessive risk (the difference between the coronary risk and the average assigned per age) for ED presence. The LISAT 8 test suggested that ED affected health‐associated quality of life and was statistically significant in two items of sex life and economic situation and was borderline statistically significant in the general life and working life items. Conclusions: There is a high ED prevalence in patients with high CVR. When ED improves, the better CVRFs are controlled. These patients’ pluripathology implies aggressive polymedication which doctors must consider as it increases the risk of ED.",book:{id:"5529",slug:"sexual-dysfunction",title:"Sexual Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Sexual Dysfunction"},signatures:"Ángel Celada Rodríguez, Pedro Juan Tárraga López, José Antonio\nRodríguez Montes, Ma Loreto Tarraga Marcos and Carmen Celada\nRoldan",authors:[{id:"193842",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro J",middleName:null,surname:"Tarraga Lopez",slug:"pedro-j-tarraga-lopez",fullName:"Pedro J Tarraga Lopez"},{id:"193850",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Celada",slug:"angel-celada",fullName:"Angel Celada"},{id:"203619",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez Montes",slug:"jose-antonio-rodriguez-montes",fullName:"Jose Antonio Rodriguez Montes"},{id:"203623",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Celada",slug:"carmen-celada",fullName:"Carmen Celada"}]},{id:"55210",title:"Hypogonadism in Male Sexual Dysfunction",slug:"hypogonadism-in-male-sexual-dysfunction",totalDownloads:1346,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Normal testosterone level is influencing all the steps of the male psychosexual development: intrauterine neonatal and final psychosexual development.. At pubertal stage, the quality of testosterone secretion is conditioning the development of the mature male phenotype. In adult life, eugonadism sustains desire, arousal, determines spontaneous erections, facilitates stimulated erection, influencing the response rate to medication. Moreover, eugonadism sustain daydreaming and phantasies, both needed for a normal sexual life. The pathogenic mechanism of all these actions is presented. Talking about hypogonadism means not only the classical types of hypogonadism: due to classical testicular disease of central, hypothalamic and hypophysis disease, but also the partial testosterone deficiency induces by aging (late onset hypogonadism), weight increase (up to 30% of males with metabolic syndrome and 50% of males with diabetes) or secondary hypogonadism described in chronic use of steroids or after long exposure to stress, especially in young males. All these types of hypogonadism, that affect young, middle aged or old males will be presented separately. A therapeutic approach that is individualized for each type of hypogonadism, should consider positive and possible negative effects and all alternatives will be presented: life style changes, sustained weight loss, increase exercise, supplemental therapy, pro fertility treatment.",book:{id:"5529",slug:"sexual-dysfunction",title:"Sexual Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Sexual Dysfunction"},signatures:"Dana Stoian, Ioana Mozos, Marius Craina, Corina Paul, Iulian Velea,\nAdalbert Schiller and Mihaela Craciunescu",authors:[{id:"71595",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Mozos",slug:"ioana-mozos",fullName:"Ioana Mozos"},{id:"182103",title:"Dr.",name:"Dana",middleName:"I",surname:"Stoian",slug:"dana-stoian",fullName:"Dana Stoian"},{id:"182104",title:"Prof.",name:"Marius",middleName:null,surname:"Craina",slug:"marius-craina",fullName:"Marius Craina"},{id:"182245",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela",middleName:null,surname:"Craciunescu",slug:"mihaela-craciunescu",fullName:"Mihaela Craciunescu"},{id:"183185",title:"Prof.",name:"Adalbert",middleName:null,surname:"Schiller",slug:"adalbert-schiller",fullName:"Adalbert Schiller"},{id:"194084",title:"Dr.",name:"Puiu",middleName:null,surname:"Velea",slug:"puiu-velea",fullName:"Puiu Velea"},{id:"194085",title:"Dr.",name:"Corina",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"corina-paul",fullName:"Corina Paul"}]},{id:"55391",title:"Introductory Chapter: Sexual Dysfunction - Introduction and Perspective",slug:"introductory-chapter-sexual-dysfunction-introduction-and-perspective",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"5529",slug:"sexual-dysfunction",title:"Sexual Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Sexual Dysfunction"},signatures:"Berend Olivier",authors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1164",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:24,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11446",title:"Industry 4.0 - Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11446.jpg",hash:"be984f45b90c1003798661ef885d8a34",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 12th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"303193",title:"Dr.",name:"Meisam",surname:"Gordan",slug:"meisam-gordan",fullName:"Meisam Gordan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11448",title:"Artificial Neural Networks - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11448.jpg",hash:"e57ff97a39cfc6fe68a1ac62b503dbe9",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"June 3rd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"22866",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi Leung Patrick",surname:"Hui",slug:"chi-leung-patrick-hui",fullName:"Chi Leung Patrick Hui"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11447",title:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11447.jpg",hash:"f68e3c3430a74fc7a7eb97f6ea2bb42e",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 22nd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa and Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",slug:"thresholding-image-techniques-for-plant-segmentation",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81471",title:"Semantic Map: Bringing Together Groups and Discourses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103818",signatures:"Theodore Chadjipadelis and Georgia Panagiotidou",slug:"semantic-map-bringing-together-groups-and-discourses",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79491",title:"Fuzzy Perceptron Learning for Non-Linearly Separable Patterns",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101312",signatures:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",slug:"fuzzy-perceptron-learning-for-non-linearly-separable-patterns",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Raja Kishor",surname:"Duggirala"}],book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81234",title:"Cognitive Visual Tracking of Hand Gestures in Real-Time RGB Videos",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103170",signatures:"Richa Golash and Yogendra Kumar Jain",slug:"cognitive-visual-tracking-of-hand-gestures-in-real-time-rgb-videos",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81331",title:"Machine Learning Algorithm-Based Contraceptive Practice among Ever-Married Women in Bangladesh: A Hierarchical Machine Learning Classification Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103187",signatures:"Iqramul Haq, Md. Ismail Hossain, Md. Moshiur Rahman, Md. Injamul Haq Methun, Ashis Talukder, Md. Jakaria Habib and Md. Sanwar Hossain",slug:"machine-learning-algorithm-based-contraceptive-practice-among-ever-married-women-in-bangladesh-a-hie",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Applied Intelligence",value:22,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Computer Vision",value:24,count:8,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",value:26,count:10,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:31,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",volumeInSeries:32,fullTitle:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195290/images/system/195290.png",institutionString:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institution:{name:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",slug:"protein-detection",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",volumeInSeries:31,fullTitle:"Protein Detection",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:"Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",slug:"cell-culture-advanced-technology-and-applications-in-medical-and-life-sciences",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",volumeInSeries:30,fullTitle:"Cell Culture - Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",slug:"hydrolases",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",volumeInSeries:29,fullTitle:"Hydrolases",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110708/images/system/110708.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",volumeInSeries:28,fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",volumeInSeries:26,fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts",subtitle:"Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",slug:"fibroblasts-advances-in-inflammation-autoimmunity-and-cancer",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Katja Lakota",hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",volumeInSeries:25,fullTitle:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",middleName:null,surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/328755/images/system/328755.jpg",institutionString:"BioMed X Institute",institution:{name:"University Hospital of Zurich",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinases",subtitle:"Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",slug:"protein-kinases-promising-targets-for-anticancer-drug-research",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rajesh Kumar Singh",hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",volumeInSeries:24,fullTitle:"Protein Kinases - Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9753",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",subtitle:"Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9753.jpg",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids-recent-advances",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shagufta Perveen and Areej Mohammad Al-Taweel",hash:"575689df13c78bf0e6c1be40804cd010",volumeInSeries:21,fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids - Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:12}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"429683",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"bilal-khalid",fullName:"Bilal Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429683/images/system/429683.png",biography:"Dr. Bilal Khalid received a Ph.D. in Industrial Business Administration from KMITL Business School, Bangkok, in 2021, and a master’s in International Business Management from Stamford International University, Bangkok, in 2017. Dr. Khalid\\'s research interests include leadership and negotiations, digital transformations, gamification, eLearning, blockchain, Big Data, and management of information technology. Dr. Bilal Khalid also serves as an academic editor at Education Research International and a reviewer for international journals.",institutionString:"KMITL Business School",institution:{name:"King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Mohiuddin is an Associate Professor of International Business at Laval University, Canada. He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. He is also co-managing editor of Transnational Corporations Review and a guest editor for Electronic Commerce Research and Journal of Internet Technology.",institutionString:"Université Laval",institution:{name:"Université Laval",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"189147",title:"Dr.",name:"Hailan",middleName:null,surname:"Salamun",slug:"hailan-salamun",fullName:"Hailan Salamun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189147/images/19274_n.jpeg",biography:"Hailan Salamun, (Dr.) was born in Selangor, Malaysia and graduated from Tunku Ampuan Jamaah Religious High School at Shah Alam. Obtained a degree from the International Islamic University (UIA), Gombak in the field of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage. Next, I furthered my studies to the professional level to obtain a Diploma in Education at UIA. After serving for several years in school, I furthered my studies to the Master of Dakwah and Leadership at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi. I graduated with a Doctor of Philosophy in Principalship Leadership from the University of Malaya (UM) in 2010. I am currently a senior lecturer in the Department of Nationalism and Civilization, Center for Basic and Continuing Education, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu. Prior to that, I had served in several educational institutions such as schools, the Institute of Teacher Education (IPG), and also the University of Malaya. I am also actively involved in paper presentation, writing and publishing. My research interests are focused on leadership, education, society and Islamic civilization. This area of research requires a detailed understanding of Islamic studies and research studies in leadership. Another research interest that I have explored recently is the politics of the Malay community and also the leadership of the mosque.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"442081",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrey",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"audrey-addy",fullName:"Audrey Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"437993",title:"Mr.",name:"Job",middleName:null,surname:"Jackson",slug:"job-jackson",fullName:"Job Jackson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Management College of Southern Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"428495",title:"Prof.",name:"Asyraf",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Rahman",slug:"asyraf-ab-rahman",fullName:"Asyraf Ab Rahman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"429650",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacqueline",middleName:null,surname:"Kareem",slug:"jacqueline-kareem",fullName:"Jacqueline Kareem",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Christ University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421041",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Ramdas",slug:"sunil-kumar-ramdas",fullName:"Sunil Kumar Ramdas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jain University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421833",title:"Mr.",name:"Eugene",middleName:null,surname:"Owusu-Acheampong",slug:"eugene-owusu-acheampong",fullName:"Eugene Owusu-Acheampong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"239876",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Mourão",slug:"luciana-mourao",fullName:"Luciana Mourão",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Salgado de Oliveira",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"421735",title:"Dr.",name:"elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"addy",slug:"elizabeth-addy",fullName:"elizabeth addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442083",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"james-addy",fullName:"James Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437991",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Hoque",slug:"muhammad-hoque",fullName:"Muhammad Hoque",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421006",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Uster",slug:"anna-uster",fullName:"Anna Uster",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470243",title:"Dr.",name:"Md Samim",middleName:null,surname:"Al Azad",slug:"md-samim-al-azad",fullName:"Md Samim Al Azad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470244",title:"Dr.",name:"Slimane",middleName:null,surname:"Ed-dafali",slug:"slimane-ed-dafali",fullName:"Slimane Ed-dafali",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421011",title:"Dr.",name:"Afatakpa",middleName:null,surname:"Fortune",slug:"afatakpa-fortune",fullName:"Afatakpa Fortune",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"446057",title:"Mr.",name:"Okedare",middleName:null,surname:"David Olubukunmi",slug:"okedare-david-olubukunmi",fullName:"Okedare David Olubukunmi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421778",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatimah",middleName:"Saeed",surname:"AlAhmari",slug:"fatimah-alahmari",fullName:"Fatimah AlAhmari",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421024",title:"Prof.",name:"Harold Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Patrick",slug:"harold-andrew-patrick",fullName:"Harold Andrew Patrick",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421065",title:"Ms.",name:"Euzália",middleName:null,surname:"do Rosário Botelho Tomé",slug:"euzalia-do-rosario-botelho-tome",fullName:"Euzália do Rosário Botelho Tomé",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kalala Ndalamba",slug:"ken-kalala-ndalamba",fullName:"Ken Kalala Ndalamba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421826",title:"Dr.",name:"Inusah",middleName:null,surname:"Salifu",slug:"inusah-salifu",fullName:"Inusah Salifu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"420823",title:"Prof.",name:"Gardênia da Silva",middleName:null,surname:"Abbad",slug:"gardenia-da-silva-abbad",fullName:"Gardênia da Silva Abbad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437613",title:"MSc.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Legentil",slug:"juliana-legentil",fullName:"Juliana Legentil",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"