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1. Introduction
Globally many aquatic ecosystems have been negatively affected by phosphorus (P) eutrophication [1]. Phosphorus is a primary limiting nutrient in both freshwater and marine systems [2, 3]. Phosphorus eutrophication is defined as the over enrichment of aquatic ecosystems with P leading to accelerated growth of algae blooms or water plants, anoxic events, altering biomass and species composition [4, 5, 6, 7, 8], eutrophication is a persistent condition of surface waters and a widespread environmental problem. Aquatic systems affected by eutrophication often exhibit harmful algal blooms, which foul water intakes and waterways, fuel hypoxia, disrupt food webs and produce secondary metabolites that are toxic to water consumers and users including zooplantkton, shellfish, fish, domestic pets, cattle and humans [9]. Excess phosphorus inputs to lakes usually come from industrial discharges, sewage and runoff from agriculture, construction sites, and urban areas [1, 6]. Many countries have regulated point sources of nutrients for example industrial and municipal discharges, however, nonpoint sources of nutrients such as runoff from urban and agricultural lands have replaced point sources as the driver of eutrophication in many countries [10].
The plant availability of phosphate fertilizer is reduced by sorption and organic complexation in the soil, therefore fertilizer applications greater than the amount required by the crop are used to counteract the strong binding of the phosphate to the soil matrix leading to increased P content of managed soils [11]. Mining phosphorus (P) and applying it on farm for animal feed and crop production is altering the global P cycle, leading to P accumulation in some of the world’s soils [4]. Over application of P fertilizer to soil is in itself wasteful, but the transport of P to aquatic ecosystems by erosion is also causing widespread problems of eutrophication [12, 13]. Using global budget [4] estimated the increase in net P storage in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems to be at least 75% greater than preindustrial levels of storage. Large portion of P accumulation occurs as a result of increased agriculture intensification, land use change and increased runoff [14, 15, 16].
2. Sources of phosphorus
Excess phosphorus inputs to lakes usually come from industrial discharges, sewage and runoff from agriculture, construction sites, and urban areas [6]. The input of P to soil creates the potential for an increase in transfer to the wider environment. Phosphorus sources can be natural which includes indigenous soil P and atmospheric deposition and/or anthropogenic which includes fertilizers, animal feed input to the farm and manure applied to the soil [17]. In addition ground water can potentially contribute significant amount of P in water bodies driving eutrophication process [18].
As a result of P point source control in many countries the nonpoint P source especially agriculture is the main pollutant of aquatic systems [10]. The major source of nonpoint nutrient input to water bodies is the excessive application of fertilizer or manure on farm which cause P accumulation in soils [4]. Phosphorus retention has been caused by an excess of fertilizer and animal feed inputs over outputs of agricultural products [19]. For example [12] indicated that less than 20% of P input to the Lake Okeechobee watershed in fertilizers was output in agricultural as well as other products.
3. Forms of phosphorus
Most studies on plant nutrition often consider only inorganic P to be biologically available, however organic phosphorus is abundant in soils and its turnover can account for the majority of P taken up by vegetation [20, 21]. Soil phosphorus exists in a range of organic and inorganic compounds that differ significantly in their biological availability in the soil environment [22]. The inorganic P compounds mainly couple with amorphous and crystalline forms of Al, Fe, and Ca [23] which is highly influenced by soil pH [24]. The organic phosphorus in most soils is dominated by a mixture of phosphate monoesters (e.g., mononucleotides, inositol phosphates) and phosphate diesters (mainly nucleic acids and phospholipids), with smaller amounts of phosphonates (compounds with a direct carbon-phosphorus bond) and organic polyphosphates (e.g., adenosine triphosphate) [25]. Plants can manipulate their acquisition of P from organic compounds through various mechanisms, some of the mechanisms allow plants to utilize organic P as efficiently as inorganic phosphate [26, 27]. In lake sediment in China, the heavily polluted sediments contained higher organic P fractions compared to moderately and no polluted sediments [28]. Increased pH can alter the availability of P binding sites on ferric complexes as a result of competition between hydroxyl ions and bound phosphate ions [29]. Anoxic condition leads to release of P as a result of reduction of ferric to ferrous iron [30]. In addition presence of sulfate could lead to reaction of ferric iron with sulfate and sulfide to form ferrous iron and iron sulfide leading to release of P [31]. Increased temperature can reduce adsorption of P by mineral complexes in the sediment [32]. Other physicochemical processes affecting release of P from the sediment include temperature, pH potential, redox, reservoir hydrology and environmental conditions [33]. These physical chemical processes are further complicated by the influence of biological processes for example mineralization, leading to a complex system governing the release of P across sediment water interface [33].
4. Translocation/mobilization of phosphorus
Phosphorus in most cases enters aquatic ecosystems sorbed to soil particles that are eroded into rivers, lakes and streams [34, 35]. Watershed land use and P concentration in watershed soils strongly influence potential P pollution of aquatic ecosystems [4]. In addition any factor accelerating erosion or elevating P concentration in the soil increases the potential P runoff to aquatic systems [34, 35]. Mobilization of P involves biological, chemical and biochemical processes. The processes are grouped into solubilization or detachment mechanisms and are defined by the physical size of the P compounds that are mobilized [17] and it has been indicated that the potential for solubilization increases with increasing concentrations for extractable P. However, organic P has an important but little understood role in determining P solubilization [25]. Detachment of soil particles and associated P is mainly linked to soil erosion, which provides a physical mechanism for mobilizing P from soil into waters bodies [36].
Depending on site conditions diffuse P transport occurs as particulate or dissolved P in overland flow, channelized surface runoff, drainage, or groundwater [18]. In ground water P concentration is considered to be low [37]. This is as a result of orthophosphate P being adsorbed in the soil and sediment in the vadose or the saturated zone [18]. However, wastewater has been reported to cause heavy groundwater contamination leading to P elevation [38, 39].
5. Consequences of eutrophication
Consequences of eutrophication include excessive plant production, blooms of harmful algae, increased frequency of anoxic events, and death of fish, leading to economic losses and health implications which include costs of water purification for human and industry use, losses of fish and wildlife production and losses of recreational amenities [10, 40]. Some of the consequences of eutrophication includes:
5.1. Food/fishing industry
High level of Lake Eutrophication has led to suffocating of fish population on a massive scale with a very negative repercussions on the economy [41]. The total economic loss incurred from 1998 algal bloom in the Lake Tai China catchment area was estimated at U.S.$6.5 billion. During winter of 2002–2003, a severe oxygen deficit induced a fish kill in the eutrophicated two-basin Lake Aimajarvi in southern Finland, which resulted in cascading effects on the lower trophic levels of the lake [42].
5.2. Tourism
Coastal areas are an important economic source for tourism [43]. The algal bloom have degraded the investment environment and damaged the hospitality and tourism industry [41].
5.3. Human/animal healthy
Toxin producing algae can cause mass mortalities of fish marine mammals, birds and human illness through consumption of sea food [44]. It is estimated that 60–80 species of about 400 known phytoplankton are toxin producing and capable of producing harmful algal blooms [8]. In humans, toxins arising from harmful algal blooms have mainly been from shellfish consumption [44], bivalve shellfish have been reported to graze on algae and concentrate toxins effectively. As a result the poisoning can lead to paralytic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning and azaspiracid shellfish poisoning. In addition there are many respiratory complaints from inhaling contaminated aerosols [45]. A case reported that in July 2002 teenage boys swam in a blue-green algae covered golf course in Dane County, Wisconsin. They all became ill, the most severe symptoms occurred in the boys who swallowed water. Approximately after 48 h one of the boys suffered a seizure and died of heart failure, the coroner identified anatoxin-a as the most likely underlying cause of death [46, 47].
In May and June 1998, over 200 California sea lions died and others displayed signs of neurological dysfunction along the central California coast, this was linked to a harmful algal blooms [48].
5.4. Water quality
Harmful algal blooms is a cause of restriction on drinking water, fisheries and recreation water uses leading to significant economic consequences [49]. The presence of algal bloom and other species have disrupted the normal supply of drinking water in many parts of the world for example China [41]. The presence of algal blooms in Lake Tai severely affected industrial and agricultural production as well as lives of the urban dwellers. Whereby in 1990 algal bloom forced the shutdown of the entire water supply system and triggered a crisis in water security for the urban population. The direct economic loss was estimated at about U.S.$30 million. Harmful algal blooms present significant challenges for achieving water quality protection and restoration goals especially when these toxins confound interpretation of monitoring results and environmental quality standards implementation efforts for other chemicals and stressors [49].
There is need to reduce anthropogenic nutrient inputs to aquatic ecosystems in order to reduce the negative effects of eutrophication [50]. It has been indicated that reducing P input in the water bodies leads to eutrophication mitigation [16, 51] (Table 1) [16]. Derived this conclusion from four methods, all long-term studies at ecosystem scales:
long-term case histories,
multiyear whole lake experiments,
experiments where chemical treatments are used to remove phosphorus from the water column, and
chemical additions to inhibit return of phosphorus from the sediments to the water column.
However, [6, 52] argued that P based nutrient mitigation commonly regarded as the key tool in eutrophication, in many cases has not yet yielded the desired reductions in water quality and nuisance algal growth in water bodies has not reduced in decades of reducing P input. [52, 53] argued that these observations could be as a result of:
legacies of past land-use management;
decoupling of algal growth responses to river P loading in eutrophically impaired aquatic system; and
recovery trajectories, which may be nonlinear and characterized by thresholds and alternative stable states.
Therefore, as a result of these contrasting findings there is need in some cases to consider a combination of different P mitigation strategies for example employing control of nutrient loading, physicochemical and physicomechanical method simultaneously. Control or mitigation of P eutrophication should encompass multiple components which could include; control of pollutant sources, restoration of the damaged ecosystem, and catchment management [41]. The mitigation strategies includes:
6.1. Control of nutrient loads
6.1.1. Restructuring of industrial layout
Point source P originating from mines, factories and residence form one of the most important sources of P to water bodies [41]. For example Lake Tai in China, its catchment area used to be full of heavy industrial polluters, for example, chemical and dye factories. The township lacked adequate facilities for treating waste water before disposal. Therefore, to mitigate pollution coming from the industry it is important to shut down heavily polluting industries. While as the less polluting plants could be relocated to a designated industrial part to ensure centralization and effectiveness in handling pollution control.
6.1.2. Farm/field/catchment management
It has been much easier to control point source P, therefore making nutrient discharge from agricultural fields the chief source of pollution [41]. As a result nutrient discharge from agricultural fields could be addressed through farm, field and catchment management or rationalization of land use [41].
6.1.2.1. Farm scale management
In the farm scale environmentally sound fertilizer application and nutrient handing is important this would be achieved through appropriate placement and proper timing of application. This would result in moderate P levels in the soils. In Addition P input could be reduced through increasing digestible P in fodder and reducing total P [51] (Table 2).
Table 1.
Examples of fresh waters in some countries where eutrophication decreased following the control of phosphorus inputs. Latitudes and longitudes are given. Lakes recovered by using chemicals to precipitate phosphorus are not included, modified from [16].
Table 2.
Mitigation strategies for nutrient management at farm scale. Modified from [51].
6.1.2.2. Field scale management
To avoid transport of particulate P and leaching of P, increase soil storage there is need to change soil management. In addition there is need to change crop management in order to reduce run off and reduce leaching [51] (Table 3).
Table 3.
Mitigation strategies at field scale modified from [51].
6.1.2.3. Catchment scale management
In the catchment scale eutrophication mitigation strategy would involve water management, land use management and landscape management [51]. Water management could be achieved through reducing runoff flow and avoiding subsurface leaching. Land use management would involve protecting vulnerable areas and improving sink and sources of P by changing agricultural use patterns. Land scape management would include reducing direct sources of P from farmyard, livestock and reducing surface runoff and erosion from field to field within the catchment [51] (Table 4).
Table 4.
Mitigation strategies at catchment scale modified from [51].
6.1.3. Human intervention
It has been demonstrated that often the nutrient load and algal blooms in water bodies respond slowly to interventions aimed at controlling external nutrient sources because of the nutrients replenished from waterbodies deposits [54]. As a result P could be reduced through physiochemical and physicomechanical methods. Whereby the P is trapped and removed from the system or trapped on farm and its mobility to aquatic system reduced.
6.1.3.1. Ferric dosing
Reduction in the external P loading for control of algal biomass in the water reservoirs can be achieved by the use of ferric dosing. Ferric dosing technique is a physiochemical method and involves the addition of ferric sulfate or alternatives to the pumped input, to precipitate dissolved particulate and orthophosphate in the coming water. The system is coupled with filtration to remove the ferric/phosphorus floc [33]. Resulting in a significant reduction of P in the pumped inputs to the aquatic system.
6.1.3.2. Flushing and dredging of floor deposits
Flushing and dredging of floor deposits is a physicomechanical methods meant to remove the already accumulated P from the aquatic system floor [55]. The limitation with both ferric dosing and flushing and dredging of floor deposits is that they provide temporal solutions and do not address the root cause of the problem. Once the intervention is stopped nutrients levels goes back to the former status. However, the success of these methods are dependent on their being implemented together with control of nutrient load intervention.
6.1.3.3. Biochar potential in phosphorus adsorption on farm
Application of P on farm has potential to mitigate P eutrophication though P adsorption leading to reduction in P translocation (Figure 1). The P adsorption to biochar is favored by increased biochar pyrolysis temperature and is biochar biomass species specific [24]. The increase of biochar aromatic C (Figure 2) and pH adjustment with high biochar pyrolysis temperature is important for P retention [24]. Biochar is a byproduct of biofuel production, therefore increased production of biofuel will be consistent with biochar availability in future.
Figure 1.
Biochar phosphorus adsorption; from [24].
Figure 2.
Biochar carbon functional groups as determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR); from [24].
6.2. Aquatic ecosystem restoration
Ecosystem restoration focus on rehabilitating the functionality of the damaged ecosystem and it relevant physical, chemical and biological properties [41].
6.2.1. Phytoremediation
Ecological restoration may be accomplished through reduction of algae in the water bodies through aquatic plants. Being primary producers, advanced aquatic plants and micro-organisms compete with each other for ecological resources, such as light, nutrients, and living space. During their growth, advanced aquatic plants release chemical substances that are conducive to inhibiting algal production, as well as directly absorbing nitrogen and phosphorus in water. Storage of these elements in the plants means that they can be effectively extracted from the water through physical removal of these plants from the lake, thus reducing the nutrient level in lake waters [56].
6.2.2. Wetland restoration and constructed wetlands
Wetland restoration and constructed wetlands retain nutrient loss from upstream fields protecting the aquatic system (Table 5) [51]. Wetlands play a key role in P removal due processes that include peat accretion (sorption and burial in soil and sediments), uptake by microbes and vegetation and precipitation by iron and aluminum [57, 58, 59].
Table 5.
Mitigation strategies in aquatic ecosystems. From [51].
6.2.3. Riparian area restoration
Although [18] indicated that ground water contained elevated P which was a driver of eutrophication, there was no clear evidence of the location and sources of the pollution, as a result measure to decrease groundwater derived P loads cannot target the contamination at its source in the catchment. Hence the need to implement measures in the riparian area to eliminate groundwater P directly before it enters the water body.
6.2.4. River/lake maintenance and restoration
River maintenance and restoration is important in increasing nutrient retention capacity. Lake rehabilitation and restoration reduce the P concentration of lake [51] (Table 5).
7. Conclusion
Phosphorus eutrophication is a major environmental problem globally resulting in negative impact on the economy, health and tourism sector. Phosphorus eutrophication is caused by both point and nonpoint sources of P. In many countries point source of P has been better controlled while nonpoint sources of P which is mainly agricultural sources have been an ongoing major challenge. The excessive P in the farm is a result of excessive fertilizer and manure application on farm. Phosphorus has mainly been translocated from the source to aquatic systems through run off and leaching and in some isolated cases through ground water. There is need to implement mitigation strategies. This chapter recommends implementation of measures to control nutrient loads through restructuring industrial layout which is a point sources of P pollution. To address nonpoint source of P there is need to implement catchment management measures and ecosystem restoration measures. The catchment management encompasses farm scale, field scale and catchment scale measures that will either reduce P availability for translocation or retain P in the catchment area. Human intervention is equally important to ensure removal of P from already contaminated aquatic system or prevention of P translocation to the water bodies; human intervention includes ferric dosing, flushing and dredging of floor deposits and biochar application on farm. The human intervention especially ferric dosing and flushing and dredging of floor deposits has limitation because once intervention is abandoned the P status could easily revert to pre-intervention status. Previous studies indicate contrasting finding on the success of the mitigation strategies, whereby some reported success while others indicated no response to P eutrophication mitigation. As a result, it seems there is need in some cases to combine multiple eutrophication mitigation interventions for example control of nutrient loading, physicochemical and physicomechanical interventions in order to take care of legacy P and ensure successful mitigation process.
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Florida A&M University for providing a conducive environment for writing this book chapter. This work was supported by USDA/NIFA (1890 Evans-Allen Research Program), Division of Research Florida A&M University and USDA-Forest Service grant number 17-CA-11330140-027.
\n',keywords:"agriculture, aquatic, eutrophication, mitigation, phosphorus",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62471.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62471.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62471",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62471",totalDownloads:2018,totalViews:146,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,totalAltmetricsMentions:3,impactScore:4,impactScorePercentile:90,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"February 18th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 28th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"June 26th 2019",dateFinished:"July 5th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Phosphorus (P) eutrophication in the aquatic system is a global problem. With a negative impact on health industry, food security, tourism industry, ecosystem health and economy. The sources of P include both point and nonpoint sources. Controlling P inflow from point sources to aquatic systems have been more manageable, however controlling nonpoint P sources especially agricultural sources remains a challenge. The forms of P include both organic and inorganic. Runoff and soil erosion are the major agents of translocating P to the aquatic system in form of particulate and dissolved P. Excessive P cause growth of algae bloom, anoxic conditions, altering plant species composition and biomass, leading to fish kill, food webs disruption, toxins production and recreational areas degradation. Phosphorus eutrophication mitigation strategies include controlling nutrient loads and ecosystem restoration. Point P sources could be controlled through restructuring industrial layout. Controlling nonpoint nutrient loads need catchment management to focus on farm scale, field scale and catchment scale management as well as employ human intervention which includes ferric dosing, on farm biochar application and flushing and dredging of floor deposits. Ecosystem restoration for eutrophication mitigation involves phytoremediation, wetland restoration, riparian area restoration and river/lake maintenance/restoration. Combination of interventions could be required for successful eutrophication mitigation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62471",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62471",book:{id:"7326",slug:"phosphorus-recovery-and-recycling"},signatures:"Lucy Ngatia and Robert Taylor",authors:[{id:"246475",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucy",middleName:null,surname:"Ngatia",fullName:"Lucy Ngatia",slug:"lucy-ngatia",email:"lucy.ngatia@famu.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Florida A&M University - Florida State University College of Engineering",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"256676",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Taylor",fullName:"Robert Taylor",slug:"robert-taylor",email:"robert.taylor@famu.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Sources of phosphorus",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Forms of phosphorus",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Translocation/mobilization of phosphorus",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Consequences of eutrophication",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1. Food/fishing industry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2. Tourism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3. Human/animal healthy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4. Water quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Phosphorus eutrophication mitigation strategies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.1. Control of nutrient loads",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"6.1.1. Restructuring of industrial layout",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"Table 1.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"Table 3.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_13_4",title:"Table 4.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"6.1.3. Human intervention",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"6.1.3.1. Ferric dosing",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"6.1.3.2. Flushing and dredging of floor deposits",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17_4",title:"6.1.3.3. Biochar potential in phosphorus adsorption on farm",level:"4"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.2. Aquatic ecosystem restoration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"6.2.1. Phytoremediation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"6.2.3. Riparian area restoration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"6.2.4. River/lake maintenance and restoration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Xu H, Paerl HW, Qin B, Zhu G, Gao G. Nitrogen and phosphorus inputs control phytoplankton growth in eutrophic Lake Taihu, China. Limnology and Oceanography. 2010, 2010;55(1):420-432'},{id:"B2",body:'Nixon SW. Coastal marine eutrophication: A definition, social causes, and future concerns. Ophelia. 1995;41:199-219'},{id:"B3",body:'Paerl HW. 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College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
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1. Introduction
The European Commission [1] states that collectively our people, our planet and our prosperity are vulnerable to climate change, and points out the need to prevent the un-adaptable and to adapt to the un-preventable. The increase in the frequency and severity of climate and extreme weather conditions has created a surge in the number of, and damages from, environmental disasters in recent decades. The implementation of the European Union (EU) Strategy on the Adaptation to Climate Change intends to put its countries in a better position to face climate impacts by 2030. This would mean (1) adaptation awareness and changes to every single local authority, company and household; (2) adaptation implementation is to be well underway for those most affected; and (3) global leadership is to immediately commence in areas such as climate services, climate proofing, or nature-based solutions. As climate change becomes more intense, the urgency of adaptive measures increases. The Strategy outlines a long-term vision for the EU to become a climate-resilient society and aims to reinforce the adaptive capacity of its countries and the rest of the world—thus minimising our vulnerability to the impacts of climate change, such as droughts, extreme weather events and flooding [2]. In this Strategy, ecosystem-based approaches are presented as a cross cutting priority. They focus on ecosystem restoration and on the enhancement of ecosystem services, being recognised as multi-purpose solutions that are often more efficient than traditional technical measures.
Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction through the implementation of ecosystem-based approaches are widely applicable and hugely varied. They encompass several related concepts, such as Nature-based Solutions (NbS) and Green Infrastructure, that aim to enhance social and environmental resilience by restoring, maintaining, and improving ecosystems—thus enhancing their services to society, in areas such as water retention and prevention of soil erosion, floods and droughts. They answer to several environmental and sectoral policy objectives (e.g. regarding biodiversity, water quality or agricultural and forest management) and generate multiple socio-economic benefits that often go beyond technical solutions [2].
Nature-based Solutions are defined as solutions to societal challenges that are inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help to build resilience [3]. Such solutions bring nature and natural systems and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions. Despite the use of different terms referring to NbS used in international and European policies, the fundamental overarching idea is that nature can be used as a valuable tool to strengthen the resilience of ecosystems, protect biodiversity and reduce the risk of extreme weather and climate related disasters. Furthermore, NbS can help address broader societal challenges, including social and economic challenges within the paradigm of sustainable development.
For the effective design and successful implementation of NbS, it is critical to ensure that the measures are adequate for addressing the hazards while also delivering other societal benefits. If well designed, NbS can provide sustainable, cost-effective and multipurpose possibilities that can act as alternatives to or be applied to create synergy with established grey infrastructure [3]. Their benefits cover a large range of sectors, but specifically for water management and urban areas, the main ones are presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Multiple benefits of nature-based solutions for addressing climate hazards in urban areas (adapted from EEA report n°01/2021 [3]).
Nature-based solutions are essential for sustaining clean and healthy water resources. They help to address the risk of flooding and water scarcity (drought) by regulating water flows. Using NbS inland, including the restoration of the sponge-like function of soils, will boost the supply of clean and fresh water and furthermore reduce the risk of flooding. On the other hand, increasing green spaces can increase water infiltration into the soil, enhance evapotranspiration and provide storage areas for rainwater, which can alter the magnitude and timing of water runoff and flooding during heavy precipitation events, while contributing to maintaining water flow during drought periods. Moreover, creating new green space for stormwater management (e.g. constructed wetlands, bioswales) has been shown to enhance flood protection while providing additional benefits such as biodiversity protection, recreational green urban space and water purification.
The porosity and hydraulic conductivity of lightweight aggregates (LWA) materials fulfil the hydraulic performances required for their use within hydraulic urban infrastructures. The application of LWA in urban drainage systems may guarantee an infiltration rate adequate for reducing different forms of stormwater runoff (e.g. rain gardens, infiltration basins, infiltration trenches). In addition, the sorbent capacities demonstrated by LWA complement their features in promoting both the infiltration of urban runoff stormwater and the recharging of groundwater, meeting the established quality requirements [4]. LECA® is the brand name that manufactures the LWA product, which is, an heterogeneous group of low-density material used for various civil engineering and construction applications [5]. LECA® LWA has been increasingly applied in stormwater management schemes and urban green infrastructure including green roofs and walls, permeable pavements and thermal insulation concretes [6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
This chapter aims to explore the application of LECA® LWA in NbS and to demonstrate how its application increases performance in terms of water management within urban areas. As discussed, NbS such as green roofs and green walls, rain gardens, infiltration trenches and permeable pavements, are being implemented worldwide as a solution to improve the environmental performance of densely populated urban cities. This performance can be enhanced by incorporating LECA® LWA, due to its natural characteristics (e.g. lightweight, porosity and good drainage) as presented in the following sections.
2. Urban nature-based solutions
Cities worldwide are facing challenges of resilience, as climate risks interact with urbanisation, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, poverty, and rising socioeconomic inequality [11]. Extreme events, especially flooding, heat waves and droughts, are causing significant economic losses and affecting the wellbeing of citizens and the rise of urbanisation will only magnify these challenges. Furthermore, cities host more than half of the global population, and more than 70% are expected to do so by 2050 [11]. This will lead to rapidly urbanised areas, most of which with lower-quality—unplanned settlements, vulnerable to climate impacts and with poorly maintained infrastructure—vulnerable to the magnitude of natural hazards.
Through this basis, it is fundamental to build adaptable cities and to create new spaces with resilient characteristics that, in a situation of extreme precipitation, for example, create a robust regeneration ability. This can be achieved, as referred above, by complementing traditional grey infrastructure with NbS. The World Bank group [11] defines grey infrastructure as built structures and mechanical equipment, such as reservoirs, embankments, pipes, pumps, water treatment plants, and canals. They can be considered as the opposite of NbS (actions to protect, sustainably manage, and to restore natural or modified ecosystems that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits, as presented) but, in fact, they are almost in-dissociable and function in a complementary way. The following subchapters present different types of NbS that can be implemented in urban areas.
2.1 Neighbourhood/site scale NbS
Nature-based solutions promote resilience and adaptation while being integrated into a community’s-built environment or in its natural surrounding areas [12]. Nature-based stormwater systems, wetlands and green roofs, for example, can alleviate flooding from intense rainfall events, and also improve water and air quality, whilst reducing urban heat-island effects and creating ecological corridors for biodiversity. They are an effective means to restore vegetation in densely populated areas.
NbS can also be considered as environmentally-conscious approaches to stormwater management in urban areas, also known as Sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS), low impact development (LID) or best management practices (BMP’s) [12]. They help to control the stormwater runoff but also create a positive impact on its quality, minimising the effects of untreated stormwater, traditionally drained by grey infrastructure, on receiving water bodies. On the other hand, the implementation of NbS within urban areas, will promote the infiltration on stormwater, which will reduce the amount of water drained to Wastewater Treatment Plants (sewage networks, even when separative, have rainfall derived inflow and infiltrations that lead to the excessive entrance of rainwater into WWTP), resulting in important economic gains.
In conclusion, NbS can support surface water and groundwater water protection, and contribute to the qualitative and quantitative environmental and ecological status of water bodies. In a large scale, the extension of buffer zones and the establishment of water-sensitive forests and NbS for urban areas will reduce pollution and support habitat quality and biodiversity conservation, which can have positive effects for developing businesses and jobs, in particular those related to recreation and tourism. However, there are also some challenges related to the implementation of NbS, such as: (1) the associated construction/development works, which may negatively affect water quality and river ecosystems in the short-term; (2) enhanced green spaces connectivity triggers the dispersal of unwanted organisms (e.g. mosquitoes) with negative impacts on both local ecosystems and human health; (3) conflicts between different sectors, for example if agricultural areas are temporarily used as reservoirs for flood expansion; (4) in the case of heavily polluted surface waters, the reconnection of floodplains with rivers can contribute to the wide-scale diffusion of pollutants to soils, agricultural areas and groundwater [3]. Careful planning with a large-scale comprehensive analysis is thus essential when implementing a more natural and resilient configuration of cities. To initiate NbS, two main questions are fundamental: “What benefits can be obtained from the desired NbS?” and “Is it adequately suitable for the implementation onto site?”
According to FEMA [12], the implementation strategies for NbS are diverse, and a one size fits all strategy is not suitable. Choosing a solution depends on a several factors, including the level of natural hazard risk reduction, land use planning, economics and more [12]. This agency classifies NbS in three main categories, based on scale and location:
Watershed or landscape scale: interconnected systems of natural areas and open space (large-scale practices that require long-term planning and coordination);
Neighbourhood or site scale: distributed stormwater management practices that manage rainwater where it falls (they can often be built within a site, corridor, or neighbourhood without requiring additional space);
Coastal areas: NbS that stabilise the shoreline, reducing erosion and buffering the coast from storm impacts. While many watershed and neighbourhood-scale solutions work in coastal areas, these systems are designed to support coastal resilience.
Watershed-scale NbS include land conservation (preserving interconnected systems of open space that sustain healthy communities), greenways (corridors of protected open space managed for both conservation and recreation), wetland restoration and protection, stormwater parks (recreational spaces designed to flood during extreme events and to effectively manage stormwater), floodplain restoration (keeping waterways healthy by storing floodwaters, reducing erosion, filtering water pollution, and creating a natural habitat).
Coastal-areas NbS include coastal wetlands, oyster reefs, dunes, waterfront parks (intentionally designed to flood during extreme events, reducing flooding elsewhere), living shorelines (combination of living components, such as plants, with structural elements, such as rock or sand).
The neighbourhood or site specific NbS are mainly found within cities and urban spaces. The most common ones are presented in the following sections.
2.1.1 Green roofs
A Green Roof (GR—also known as living roof or vegetative roof) is a vegetated system installed on a constructed roof structure consisting of several materials settled in a multilayer composition which must provide a suitable breeding ground for vegetation, respecting and promoting the physical integrity of the built structure (Figure 2). The multilayer system consists of the following layers (from top to bottom): a growing substrate layer, a separation filter, a drainage layer, a protection and absorption filter and a root barrier.
Figure 2.
Example of Green roof [13].
An effective GR system can absorb stormwater and temporarily store it to be used by the vegetation in their biological processes, reducing the amount of water running off into the stormwater drainage system and furthermore improve its quality. A GR is a highly appreciated water management solution through its ability to decrease stress on the sewer systems at peak flow in urban areas. According to Augustenborg Botanical Roof Garden (Malmo, Sweden) research paper, a GR retains 50% of the rainwater on yearly basis, allowing only for the 50% of the rainwater to runoff into the drainage system. However, the retention capacity of a GR is highly dependent on the climate conditions, so a significant variability on the runoff retention capacity can be expected throughout a year in different locations.
2.1.2 Vegetated swales
Vegetated swales are an open channel system holding plants or mulch to treat and infiltrate stormwater (Figure 3). Grassed channels, dry and wet swales and biofilters are included in this type of NbS. Though there are differences in their design, they are all an upgraded form of a traditional drainage ditch. According to Jotte et al. [13], the swale technique cannot be applied to large drainage areas, but their small slope makes them a good choice for treating runoff from highway or residential areas.
Figure 3.
Example of vegetated swale [14].
Vegetated swales are designed to slow runoff, promote infiltration, and filter pollutants and sediments in the process of the transmission of water runoff, through the use of endemic vegetation species, capable of growing in water environments and with the capacity to remove pollutants [15]. Pollutants are removed by sedimentation and the filtering processes, both promoted by vegetation and by the different layers of the soil.
2.1.3 Soakaways
Soakaways are small infiltration devices built close to the receiving stormwater production areas. Their walls and bottom are permeable and allow water to flow into the surrounding soils (Figure 4), thus their main design considerations are the permeable area and the infiltration rate. The performance of these structures is highly dependent on the soil characteristics and high levels of groundwater can make this NbS inadequate.
Figure 4.
Example of a soakaway [15].
Usually, soakaways serve only one household and are constructed in the private grounds surrounding a property, allowing for rainwater management to be handled at the source. Their main benefits are related to runoff volume reduction, hydraulic control and groundwater recharge, but can furthermore through the possibility of complementing other NbS (rain barrels or other rainwater harvesting systems); they also have a very positive effect on stormwater quality, due to the removal of total suspended solids, heavy metals, phosphorous and nitrogen removal [13].
2.1.4 Filter/buffer strips
Unlike swales, buffer strips are set on flat areas with very low slopes. They may be located along streets and highways in order to receive the lateral runoff to block suspended solids and associated pollutants (Figure 5) [13].
Figure 5.
Example of a vegetated filter strip [15].
Grass or other dense vegetation are planted in buffer strips to treat the runoff through vegetative filtering, sedimentation, and to promote water retention and infiltration when possible. Local wild grass and flower species can also be introduced for visual interest and to provide a wildlife habitat [15]. This NbS can serve as a buffer between incompatible land uses and can provide locations for groundwater recharge in areas with pervious soils.
2.1.5 Infiltration trenches and basins
Infiltration trenches and infiltration basins (Figure 6) have the same operating principle. Similarly, to soakaways, they are designed to receive the surrounding stormwater and to infiltrate it to the surrounding soils through the walls and the base. However, they have an open configuration which leads to the necessity of designing and creating an effective pre-treatment unit to remove coarse solids and hydrocarbons.
Figure 6.
Examples of an infiltration trench (left) and an infiltration basin (right) [15, 16].
Groundwater contamination and soil saturation are concerns associated with these NbS, hose performance is dependent, amongst other factor, on the characteristics of the soil [13]. However, many benefits are linked to these NbS, especially related to the reduction of stormwater runoff, groundwater recharge and treatment capacity (filtration and bio filtration through the substrate in the trench and subsequently through soil).
2.1.6 Wetlands
Wetlands are artificial ponds, conceived with emerged, submerged and/or floating plants, that have a significant role in the removal of a significant part of the influent pollutants (Figure 7). They are made up with a substrate layer (except for floating vegetation) and water appropriate plants, being separate from the surrounding soil by an impermeable membrane. This configuration allows stormwater to be detained in the pond and benefits from the natural depuration processes. Part of the water is consumed by the plants and the remaining one leaves the wetland with its quality significantly improved.
Figure 7.
Example of an urban wetland [17].
Properly designed wetlands can remove significant amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus, suspended solids, and other pollutants from urban environments [13]. When properly designed, wetlands can also provide landscape enhancement and harvest the discharged water for non-potable purposes.
2.1.7 Raingardens
Raingardens (also known as bioretention, bioswales or biofilters) are shallow excavated surface depressions containing mulch and a prepared soil mix, planted with specially selected native vegetation that captures and treats runoff (Figure 8), through filtration, which then can either infiltrate to the natural soil or be collected into a sublayer returning to the stormwater sewer system. They remove pollutants from runoff through filtration in the soil and uptake by plant roots and can help to reduce runoff volume through evapotranspiration and full or partial infiltration [13].
Figure 8.
Example of a rain garden [15].
The main function of these gardens is to receive, treat and infiltrate low-intensity but frequent precipitation, so they can be complemented with other NbS or even with grey-infrastructure to manage excess flows. The use of native vegetation is essential to keep a well maintained and sustainable structure.
2.1.8 Permeable pavements
Pavements with high infiltration capacity are considered permeable. Nowadays, considering the significant area that streets and highways encompass in urban spaces, the transformation of such surfaces into permeable ones are fundamental to reduce the negative impacts of soil sealing. Infiltrating water can thus flow directly into the underlying layers (soils and aquifers) or be stored below ground and released at a controlled rate to surface water.
Examples of permeable pavements are permeable asphalt, permeable concrete, permeable interlocking concrete pavers, concrete grid pavers (Figure 9), and plastic grid pavers where opening are filled with pea gravel, sand or top soil and grass [13].
Figure 9.
Example of a permeable pavement [18].
2.2 Brief summary
Other NbS can also be classified (e.g. detention ponds or rainwater harvesting systems), but are considered beyond the scope of this chapter because their benefits cannot be improved by using LECA® LWA. The following table presents a comparative analysis of the urban NbS described previously. For each technique, a small description and some advantages and disadvantages are included (Table 1).
Urban NBS
Advantages
Disadvantages
Green Roofs
Stormwater runoff retention and large detention capacity. Aesthetically pleasing. Good insulation properties. Reduction in impervious area of the property. Suitable for high density developments.
Maintenance of roof vegetation. Expensive design and construction when compared to traditional tile roofs. Necessity of drainage systems and, in some cases, irrigation also. Limited plant species. Potential fire hazard.
Vegetated Swales
Less expensive than conventional conveyance practices. Enhances infiltration. Reduces runoff rates and volumes.
Water treatment is limited to a confined area. There are risks of blockage in connecting pipe networks.
Soakaways
Minimal area space is required. Easy construction and operation. Groundwater recharge.
Not suitable for poor drainage soils. Not suitable for polluted runoff. Performance is reduced during wet periods.
Infiltration trenches
Significant reduction of runoff rates and volumes. Effective reduction of many pollutants, including suspended solids, bacteria and trace metals.
High clogging potential without effective pre-treatment.
Infiltration basin
Reduction of peak flow rate, erosion and scouring. Effective pollutant removal and local flooding reduction. Groundwater recharge. Base flow of nearby streams is maintained. Simple and cost-effective solution.
High potential for failure rates. Potential for pollution if high TSS (solid materials, including organic and inorganic, that are suspended in the water) in the runoff. Not appropriate for large drainage areas (above 10 acres).
Wetlands
Effective pollutant removal. Enhance wildlife. Good aesthetic and high ecological potential. Positive community acceptance. May increase value of property.
Need to be lined and applied where there is a risk of groundwater contamination. Not appropriate for steep groundwork sites. Nutrients release. No significant runoff volume reduction Space restrictions. May require maintenance and approval from safety authorities. Risk of invasive species development.
Rain gardens
Aesthetic enhancement. Minimal land consumption. Runoff rates and volumes reduction.
Risk of clogging if there is a poor maintenance of the surrounding landscape. Requires proper plant selection and maintenance. Treats relatively small drainage areas.
Permeable pavements
Significant reduction of the runoff rates and volumes. Impervious surface area reduction. Provides pollutant filtering.
Not suitable for high sediment loads.
Table 1.
Advantages and disadvantages of source control systems (adapted from [13]).
3. Use of LECA® LWA IN nature-based solutions
3.1 General considerations
The main advantage of NbS in relation to urban stormwater management, is the reduction of the urban surface water runoff that goes into drainage networks (and sometimes to wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) through the sewer systems), and the delay of the peak flow, when compared to traditional systems without detention mechanisms, as seen in Figure 10.
Figure 10.
Typical curve of runoff from a drainage system, with and without a detention layer [19].
However, NbS efficiency can be enhanced through the application of LECA® lightweight aggregate (LWA) in its different layers, by itself or mixed with other components. LECA® LWA in a sublayer of a NbS, increases the temporary storage capacity for water, reducing the average runoff intensity and decreasing the peak flow intensity. As such, the use of LECA® LWA maximises the advantages and functions of a NbS, as well as the local water resilience.
LECA® LWA is a natural product made by heating natural clay and can be used as a construction material in local water management infrastructure, due to its high mechanical strength, robustness, easy installation and sustainable longevity. LECA® LWA competes with other materials on the market for water management such as plastic boxes, textile mats, pumice, foam-glass and crushed brick [20]. This aggregate has an inherent ability to retain, detain and drain water runoff due to its natural characteristics: lightweight highly porous grains, high specific surface area and large volume of voids between the grains. The geometry allows LECA® LWA to temporarily detain moderate amounts of flowing water and thereby reduce peak intensity runoff for small catchments.
Furthermore, due to its highly porous structure and large surface area of crushed grains, LECA® LWA is also suitable to improve rainwater runoff quality. Through physical, biological and chemical processes, LECA® LWA can act as a filter, removing dissolved and suspended particles, nutrients (e.g. phosphates) and heavy metals in its porous grains that would otherwise end up downstream within the water cycle. Its greater resistance to clogging enhances its use in stormwater treatment and is furthermore supported by its typically low operating costs and a long life-span [19].
The capacity of a NbS to manage stormwater, is determined through the runoff coefficient or coefficient of discharge (C), a dimensionless value which varies between 0 and 1 that indicates the surface runoff from a catchment. The runoff coefficient is expressed as the rational between the total amount of water running onto the surface and the amount of received precipitation during a rainfall. Figure 11 presents runoff coefficients for different surfaces with increasing precipitation.
Figure 11.
Examples of runoff coefficient (C) for different surfaces with increasing rain intensity [19].
The application of a subsurface layer of LECA® LWA into an already existing permeable surface (Figure 11) allows for lower runoff coefficients, achieved even at high rain intensities, when compared to other surfaces. Highly porous crushed LECA® LWA integration in a given water management solution, substantially decreases the runoff coefficient of the surface, through retention and detention of rainwater, thus improving the capacity to manage water runoff in extreme events, delaying water runoff and preventing floods. LECA® LWA will operate in synergy with the surface components, and the runoff reduction will increase with the thickness of LECA® LWA layer.
3.2 Hydrological performance of LECA® LWA with different granulometry
LECA® LWA can be presented with different granulometry: finely crushed (0–6 mm); coarsely crushed (4–10 mm) and uncrushed or round LECA® LWA (10–20 mm). In order to assess LECA® LWA hydrological characteristics, technical water retention tests simulating an intense rainfall, have been performed, in trial tests of 100 mm and 200 mm layer thickness, 2% slope and compared to a reference impermeable area without detention measures. The achieved results are shown in Figure 12 and the corresponding values presented in Table 2 [20].
Peak runoff intensity (%) and the total amount of water detained (%) for different LECA® LWA granulometry.
The results have shown that finely crushed LECA® LWA in both layer thickness tests, presented higher peak runoff intensity reduction and a higher amount of detained water, when compared to the coarsely and round LECA® LWA. This result solves the gap identified by Pradhan et al. [21] when studying the hydraulic performance of several plant growth media in a greywater treatment NbS, including one with LECA® LWA. The low performance of this aggregate when comparing to perlite, coco coir and sand, was due to the largest size particles and high porosity. On the other hand, the runoff reduction resulting from the finely and the coarsely crushed LECA® LWA, and showed in Table 2, is with accordance with the reduction expected from an intensive green roof, as the one reported by Lee et al. [22] with 200 mm substrate layer thickness and a runoff reduction between 42.8–68%.
Tests for runoff coefficient determination of the three LECA® LWA granulometry showed that finely crushed LECA® LWA presents the best runoff coefficients: values between 0.15–0.4 in a 200 mm thickness of LECA® LWA layer (with rain intensity varying from 200 to 400 L/(s.ha)) when compared to coarsely and round LECA® LWA with values between 0.2–0.5 and 0.3–0.7, respectively. The lower runoff coefficients achieved by finely crushed LECA® LWA are explained due to their higher surface area and porosity that can retain water [20].
Therefore, based on the technical tests performed and depending on the intended purpose when installing a LECA® LWA layer coupled with a NbS, it can be claimed that finely crushed LECA® LWA is optimal when maximum water detention is intended; coarsely crushed LECA® LWA when higher hydraulic permeability must be achieved; and round LECA® LWA when increased drainage and water storage are needed.
LECA® LWA can also act as a stormwater filter material—improving water runoff quality. By incorporating LECA® LWA into biofilters or as filter strips, a wide range of dissolved and suspended pollutants and heavy metals can be removed from water runoff. Holt et al. [23] reported removals of several pollutants using different granulometry of LECA® LWA as presented in the following Table 3, based on the results achieved on the VTT Stormfilter research program.
Pollutant removal (%) by filter material
Cu
Pb
P
Zn
LECA® round 2–4 mm
99
99
>90
98
LECA® crushed 0–3 mm
99
99
>90
98
LECA® crushed 3–8 mm
86
85
>90
80
Table 3.
Stormwater pollutant removal (%) in laboratory column tests (initial pollutants concentration: Cu = 10 mg/L; Pb = 20 mg/L; P = 10 mg/L; Zn = 40 mg/L).
3.3 Runoff coefficient for different layered detention-based roofs with LECA® LWA
The work developed by Schärer [24] to investigate runoff coefficients for different layered detention-based roofs, included a comparison of different roof configurations with commonly used layers of typical combinations of green or LECA® LWA—based roof solutions. Results confirm the beneficial effect of LECA® LWA on the performance of green roofs and permeable pavements.
From the five configurations studied for single layer roofs, the 10 cm LECA® medium layer presented the best performance with a lower and later peak flow. It had a considerably lower runoff coefficient than the other four individually tested layers (two with two types of felt mat and two with drainage mat with and without holes on the bottom).
Three green roofs were also tested: one with sedum and felt mat, another with sedum, felt mat over-the-drainage mat with extra drainage holes and the last one with sedum, felt mat, drainage board and LECA® medium (Figure 13). This last one resulted in the lowest runoff coefficient and also gave a substantially lower runoff coefficient than the 10 cm LECA® medium layer referred above.
Figure 13.
Green roofs configuration [24].
LECA® LWA also had a very significant effect in the performance of the studied non-vegetated roofs (Figure 14). The runoff coefficient of a LECA® LWA based roof system with permeable pavement (C = 0.33) was significantly lower than the test of the pavement alone (C = 0.89).
Figure 14.
Non-vegetated roofs configuration [24].
Of all the experimental measurements (ten roofs, plus one reference), the LECA® medium based systems gave the lowest runoff coefficients. Those were the most complex systems, with the main drainage in the LECA® LWA layer. The event-based detention hydraulic performance was found to be higher for vegetated roofs, instead of the non-vegetated ones. LECA® medium clearly made a significant difference on the results with lowest measured runoff coefficients on the corresponding roofs that achieved runoff coefficients of around 0.3 instead of around 0.8 in the corresponding roofs without it.
Koc et al. [25] reported the capacity of four different NbS for stormwater management presenting a runoff reduction of 41.67% for green roofs, 37.83% for bioretention cells, 27.99% for infiltration trench and 29.04% for permeable pavement. Another study reported by Harper et al. [26] presented ca. 60% runoff reduction of a vegetated substrate compared and only 40% runoff reduction when the same substrate was unplanted. Although this shows a good stormwater management performance, according to the findings of Schärer [24] here presented, these NbS could improve their runoff retention values by introducing LECA® LWA in their layers.
3.4 LECA® LWA field test at Høvringen in Trondheim and the Oslo project
For a long time, the traditional way of guiding rainwater off a roof has been with gutters and downspouts to the ground, which nowadays faces two major challenges: (1) more precipitation and more frequent short periods of torrential rain (resulting in large quantities of water overloading stormwater sewage networks); (2) densification of urban areas and fewer natural areas for absorbing and infiltrating water. As such, in 2016 under the project Klima 2050 (developed at Høvringen in Trondheim, Norway), researchers started focusing on new solutions for delaying water runoff when it rains while at the same time converting the sewage treatment plant roof into an attractive terrace. As such, a field test for detention and retention based roofs was installed and instrumented at Høvringen RA in Trondheim, Norway (Figure 15) [13].
Figure 15.
KLIMA 2050 project field test at Høvringen using LECA® LWA in Trondheim, Norway (field 1—LECA® LWA below permeable paving blocks; field 2—Black empty reference roof; field 3—LECA® LWA under a traditional sedum green roof) (Photo: Tore Kvande, NTNU—Norwegian University of Science and Technology).
The detaining and retaining runoff properties of the pilot GR system have shown that both mean and peak intensity (5 min) of runoff may be reduced. The LECA® LWA based configuration provided a detention performance for a peak runoff reduction of 95% (median) and for a peak delay of 1 h 15 min (median). The peak detention and peak reduction from reference vs. blue grey roof achieved 1 h 47 min and 75%, respectively. The high permeability characteristic of LECA® LWA contributed to a steady, but restricted flow of water through the medium. Therefore, it could be concluded that LECA® LWA can be used as an alternative to natural detention and infiltration of rainwater, to reduce local runoff coefficients, by simulating the same mechanisms found in natural environments [13, 27].
Blue-grey and green roofs were also installed at Oslo with the suggested LECA® LWA build-up, based on recommendations from Andenæs et al. and Thodesen et al. [28, 29] that addresses the performance of blue-grey and green roofs in cold climates.
Oslo municipality has developed a 3-step-strategy against all rainwater (not only the extreme events), to maintain a healthy water cycle and increase water resilience of the city (Figure 16). The advantage of using LECA® LWA was due to their potential benefits in all steps of this water management strategy (catchment, infiltration, delay, detention, drainage and protection).
Figure 16.
Oslo 3-step strategy city planning and urban water management.
3.5 Reference projects for LECA® LWA applications
Stormwater management strategies in a specific location contribute to runoff decrease and lessen water accumulation preventing drainage sewer systems overflow. As such, several other water management reference projects have been constructed taking advantage of LECA® LWA properties and their water management capacity. Table 4 presents a few examples of such projects.
Table 4.
LECA® LWA water management reference projects.
4. Conclusion
Rainwater management in urban areas is a major concern in the present climate change scenario, with more frequent and intense precipitation events and the consequent urban floods and water resources degradation. NbS have been increasingly implemented within cities, due to their operational benefits in minimising stormwater management problems by catching, retaining, detaining and infiltrating the excess water when intense precipitation events occur. However, NbS performance can be enhanced by adding a natural material—LECA® LWA, as a layer. This lightweight material is applicable to all traditional NbS solutions, and increases the simulation of nature’s own water infiltration mechanisms due to its high water retention capacity—thus being ideal for local water management in all types of infrastructures. Experimental studies show that by using LECA® LWA in a green roof sublayer, a reduction on the runoff volume of about 95% has been achieved and a delay in the peak flow at around 1 h 15 min. Permeable pavements with LECA® LWA can also significantly increase their runoff coefficient from 33–89% when compared to the pavement alone. On the other hand, the LECA® LWA granulometry has a significant influence on the NbS. Finely crushed LECA® LWA presents the lower runoff coefficient values then coarsely or round LECA® LWA (0.2–0.5 and 0.3–0.7, respectively), revealing a better retention performance.
Several reference projects have been implemented in Europe specifying LECA® LWA in their sublayers to increase the performance of those structures. Laboratory and field tests have shown that by using a layer of LECA® LWA, a peak runoff intensity reduction has been achieved as well as a peak delay, and also higher amounts of detained water when compared to systems without LECA® LWA layer. However, the water retention capacity of LECA® LWA is limited and when it reaches saturation level, stormwater retention capacity of the system incorporating LWA ceases and the runoff starts flowing to drainage systems. Further investigations are thus necessary to continue scientific research and development of NbS with higher hydraulic efficiency using LECA® LWA with different granulometry in their composition, considering their inherent operating differences and their distinct interaction with the surrounding environment. Additionally, NbS combination with other LID or BMP’s solutions must be considered, since it can enhance its stormwater retention capacity and water quality improvement to a level where it can become an alternative water source to urban consumption.
Furthermore, the good planning and development of such NbS as the one implemented in Oslo, can combine recreational areas and stormwater water management measures, thus improving the standard of living in densely populated urban cities, creating at the same time, more pleasant and accessible places. The development of such blue-grey/green solutions are imperative, and will challenge the construction industry norms when planning local water management measures, contributing at the same time to urban areas resilience and climate change mitigation.
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments: Cristina M. Monteiro and Cristina Santos would like to thank LECA® Portugal the financial support for the publication of the present chapter. Cristina M. Monteiro would also like to thank Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) under the FCT project UIDB/50016/2020.
Conflict of interest
No conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"nature-based solutions, urban green infrastructures, urban stormwater management, urban sustainability, lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA®), climate resilience",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80966.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80966.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80966",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80966",totalDownloads:47,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 31st 2022",dateReviewed:"February 2nd 2022",datePrePublished:"March 25th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 25th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In recent decades, the increase of building systems and the consequent impermeabilization of the inner-city environment, poses several negative environmental risks, especially those regarding global warming and water management. Urban green infrastructure (GI) provides benefits to urban inhabitants, but their potential depends on their suitable implementation, under the responsibility of different stakeholders. Nature-based solutions (NbS) are an effective means to restore vegetation urban areas contributing to its sustainability and resilience. The use of NbS infrastructure helps to reduce flood incidences, furthermore contributing to the mitigation of the urban heat island effect and air pollution reduction. Several NbS such as green roofs and green walls, rain gardens, infiltration trenches and permeable pavements, are being implemented worldwide as an effective strategy to improve the environmental performance of densely populated urban cities. Lightweight Expanded Clay Aggregate (LECA®) has been widely incorporated in several innovative urban GI solutions due to their key characteristics (e.g. lightweight, porosity and good drainage), developing a crucial role in stormwater management and water runoff quality. This chapter aims to report the potential influence that several NbS have on urban stormwater management, considering several case studies using Leca® LWA—demonstrating their engineering benefits and innovative properties.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80966",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80966",signatures:"Cristina M. Monteiro, Cristina Santos, Jaran R. Wood and Kim Rosenbom",book:{id:"11135",type:"book",title:"Urban Green Spaces",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Urban Green Spaces",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rui Alexandre Castanho and Prof. José Cabezas Fernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11135.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-157-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-156-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-158-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Urban nature-based solutions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Neighbourhood/site scale NbS",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Green roofs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Vegetated swales",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Soakaways",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4 Filter/buffer strips",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.5 Infiltration trenches and basins",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.6 Wetlands",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.1.7 Raingardens",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.1.8 Permeable pavements",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.2 Brief summary",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Use of LECA® LWA IN nature-based solutions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.1 General considerations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2 Hydrological performance of LECA® LWA with different granulometry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.3 Runoff coefficient for different layered detention-based roofs with LECA® LWA",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.4 LECA® LWA field test at Høvringen in Trondheim and the Oslo project",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.5 Reference projects for LECA® LWA applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Communication from the commission to the European parliament, the council, the European economic and social committee and the committee of the regions—Forging a climate-resilient Europe—The new EU strategy on adaptation to climate change—European Commission, Brussels 24.2.2021; COM (2021)82 final'},{id:"B2",body:'Ecosystem-Based Approaches (GI). Available from: https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/eu-adaptation-policy/sector-policies/ecosystem'},{id:"B3",body:'EEA. Nature-based solutions in Europe: Policy, knowledge and practice for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction—EEA report n° 01/2021. EEA, Copenhagen K, Denmark. DOI: 10.2800/919315'},{id:"B4",body:'Pla C, Benavente D, Valdes-Abellan J, Kovacova Z. Effectiveness of two lightweight aggregates for the removal of heavy metals from contaminated urban stormwater. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology. 2021;239:103778. DOI: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2021.103778'},{id:"B5",body:'Mlih R, Bydalek F, Klumpp E, Yaghi N, Bol R, Wenk J. Light-expanded clay aggregate (LECA) as a substrate in constructed wetlands—A review. Ecological Engineering. 2020;148:105783. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.105783'},{id:"B6",body:'Karami H, Teymouri E, Mousavi S-F, Farzin S. Experimental investigation of the effect of adding LECA and pumice on some physical properties of porous concrete. Engineering Journal. 2018;22:205-213. DOI: 10.4186/ej.2018.22.1.205'},{id:"B7",body:'Molineux CJ, Newport DJ, Ayati B, Wang C, Connop SP, Green JE. Bauxite residue (red mud) as a pulverised fuel ash substitute in the manufacture of lightweight aggregate. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2016;112:401-408. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.024'},{id:"B8",body:'Pradhan S, Al-Ghamdi SG, Mackey HR. Greywater recycling in buildings using living walls and green roofs: A review of the applicability and challenges. Science of the Total Environment. 2019;652:330-344. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.226'},{id:"B9",body:'Sailor DJ, Hagos M. An updated and expanded set of thermal property data for green roof growing media. Energy Buildings. 2011;43:2298-2303. DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.05.014'},{id:"B10",body:'Sengul O, Azizi S, Karaosmanoglu F, Tasdemir MA. Effect of expanded perlite on the mechanical properties and thermal conductivity of lightweight concrete. Energy Buildings. 2011;43:671-676. DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.11.008'},{id:"B11",body:'World Bank 2021. A Catalogue-of-Nature-based-Solutions-for-Urban-Resilience. Washington, DC: The World Bank Group; 2021'},{id:"B12",body:'FEMA. Building community resilience with nature-based solutions—A guide for local communities. 2021.'},{id:"B13",body:'Jotte L, Raspati G, Azrague K. Review of stormwater management practices. KLIMA 2050, report 7; Publisher: SINTEF Building and Infrastructure, Høgskoleringen 7 b, POBox 4760 Sluppen, N-7465 Trondheim'},{id:"B14",body:'How to Manage Stormwater | City of Oberlin. Available from: https://www.cityofoberlin.com/city-government/departments/public-works/stormwater-management/how-to-manage-stormwater/'},{id:"B15",body:'Natural Water Retention Measures (nwrm.eu). Available from: http://nwrm.eu/measure'},{id:"B16",body:'Facilities—Infiltration basin|Stormwater Partners. Available from: https://www.stormwaterpartners.com/facilities-infiltration-basin'},{id:"B17",body:'Usaquén Urban Wetland by Obraestudio|Inhabitat—Green Design, Innovation, Architecture, Green Building. Available from: https://inhabitat.com/an-urban-wetland-springs-to-life-among-bogotas-high-rises/usaquen-urban-wetland-by-obraestudio-3/'},{id:"B18",body:'The Permeable Paving Guide—Part 1: Introduction to Permeable Pavements|Brickworks. Available from: https://www.brickworks.com.au/articles/permeable-paving-guide-part-1-introduction-permeable-pavements/'},{id:"B19",body:'LECA® Stormwater Management Technical Guide. How to detain and drain water and rain. Available from: https://www.leca.no/sites/leca.no/files/pdf/Storm%20water%20technical%20guidelines%20brosjyre.pdf'},{id:"B20",body:'Wood J. Stormwater detention factors for a blue-green roof based on lightweight expanded clay aggregate in Norway. In: Extended Abstract Conference Paper; Nordic Geotechnical Meeting 2020 (NGM 2020). Available from: https://ngm2020.exordo.com/ [Accessed: 26 January 2022]'},{id:"B21",body:'Pradhan S, Helal MI, Al-Ghamdi SG, Mackey HR. Performance evaluation of various individual and mixed media for greywater treatment in vertical nature-based systems. Chemosphere. 2020;245:125564. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125564'},{id:"B22",body:'Lee J, Lee M, Han M. A pilot study to evaluate runoff quantity from green roofs. Journal of Environmental Management. 2015;152:171-176'},{id:"B23",body:'Holt E, Koivusalo H, Korkealaakso J, Sillanpää N, Wendling L. Filtration Systems for Stormwater Quantity and Quality Management: Guideline for Finnish Implementation. VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland. 2018. VTT Technology No. 338'},{id:"B24",body:'Schärer LA. Comparing experimentally measured runoff coefficients with field observations for detention-based roofs [thesis]. NTNU (Norwegian University of Science and Technology—Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering); 2018'},{id:"B25",body:'Koc K, Ekmekcioğlu Ö, Özger M. An integrated framework for the comprehensive evaluation of low impact development strategies. Journal of Environmental Management. 2021;294:113023. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113023'},{id:"B26",body:'Harper G, Limmer M, Showalter E, Burken J. Nine-month evaluation of runoff quality and quantity from an experiential green roof in Missouri, USA. Ecological Engineering. 2015;78:127-133. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.06.004'},{id:"B27",body:'Hamouz V, Lohne J, Wood JR, Muthanna TM. Hydrological performance of LECA-based roofs in cold climates. Water. 2018;10:263-278. DOI: 10.3390/w10030263'},{id:"B28",body:'Andenæs E, Kvande T, Muthanna TM, Lohne J. Performance of blue-green roofs in cold climates: A scoping review. Buildings. 2018;8:55-78. DOI: 10.3390/buildings8040055'},{id:"B29",body:'Thodesen B, Kvande T, Tajet HT, Time B, Lohne J. Adpating green-blue roofs to Nordic climate. Nordic Journal of Architectural Research. 2018;2:99-126'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Cristina M. Monteiro",address:"cmonteiro@ucp.pt",affiliation:'
Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF—Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina—Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Portugal
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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Flawed sample preparations can undermine the quality of results and lead to false conclusions. Thus, the aim of this chapter is to equip researchers, post graduate students and technicians with essential knowledge required to prepare samples for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) investigations in the life sciences.",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mogana Das Murtey and Patchamuthu Ramasamy",authors:[{id:"176330",title:"Dr.",name:"Mogana",middleName:"Das",surname:"Murtey",slug:"mogana-murtey",fullName:"Mogana Murtey"},{id:"181159",title:"Mr.",name:"Patchamuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Ramasamy",slug:"patchamuthu-ramasamy",fullName:"Patchamuthu Ramasamy"}]},{id:"30963",doi:"10.5772/34176",title:"Microstructural and Mineralogical Characterization of Clay Stabilized Using Calcium-Based Stabilizers",slug:"microstructural-and-mineralogical-characterization-of-clay-stabilized-using-calcium-based-stabilizer",totalDownloads:6789,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:null,book:{id:"1505",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy",fullTitle:"Scanning Electron Microscopy"},signatures:"Pranshoo Solanki and Musharraf Zaman",authors:[{id:"20942",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranshoo",middleName:null,surname:"Solanki",slug:"pranshoo-solanki",fullName:"Pranshoo Solanki"},{id:"20945",title:"Prof.",name:"Musharraf",middleName:null,surname:"Zaman",slug:"musharraf-zaman",fullName:"Musharraf Zaman"}]},{id:"26791",doi:"10.5772/28067",title:"Optical Vortices in a Fiber: Mode Division Multiplexing and Multimode Self-Imaging",slug:"optical-vortices-in-a-fiber-mode-division-multiplexing-and-multimode-self-reproducing",totalDownloads:4530,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:null,book:{id:"2018",slug:"recent-progress-in-optical-fiber-research",title:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research",fullTitle:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research"},signatures:"S.N. 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As a main drawback, however, their energy costs are high up to now, preventing their implementation on large scale. For the specific case of water treatment by means of electrical discharge, further optimization is a complex task due to the wide variety in reactor design and materials, discharge types, and operational parameters. In this chapter, an extended overview is given on plasma reactor types, based on their design and materials. Influence of design and materials on energy efficiency is investigated, as well as the influence of operational parameters. The collected data can be used for the optimization of existing reactor types and for development of novel reactors.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Patrick Vanraes, Anton Y. 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The possible interferences of atomic or molecular species are used to specify organic, inorganic or biological materials which allows critical applications in defense (landmines, explosive, forensic (trace of explosive or organic materials), public health (toxic substances pharmaceutical products), or environment (organic wastes). Laser induced plasma for organic material potentially provide fast sensor systems for explosive trace and pathogen biological agent detection and analysis. The laser ablation process starts with electronic energy absorption (~fs) and ends at particle recondensation (~ms). Then, the ablation process can be governed by thermal, non-thermal processes or a combination of both. There are several types of models, i.e., thermal, mechanical, photophysical, photochemical and defect models, which describe the ablation process by one dominant mechanism only. Plasma ignition process includes bond breaking and plasma shielding during the laser pulse. Bond breaking mechanisms influence the quantity and form of energy (kinetic, ionization and excitation) that atoms and ions can acquire. Plasma expansion depends on the initial mass and energy in the plume. The process is governed by initial plasma properties (electron density, temperature, velocity) after the laser pulse and the expansion medium. During first microsecond after the laser pulse, plume expansion is adiabatic afterwards line radiation becomes the dominant mechanism of energy loss.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi and Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"},{id:"176867",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Zuhaib",middleName:null,surname:"Haider Rizivi",slug:"syed-zuhaib-haider-rizivi",fullName:"Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizivi"},{id:"176868",title:"Prof.",name:"Jalil",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"jalil-ali",fullName:"Jalil Ali"}]},{id:"52164",title:"An Overview on Quantum Cascade Lasers: Origins and Development",slug:"an-overview-on-quantum-cascade-lasers-origins-and-development",totalDownloads:3232,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"This chapter presents an introductory review on quantum cascade lasers (QCLs). An overview is prefaced, including a brief description of their beginnings and operating basics. Materials used, as well as growth methods, are also described. The possibility of developing GaN-based QCLs is also shown. Summarizing, the applications of these structures cover a broad range, including spectroscopy, free-space communication, as well as applications to near-space radar and chemical/biological detection. Furthermore, a number of state-of-the-art applications are described in different fields, and finally a brief assessment of the possibilities of volume production and the overall state of the art in QCLs research are elaborated.",book:{id:"5389",slug:"quantum-cascade-lasers",title:"Quantum Cascade Lasers",fullTitle:"Quantum Cascade Lasers"},signatures:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego",authors:[{id:"188866",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Pecharromán-Gallego",slug:"raul-pecharroman-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego"}]},{id:"49526",title:"Focused Ion Beams (FIB) — Novel Methodologies and Recent Applications for Multidisciplinary Sciences",slug:"focused-ion-beams-fib-novel-methodologies-and-recent-applications-for-multidisciplinary-sciences",totalDownloads:4299,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Considered as the newest field of electron microscopy, focused ion beam (FIB) technologies are used in many fields of science for site-specific analysis, imaging, milling, deposition, micromachining, and manipulation. Dual-beam platforms, combining a high-resolution scanning electron microscope (HR-SEM) and an FIB column, additionally equipped with precursor-based gas injection systems (GIS), micromanipulators, and chemical analysis tools (such as energy-dispersive spectra (EDS) or wavelength-dispersive spectra (WDS)), serve as multifunctional tools for direct lithography in terms of nano-machining and nano-prototyping, while advanced specimen preparation for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can practically be carried out with ultrahigh precision. Especially, when hard materials and material systems with hard substrates are concerned, FIB is the only technique for site-specific micro- and nanostructuring. Moreover, FIB sectioning and sampling techniques are frequently used for revealing the structural and morphological distribution of material systems with three-dimensional (3D) network at micro-/nanoscale.This book chapter includes many examples on conventional and novel processes of FIB technologies, ranging from analysis of semiconductors to electron tomography-based imaging of hard materials such as nanoporous ceramics and composites. In addition, recent studies concerning the active use of dual-beam platforms are mentioned",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Meltem Sezen",authors:[{id:"176338",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meltem",middleName:null,surname:"Sezen",slug:"meltem-sezen",fullName:"Meltem Sezen"}]},{id:"50866",title:"Effects of Different Laser Pulse Regimes (Nanosecond, Picosecond and Femtosecond) on the Ablation of Materials for Production of Nanoparticles in Liquid Solution",slug:"effects-of-different-laser-pulse-regimes-nanosecond-picosecond-and-femtosecond-on-the-ablation-of-ma",totalDownloads:6073,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Ultra-short laser pulse interaction with materials has received much attention from researchers in micro- and nanomachining, especially for the generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments, because of the straightforward method and direct application for organic solvents. In addition, the colloidal nanoparticles produced by laser ablation have very high purity—they are free from surfactants and reaction products or by-products. In this chapter, nanosecond, picosecond and femtosecond laser pulse durations are compared in laser material processing. Due to the unique properties of the short and ultra-short laser pulse durations in material processing, they are more apparent in the production of precision material processing and generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments.",book:{id:"5236",slug:"high-energy-and-short-pulse-lasers",title:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers",fullTitle:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers"},signatures:"Abubaker Hassan Hamad",authors:[{id:"183494",title:"Dr.",name:"Abubaker",middleName:"Hassan",surname:"Hamad",slug:"abubaker-hamad",fullName:"Abubaker Hamad"}]},{id:"49537",title:"Electron Diffraction",slug:"electron-diffraction",totalDownloads:10111,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"Electron microscopes are usually supplied with equipment for obtaining diffraction patterns and micrographs from the same area of a specimen and the best results are attained if the complete use is to be made of these combined facilities. Electron diffraction patterns are used to obtain quantitative data including phase identification, orientation relationship and crystal defects in materials, etc. At first, a general introduction including a geometrical and quantitative approach to electron diffraction from a crystalline specimen, the reciprocal lattice and electron diffraction in the electron microscope are presented. The scattering process by an individual atom as well as a crystal, the Bragg law, Laue conditions and structure factor are also discussed. Types of diffraction patterns such as ring pattern, spot pattern and Kikuchi pattern, and general and unique indexing diffraction patterns are explained. The procedure for indexing simple, complicated and imperfect patterns as well as Kikuchi lines and a combination of Kikuchi lines and spots is outlined. The known and unknown materials are identified by indexing patterns. Practical comparisons between various methods of analysing diffraction patterns are also described. The basic diffraction patterns and the fine structure in the patterns including specimen tilting experiments, orientation relationship determination, phase identification, twinning, second phases, crystallographic information, dislocation, preferred orientation and texture, extra spots and streaks are described in detail. Finally, electron diffraction patterns of new materials are investigated.",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad and Mohammad Jafari Eskandari",authors:[{id:"176352",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Asadi Asadabad",slug:"mohsen-asadi-asadabad",fullName:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad"},{id:"177600",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Jafari Eskandari",slug:"mohammad-jafari-eskandari",fullName:"Mohammad Jafari Eskandari"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"20",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82123",title:"Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis Process: From a Laboratory Scale to an Industrial Plant",slug:"microwave-assisted-pyrolysis-process-from-a-laboratory-scale-to-an-industrial-plant",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104925",abstract:"One of the great challenges for the European Union (EU) is the “Circular Economy Package,” and to achieve this goal, materials at the end of their life cycle must be recycled using a sustainable process. In this way, as a thermochemical treatment, pyrolysis represents a significant opportunity so long it leads to the recovery of both energy and chemical content of mixed, contaminated, or deteriorated plastics. An excellent history of an academic-industrial adventure started in 2008 at the Department of Chemistry of the University of Florence demonstrates the possibility of employing microwaves to recycle plastics to preserve their energy and chemical content. After that, Techwave started industrialization of the process in 2019, realizing a small-scale prototype followed by a full-scale pilot plant using different plastic materials (e.g., polystyrene, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), and polypropylene). Nowadays, the plant may process 90 kg/h of plastics with a low formation of char and gas and an interesting amount of liquid useful as a source of chemicals or fuel because it has an LHV of 35–43 kJ/kg. The Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis (MAP) is an industrial novelty in plastic recycling, and it looks very promising for a much more modern and innovative plastic waste recovery system.",book:{id:"11145",title:"Recent Microwave Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11145.jpg"},signatures:"Marco Frediani, Piero Frediani, Gianni Innocenti, Irene Mellone, Roberto Simoni and Gianpaolo Oteri"},{id:"82420",title:"Applications of Microwaves in Medicine and Biology",slug:"applications-of-microwaves-in-medicine-and-biology",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105492",abstract:"This chapter deals with the description of recent research activities oriented on the perspective of microwave technologies in medicine and biology. It brings new ideas about the possibilities of using microwaves in thermotherapy—above all toward hyperthermia in cancer treatment. Development of new types of hyperthermia applicators (based, e.g., on technologies such as metamaterials, evanescent modes in waveguides, and other types of transmission structures) will be discussed here. Furthermore, we would like to underline in this chapter perspectives of microwaves in medical diagnostics. It is possible to expect that, e.g., microwave differential tomography, UWB radar, and microwave radiometers (all three can be used both for medical diagnostic and for noninvasive temperature measurement) will soon play an important role in it. Finally, experimental equipment necessary for research on the biological effects of EM fields is presented.",book:{id:"11145",title:"Recent Microwave Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11145.jpg"},signatures:"David Vrba, Jan Vrba, Ondrej Fiser, Jesus Cumana, Milan Babak and Jan Vrba Senior"},{id:"82228",title:"Nonlinear Intelligent Predictive Control for the Yaw System of Large-Scale Wind Turbines",slug:"nonlinear-intelligent-predictive-control-for-the-yaw-system-of-large-scale-wind-turbines",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105484",abstract:"This chapter presents a nonlinear intelligent predictive control using multi-step prediction model for the electrical motor-based yaw system of an industrial wind turbine. The proposed method introduces a finite control set under constraints for the demanded yaw rate, predicts the multi-step yaw error using the control set element and the prediction wind directions, and employs an exhaustive search method to search the control output candidate giving the minimal value of the objective function. As the objective function is designed for a joint power and actuator usage optimization, the weighting factor in the objective function is optimally determined by the fuzzy regulator that is optimized by an intelligent algorithm. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 27th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},subseries:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",keywords:"Demographic shifts, Innovation, Technology, Next-gen leaders, Worldwide environmental issues and clean technology, Uncertainty and political risks, Radical adjacency, Emergence of new business ecosystem type, Emergence of different leader and leader values types, Universal connector, Elastic enterprise, Business platform, Supply chain complexity",scope:"
\r\n\tThe Business and Management series topic focuses on the most pressing issues confronting organizations today and in the future. Businesses are trying to figure out how to lead in a time of global uncertainty. In emerging markets, issues such as ill-defined or unstable policies, as well as corrupt practices, can be hugely problematic. Changes in governments can result in new policy, regulations, and interest rates, all of which can be detrimental to foreign businesses and investments. A growing trend towards economic nationalism also makes the current global political landscape potentially hostile towards international businesses.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe demographic shifts are creating interesting challenges. People are living longer, resulting to an aging demographic. We have a large population of older workers and retirees who are living longer lives, combined with a declining birthrate in most parts of the world. Businesses of all types are looking at how technology is affecting their operations. Several questions arise, such as: How is technology changing what we do? How is it transforming us internally, how is it influencing our clients and our business strategy? It is about leveraging technology to improve efficiency, connect with customers more effectively, and drive innovation. The majority of innovative companies are technology-driven businesses. Realizing digital transformation is today’s top issue and will remain so for the next five years. Improving organizational agility, expanding portfolios of products and services, creating, and maintaining a culture of innovation, and developing next -generation leaders were also identified as top challenges in terms of both current and future issues.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe most sustained profitable growth occurs when a company expands its core business into an adjacent space. This has significant implications for management because innovation in business ecosystems differs from traditional, vertically integrated firms. Every organization in the ecosystem must be aware of the bigger picture. Innovation in ecosystems necessitates collaborative action to invent and appraise, efficient, cross-organizational knowledge flows, modular architectures, and good stewardship of legacy systems. It is built on multiple, interconnected platforms. Environmental factors have already had a significant impact in the West and will continue to have an impact globally. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their daily operations. The advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy. Another significant challenge is preparing the next generation of leaders to elevate this to the number one priority within the next five years. There can be no culture of innovation unless there is diverse leadership or development of the next generation of leaders; and these diverse, next-generation leaders are the ones who will truly understand the digital strategies that will drive digital transformation.
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\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
",annualVolume:11971,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"104262",title:"Dr.",name:"Chee-Heong",middleName:null,surname:"Quah",fullName:"Chee-Heong Quah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/104262/images/system/104262.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"236659",title:"Prof.",name:"Monica Violeta",middleName:null,surname:"Achim",fullName:"Monica Violeta Achim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/236659/images/system/236659.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Babeș-Bolyai University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"202039",title:"Dr.",name:"Nahanga",middleName:null,surname:"Verter",fullName:"Nahanga Verter",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCwtQAG/Profile_Picture_1643101901237",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Mendel University Brno",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}},{id:"107745",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Panagiotis E.",middleName:null,surname:"Petrakis",fullName:"Panagiotis E. Petrakis",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRzzaQAC/Profile_Picture_1644221136992",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"196259",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryan Merlin",middleName:null,surname:"Yonk",fullName:"Ryan Merlin Yonk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196259/images/system/196259.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Institute for Economic Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"88",title:"Marketing",keywords:"Consumer trends, Consumer needs, Media, Pricing, Distribution, Branding, Innovation, Neuromarketing",scope:"
\r\n\tMarketing is an important aspect in the functioning of all types of organizations. The external environment is characterized by constant and dynamic changes, that pose risks to the company. It is associated with changes in macroeconomic, political, legal, and demographic, as well as new consumer trends. It is necessary to carefully plan marketing activities in order to provide the market with products that satisfy consumers' needs and desires, provide them with value, and bring satisfaction and contentment. Therefore, in this topic, we focus on overall marketing efforts, including marketing communications through traditional and social media, pricing strategies, distribution strategies, branding, innovation, and new product launches, as well as researching the current market and consumer trends. We also analyze the latest trends and tendencies in marketing, such as product placement and neuromarketing.
",annualVolume:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/88.jpg",editor:{id:"203609",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hanna",middleName:null,surname:"Gorska-Warsewicz",fullName:"Hanna Gorska-Warsewicz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSD9pQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-14T11:58:32.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Warsaw University of Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"202495",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Martinelli",fullName:"Elisa Martinelli",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSD14QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:34:15.JPG",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Modena and Reggio Emilia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"304707",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"František",middleName:null,surname:"Pollák",fullName:"František Pollák",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304707/images/system/304707.jpg",institutionString:"University of Economics in Bratislava",institution:{name:"University of Economics in Bratislava",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}},{id:"179600",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Popoli",fullName:"Paolo Popoli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179600/images/6377_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:null}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/158560",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"158560"},fullPath:"/profiles/158560",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()