Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\n
This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\n
We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\n
Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5508",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Carbohydrate",title:"Carbohydrate",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Carbohydrates are the most abound macromolecules on earth, and they serve different functions within the cell. The purpose of the book is to provide a glimpse into various aspects of carbohydrates by presenting the research of some of the scientists who are engaged in the development of new tools and ideas used to reveal carbohydrate metabolism in health and diseases and as material to mimic the carbohydrate surfaces that take part in molecular recognition, often from very different perspectives. This book covers broad topics in carbohydrate including quality carbohydrates on the prevention and therapy of noncommunicable diseases, lactate, and glycolysis, as biomass in biofuel production, targets for cancer treatment and as biomaterial.",isbn:"978-953-51-3070-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3069-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4871-5",doi:"10.5772/63183",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"carbohydrate",numberOfPages:166,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e594b777fe1d4981c5b1adbe5a40f19c",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan, I. Halil Kavakli and Gul Cevahir Oz",publishedDate:"April 12th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5508.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15487,numberOfWosCitations:33,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:76,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 5th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 30th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 28th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 25th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51528/images/system/51528.png",biography:"Mahmut Çalışkan is a Professor of Genetics and Molecular Biology in the Department of Biology, Biotechnology Division, Istanbul University, Turkey. He obtained a BSc from Middle East Technical University, Ankara, and a Ph.D. from the University of Leeds, England. His main research areas include the role of germin gene products during early plant development, analysis of genetic variation, polymorphisms, and the characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaea.",institutionString:"Istanbul University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"186695",title:"Dr.",name:"İbrahim Halil",middleName:null,surname:"Kavaklı",slug:"ibrahim-halil-kavakli",fullName:"İbrahim Halil Kavaklı",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186695/images/5401_n.png",biography:"İ. Halil Kavaklı is a professor of molecular biochemistry in the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering at Koç University in Turkey. He obtained his BSc degree from Middle East Technical University, Ankara, in the Department of Biology and attended Washington State University, Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, USA, for his PhD degree. He worked as a postdoctoral fellow at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in the Department of the Biochemistry and Biophysics. His main research interests are the carbohydrate metabolism and circadian clock.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Koç University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"186696",title:"Dr.",name:"Gül Cevahir",middleName:"Cevahir",surname:"Öz",slug:"gul-cevahir-oz",fullName:"Gül Cevahir Öz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186696/images/system/186696.jpeg",biography:"Gül Cevahir Öz is a professor in the Department of Biology at İstanbul University. She received her PhD degree in plant physiology from İstanbul University, İstanbul, in 1997. Her present interests include starch synthesis, especially mechanism of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase; the role of hormones in the plant development; biochemical and molecular mechanisms of plant tolerance to abiotic stress; and plant biotechnology.",institutionString:"Istanbul University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"384",title:"Chemical Biology",slug:"chemical-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"53489",title:"Effect of Quality Carbohydrates on the Prevention and Therapy of Noncommunicable Diseases: Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/66702",slug:"effect-of-quality-carbohydrates-on-the-prevention-and-therapy-of-noncommunicable-diseases-obesity-an",totalDownloads:1596,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glycemic index (GI) is defined as “how certain meals raise blood glucose after eating, expressed as a percentage of the area under the glucose response curve when the same amount of carbohydrate was consumed as glucose or bread.” Glycemic load (GL) corrects GI according to the quantity of carbohydrates ingested. Both have been related to a higher risk of developing obesity and type 2 diabetes (DM2). High GI meals have been altered to create structurally similar meals with low GI levels. Observational studies and clinical trials have been developed using subjects with DM2 and subjects with obesity undergoing bariatric surgery. It was possible to lower the GI of meals, keeping the sensory properties of the original high GI preparation. Observational studies conducted on DM2 under treatment with metformin have shown associations between GI, GL and glycated hemoglobin. However, the same has not been proven with DM2 individuals under basal insulin therapy. Another observational study in subjects with obesity undergoing bariatric surgery showed that GI affects weight loss after surgery. Regarding experimental studies, a better glucose response has been seen following low GI breakfast intake in DM2 subjects undergoing intensive insulin therapy (IIT).",signatures:"Claudia Vega and Marcela Alviña",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53489",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53489",authors:[{id:"191303",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Vega",slug:"claudia-vega",fullName:"Claudia Vega"},{id:"191683",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcela",surname:"Alviña",slug:"marcela-alvina",fullName:"Marcela Alviña"},{id:"202949",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",surname:"Araya",slug:"hector-araya",fullName:"Hector Araya"}],corrections:null},{id:"53367",title:"Lactate, Not Pyruvate, Is the End Product of Glucose Metabolism via Glycolysis",doi:"10.5772/66699",slug:"lactate-not-pyruvate-is-the-end-product-of-glucose-metabolism-via-glycolysis",totalDownloads:3278,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Glucose is the monosaccharide utilized by most eukaryotes to generate metabolic energy, and in the majority of eukaryotic systems, glycolysis is the first biochemical pathway where glucose breaks down via a series of enzymatic reactions to produce relatively small amounts of adenosinetriphosphate (ATP). In 1940, the sequence of these glycolytic reactions was elucidated, a breakthrough that was recognized as the very first such elucidation of a biochemical pathway in history. Accordingly, the glycolytic breakdown of glucose ends up either with pyruvate as the final product under aerobic conditions or with lactate, to which pyruvate is being reduced, under anaerobic conditions. Consequently, pyruvate has been designated and is held to be the substrate of the mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid cycle, where it is completely oxidized into CO2 and H2O, while lactate has been defined and being held to as a useless dead-end product, poisonous at times, of which cells must discard off quickly. More than four decades after the glycolytic pathway has been elucidated, studies of both muscle and brain tissues have suggested that lactate is not necessarily a useless end product of anaerobic glycolysis and may actually play a role in bioenergetics. These studies have shown that muscle and brain tissues can oxidize and utilize lactate as a mitochondrial energy substrate. These results have been met with great skepticism, but a large number of publications over the past quarter of a century have strengthened the idea that lactate does play an important and, possibly, a crucial role in energy metabolism. These findings have shed light on a major drawback of the originally proposed aerobic version of the glycolytic pathway, that is, its inability to regenerate nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (oxidized form) (NAD+), as opposed to anaerobic glycolysis that features the cyclical ability of the glycolytic lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) system to regenerate NAD+ upon pyruvate reduction to lactate. An examination of scientific investigations on carbohydrate metabolism of brain tissue in the 1920s and 1930s has already revealed that lactate can be readily oxidized. However, due to the prevailing dogma, according to which lactate is a waste product, its oxidation was assumed to be a possible mechanism of elimination. This chapter examines both old and new research data on glucose glycolysis both in muscle and in brain tissues. This chapter consolidates the available data in an attempt to form a more accurate and clear description of this universal and very important bioenergetic chain of reactions.",signatures:"Avital Schurr",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53367",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53367",authors:[{id:"72322",title:"Dr.",name:"Avital",surname:"Schurr",slug:"avital-schurr",fullName:"Avital Schurr"}],corrections:null},{id:"53645",title:"Monoclonal Antibodies Against Tumour-Associated Carbohydrate Antigens",doi:"10.5772/66996",slug:"monoclonal-antibodies-against-tumour-associated-carbohydrate-antigens",totalDownloads:1708,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glycomic profiling of tumour tissues consistently shows alterations in N- and O-glycosylation profiles of glycoproteins and glycolipids compared to healthy tissues, with important functional implications for cancer cell biology. The overexpression of tumour-associated carbohydrate antigens (TACAs), as a result of aberrant glycosylation in tumours, is usually correlated with poor prognosis and survival of cancer patients. In tumours, TACAs are associated with worse tumour progression than the deletion and inactivation of tumour suppressor genes. The findings of TACAs acting are not merely tumour markers but also constitute part of the machinery in inducing cancer metastasis and invasiveness further strengthen the scientific rationales for immunotherapy targeting TACAs. Despite the attractiveness of the TACAs, there are very few anti-glycan monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), as glycans usually induce low-affinity IgM responses. This chapter provides an overview of TACAs, direct killing anti-glycan mAbs, and introduces two murine mAbs (FG88 mAbs) that recognise Lewis carbohydrate antigens overexpressed on tumour glycoconjugates with high functional affinity. Although the production of anti-glycan mAbs against cancers is not new, the production of high-affinity IgG anti-glycan mAbs is novel. FG88 mAbs definitely have great potential in cancer therapy and serve as valuable tools in glycobiology research.",signatures:"Jia Xin Chua and Lindy Durrant",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53645",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53645",authors:[{id:"192891",title:"Dr.",name:"Lindy",surname:"Durrant",slug:"lindy-durrant",fullName:"Lindy Durrant"},{id:"196043",title:"Dr.",name:"JiaXin",surname:"Chua",slug:"jiaxin-chua",fullName:"JiaXin Chua"}],corrections:null},{id:"53040",title:"Self‐Assembled Monolayers of Carbohydrate Derivatives on Gold Surfaces",doi:"10.5772/66194",slug:"self-assembled-monolayers-of-carbohydrate-derivatives-on-gold-surfaces",totalDownloads:1983,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Self‐assembled monolayers (SAMs) presenting carbohydrates (glycans) have been widely prepared on gold surfaces to mimic the carbohydrate surfaces that are involved in molecular recognition phenomena in living cells. The binding affinity of carbohydrate immbolized on SAM surfaces to various carbohydrate‐binding proteins (such as lectins) can be studied by optical, electrochemical, piezoelectrical and thermal sensing techniques. The lectins present on the surface of pathogens (e.g., bacteria or viruses) can be used as targets for capturing onto carbohydrates immobilized on SAM surfaces. The immobilized carbohydrates can also be used for detecting different types of disease biomarkers present in bodily fluids. Synergistic properties of carbohydrate SAMs and gold nanoparticles can be used for vaccine preparation and drug delivery. By studying different types of glycans, their properties, and the behavior toward recognition of specific pathogens and biomarkers, we can develop not only new therapeutics but also enhance the diagnostic strategies of various diseases. In this chapter, we discuss carbohydrate‐terminated SAMs and their common preparation strategies. Next, we focus on roles of different components of SAMs, characterization techniques, and applications.",signatures:"Jay K. Bhattarai, Dharmendra Neupane, Vasilii Mikhaylov, Alexei V. Demchenko and Keith J. Stine",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53040",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53040",authors:[{id:"192643",title:"Prof.",name:"Keith J.",surname:"Stine",slug:"keith-j.-stine",fullName:"Keith J. Stine"}],corrections:null},{id:"53783",title:"Melatonin: A Silent Regulator of the Glucose Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/66625",slug:"melatonin-a-silent-regulator-of-the-glucose-homeostasis",totalDownloads:3816,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the human organism, the circadian regulation of carbohydrates metabolism is essential for the glucose homeostasis and energy balance. Unbalances in glucose and insulin tissue and blood levels have been linked to a variety of metabolic disorders such as obesity, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Melatonin, the pineal hormone, is the key mediator molecule for the integration between the cyclic environment and the circadian distribution of physiological and behavioral processes and for the optimization of energy balance and body weight regulation, events that are crucial for a healthy organism. This chapter reviews the interplay between melatonin modulatory physiological effects, glucose homeostasis and metabolic balance, from the endocrinology perspective. The tremendous effect of melatonin in the regulation of metabolic processes is observed from the chronobiology perspective, considering melatonin as a major synchronizer of the circadian internal order of the physiological processes involved in energy metabolism.",signatures:"Cristina Manuela Drăgoi, Andreea Letiţia Arsene, Cristina Elena Dinu-Pîrvu, Ion Bogdan Dumitrescu, Daniela Elena Popa, George T.A. Burcea-Dragomiroiu, Denisa Ioana Udeanu, Olivia Carmen Timnea, Bruno Ștefan Velescu and Alina Crenguţa Nicolae",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53783",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53783",authors:[{id:"167348",title:"Dr.",name:"Ion-Bogdan",surname:"Dumitrescu",slug:"ion-bogdan-dumitrescu",fullName:"Ion-Bogdan Dumitrescu"},{id:"176095",title:"Dr.",name:"Olivia",surname:"Timnea",slug:"olivia-timnea",fullName:"Olivia Timnea"},{id:"190111",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea",surname:"Arsene",slug:"andreea-arsene",fullName:"Andreea Arsene"},{id:"192919",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cristina Manuela",surname:"Drăgoi",slug:"cristina-manuela-dragoi",fullName:"Cristina Manuela Drăgoi"},{id:"193026",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela Elena",surname:"Popa",slug:"daniela-elena-popa",fullName:"Daniela Elena Popa"},{id:"193027",title:"Dr.",name:"George Traian Alexandru",surname:"Burcea Dragomiroiu",slug:"george-traian-alexandru-burcea-dragomiroiu",fullName:"George Traian Alexandru Burcea Dragomiroiu"},{id:"193028",title:"Mrs.",name:"Denisa Ioana",surname:"Udeanu",slug:"denisa-ioana-udeanu",fullName:"Denisa Ioana Udeanu"},{id:"193030",title:"Mrs.",name:"Alina Crenguta",surname:"Nicolae",slug:"alina-crenguta-nicolae",fullName:"Alina Crenguta Nicolae"},{id:"195248",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina Elena",surname:"Dinu-Pirvu",slug:"cristina-elena-dinu-pirvu",fullName:"Cristina Elena Dinu-Pirvu"}],corrections:null},{id:"53182",title:"Glass Transition of Ultrathin Sugar Films Probed by X-Ray Reflectivity",doi:"10.5772/66432",slug:"glass-transition-of-ultrathin-sugar-films-probed-by-x-ray-reflectivity",totalDownloads:1414,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Besides being the main types of carbohydrate in food, sugars are a representative protectant in biopharmaceutical formulations. To identify the protection mechanism, researchers have extensively investigated the bulk physicochemical properties of sugars. However, whereas the glass transition of sugar has been widely studied and debated, the physicochemical properties of sugar molecules in confined circumstances such as nanometer thick films remain largely unknown. In this chapter, we introduce an experimental procedure for analyzing the glass transition of sugars in ultrathin films. The analysis is based on X-ray reflectivity (XRR) analysis, which has been often applied in glass transition studies of polymer films, but never in sugar media.",signatures:"Shigesaburo Ogawa and Isao Takahashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53182",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53182",authors:[{id:"191688",title:"Dr.",name:"Shigesaburo",surname:"Ogawa",slug:"shigesaburo-ogawa",fullName:"Shigesaburo Ogawa"},{id:"192528",title:"Prof.",name:"Isao",surname:"Takahashi",slug:"isao-takahashi",fullName:"Isao Takahashi"}],corrections:null},{id:"53748",title:"Use of Ionic Liquids for the Treatment of Biomass Materials and Biofuel Production",doi:"10.5772/67026",slug:"use-of-ionic-liquids-for-the-treatment-of-biomass-materials-and-biofuel-production",totalDownloads:1695,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomass, as fuel source, is renewable, environmental friendly and abundant in nature. It is of great interest to produce green energy and bio-products from lignocellulose. The replacement of conventional organic solvents by a new generation of solvents that are less toxic, less flammable and less polluting is a major challenge for the chemical industry. The aim of this work is to study the solubility of biomass-based materials in ionic liquids in order to overcome the lack of experimental data on phase equilibria of {carbohydrate-ILs} mixtures. Solubility data were successfully correlated using NRTL and UNIQUAC thermodynamic models. The fundamental natures of the interaction between carbohydrates and ILs were investigated using ab initio calculations. The pretreatment of miscanthus with ILs resulted in the regeneration of amorphous, porous cellulose almost free of lignin, which is suitable for enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation processes. A successful ethanol production was obtained with an overall ethanol yield reached up to 150 g ethanol kg−1 miscanthus.",signatures:"El-Sayed R.E. Hassan and Fabrice Mutelet",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53748",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53748",authors:[{id:"186677",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",surname:"Mutelet",slug:"fabrice-mutelet",fullName:"Fabrice Mutelet"},{id:"195400",title:"Dr.",name:"El Sayed R.E.",surname:"Hassan",slug:"el-sayed-r.e.-hassan",fullName:"El Sayed R.E. Hassan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2252",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f2540f35e6516d6946f6953469c61ff3",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",bookSignature:"Mahmut Çalişkan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2252.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2253",title:"Genetic Diversity in Microorganisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"209e2075adb4614d4061ea69f1cb3c99",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-microorganisms",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2253.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2251",title:"The Molecular Basis of Plant Genetic Diversity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f095bc4b74c32e0e266755bb77f00171",slug:"the-molecular-basis-of-plant-genetic-diversity",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2251.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1610",title:"Analysis of Genetic Variation in Animals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2dbc70699ec1ca38dc2175c6aeebe710",slug:"analysis-of-genetic-variation-in-animals",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1610.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4534",title:"Molecular Approaches to Genetic Diversity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"47e298294c997622c48b72b4f6d06f41",slug:"molecular-approaches-to-genetic-diversity",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan, Guul Cevahir Oz, I. Halil Kavakli and Birguul Ozcan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4534.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7947",title:"The Recent Topics in Genetic Polymorphisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d77e0df1c9ae7d3721747744650bfcd3",slug:"the-recent-topics-in-genetic-polymorphisms",bookSignature:"Mahmut Çalışkan, Osman Erol and Gül Cevahir Öz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7947.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2553",title:"Lipid Peroxidation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b39734aa940b2d63ae5e8773d3dd5280",slug:"lipid-peroxidation",bookSignature:"Angel Catala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2553.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2323",title:"Carbohydrates",subtitle:"Comprehensive Studies on Glycobiology and Glycotechnology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f7c2e6a3566eee14c9884ad0820a6416",slug:"carbohydrates-comprehensive-studies-on-glycobiology-and-glycotechnology",bookSignature:"Chuan-Fa Chang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2323.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145728",title:"Prof.",name:"Chuan-Fa",surname:"Chang",slug:"chuan-fa-chang",fullName:"Chuan-Fa Chang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"372",title:"Aflatoxins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Molecular Biology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7f7359995dc5ee04e12df282495f77e",slug:"aflatoxins-biochemistry-and-molecular-biology",bookSignature:"Ramón Gerardo Guevara-González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/372.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62559",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramon G.",surname:"Guevara-Gonzalez",slug:"ramon-g.-guevara-gonzalez",fullName:"Ramon G. Guevara-Gonzalez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2524",title:"Dehydrogenases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33ceb84d728f6a5033ba0389f83db79b",slug:"dehydrogenases",bookSignature:"Rosa Angela Canuto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"149584",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Angela",surname:"Canuto",slug:"rosa-angela-canuto",fullName:"Rosa Angela Canuto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"69566",slug:"corrigendum-to-a-brief-overview-of-ophthalmic-ultrasound-imaging",title:"Corrigendum to: A Brief Overview of Ophthalmic Ultrasound Imaging",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69566.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69566",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69566",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69566",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69566",chapter:{id:"65491",slug:"a-brief-overview-of-ophthalmic-ultrasound-imaging",signatures:"David B. Rosen, Mandi D. Conway, Charles P. Ingram, Robin D. Ross and Leonardo G. Montilla",dateSubmitted:"November 6th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 5th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowińska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowińska"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"274007",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandi D.",middleName:null,surname:"Conway",fullName:"Mandi D. Conway",slug:"mandi-d.-conway",email:"mconway1@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"283754",title:"Dr.",name:"Robin",middleName:"Demi",surname:"Ross",fullName:"Robin Ross",slug:"robin-ross",email:"robindross@email.arizona.edu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284051",title:"BSc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Rosen",fullName:"David Rosen",slug:"david-rosen",email:"davidrosen@email.arizona.edu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284377",title:"BSc.",name:"Leonardo",middleName:null,surname:"Montilla",fullName:"Leonardo Montilla",slug:"leonardo-montilla",email:"funrunner13@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284378",title:"MSc.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Ingram",fullName:"Charles Ingram",slug:"charles-ingram",email:"cingram@optics.arizona.edu",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"65491",slug:"a-brief-overview-of-ophthalmic-ultrasound-imaging",signatures:"David B. Rosen, Mandi D. Conway, Charles P. Ingram, Robin D. Ross and Leonardo G. Montilla",dateSubmitted:"November 6th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 5th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowińska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowińska"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"274007",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandi D.",middleName:null,surname:"Conway",fullName:"Mandi D. Conway",slug:"mandi-d.-conway",email:"mconway1@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"283754",title:"Dr.",name:"Robin",middleName:"Demi",surname:"Ross",fullName:"Robin Ross",slug:"robin-ross",email:"robindross@email.arizona.edu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284051",title:"BSc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Rosen",fullName:"David Rosen",slug:"david-rosen",email:"davidrosen@email.arizona.edu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284377",title:"BSc.",name:"Leonardo",middleName:null,surname:"Montilla",fullName:"Leonardo Montilla",slug:"leonardo-montilla",email:"funrunner13@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284378",title:"MSc.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Ingram",fullName:"Charles Ingram",slug:"charles-ingram",email:"cingram@optics.arizona.edu",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowińska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowińska"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"12278",leadTitle:null,title:"Sustainable Manufacturing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"051c582f32a434c25c68f100451ab89b",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12278.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 30th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 29th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 17th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 16th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a day",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"53301",title:"From Medicinal Plant Raw Material to Herbal Remedies",doi:"10.5772/66618",slug:"from-medicinal-plant-raw-material-to-herbal-remedies",body:'\n
1. Introduction
\n
Since ancient times, medical plants and simpler herbal remedies have been used in all parts of the world for the treatment and alleviation of various ailments. Although the use of medicinal plants is as old as mankind itself, their controlled application, the isolation and characterization of active substances, started only in the early nineteenth century. It is a known fact that the extractive plant isolates and isolated active substances played a major role in the development of modern pharmacotherapy. Many of the isolated compounds are still used today, or they have served as a model for the synthesis of a large number of drugs [1].
\n
The use of plants as medicines has a long history in the treatment of various diseases. Plants especially those with ethnopharmacological uses have been the primary sources of medicine for early drug discovery.
\n
Herbal remedies, from simple to complex forms, should be made of the raw materials required for quality, because only then they could be safe and effective for use. The Pharmacopoeia monographs, Monographs European Medicinal Evaluation Agency (EMEA), which encompasses monographs World Health Organization (WHO), European Scientific Cooperative on Phythotherapy (ESCOP), and Commission E (The German Commission E is a scientific advisory board of the "Bundesinstitut für Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte" formed in 1978. The commission gives scientific expertise for the approval of substances and products previously used in traditional, folk, and herbal medicine) national regulations, precisely defined parameters of control quality.
\n
The process of drafting a new herbal remedies is very complex and strictly defined phase. Each step in the process is important, from the initial idea, market analysis, selecting high-quality plant material and ancillary pharmaceutical raw materials, recipe formulation, production preparation, quality control of product, preparation of documentation, protection of intellectual property rights, to the introduction of herbal drug in regular production. The drafting process must be validated and secure documentation.
\n
In modern pharmacotherapy, despite the widespread use of drugs obtained by chemical synthesis, the importance of herbal medicines in the treatment and prophylaxis is still large. According to the latest WHO researches, 11% of the 252 basic medicines are in fact herbal preparations [1].
\n
2. Development and manufacturing of herbal preparations
\n
2.1. Use of medicinal plants through history
\n
The use of medicinal plants in the prevention and treatment of various diseases is known since ancient times. Documents of exquisite value show that herbs were extensively used by human population throughout the history. Since ancient times, people have sought safety and relief for their health problems in medicines from nature. Prehistoric men have dared to use particular medicinal plants, based on careful observation of the behavior of animals who have been using them [2, 3]. Over time, the use of herbal medicines and other natural products has developed on the basis of both positive and negative experiences. The collected rich experiences have gradually developed into folk medicine, such as traditional European medicine, traditional Chinese medicine, Indian Ayurveda, Japanese Kampo, or traditional Arabic and Islamic medicine. They consist, not only of herbal remedies but also of other types of drugs, for example, from minerals or animals, or physical procedures [3].
\n
Material evidence on the use of medicinal plants in the distant past is kept by many ethnographic and archaeological sources. The oldest of these sources are clay tables, discovered in Mesopotamia (2600 BC), which in addition to the description showed also therapeutic application and galenical form in which the plants were to be used. In those ancient times, medical plants mentioned were castor oil, grapes, coffee, oils of cedar and cypress, licorice, myrrh, and poppy juice [4, 5]. The ancient Egyptian papyrus, Ebers Papyrus (1550 BC), represented some kind of first Pharmacopoeia. Egyptians were known for their skill of embalming, distilling scented water, and making perfume of aromatic plants, and for those they were using many medicinal plants that are still in use today (aloe, peppermint, plantain, poppy seeds, and coriander) [6]. The first written records about the use of medical herbs in Chinese traditional medicine date from the third millennium BC. Emperor Shen Nung made a collection of wild medicinal plants. He is credited with the discovery of tea and many of which are used nowadays: cinnamon, ephedra, rhubarb, camphor, and great yellow gentian [6, 7]. The Indian holy books provide many examples of the treatments using medical plants, widespread in that country. A large number of aromatic herbs and spices that are still in use nowadays throughout the world, such as pepper, cloves, nutmeg, originate from India. According to data from the Bible and the holy Jewish book, the Talmud, during various rituals accompanying a treatment, aromatic plants were utilized such as myrtle and incense [7].
\n
With comprehensive development of science in ancient Greece, the pharmacy also receives a special place. The most famous doctor of ancient Greece, which is considered to be the "father of medicine," is Hippocrates (460–377 BC). He was the first to systematize overall medical and pharmaceutical experience and publish them in the capital work Corpus Hyppocraticum. The most ancient botanist Theophrastus (371–286 BC) together with his students founded the first botanical garden in Athens. He described more than 500 most important medicinal plants. Among others, he referred to cinnamon, iris rhizome, false hellebore, mint, pomegranate, cardamom, fragrant hellebore, monkshood, and so on. In the description of the plant, its toxic action was also stated [4, 7]. The founder of the European pharmacognosy, a Roman doctor of Greek origin, Dioscorides, who lived in the first century BC., described medicinal plants which were used in the ancient world, in his capital work De Materia Medica. Dioscorides\' most appreciated domestic plants were as follows: willow, camomile, garlic, onion, marsh mallow, ivy, nettle, sage, common centaury, coriander, parsley, sea onion, and false hellebore. The strong influence of Hippocrates and Dioscorides was notable in the school of Alexandria, where some of the major breakthroughs in medicine were made. Unfortunately, a great fire has destroyed the vast library with approximately two million books, and at the same time all the knowledge of medicinal plants of that era [4, 7]. By the Roman conquest of Greece, Romans took over all the medical and pharmaceutical knowledge and certainly the most important mind in this area was the Roman statesman and military leader Pliny, the Elder (23–79). He is the writer of the capital work Historia naturalis. The most famous Roman doctor and a pharmacist is well-known Galenius-Galen, who lived from 131 to 201 and is considered to be the father of galenic pharmacy. In his writings on the development of complex preparations or galenic preparations, he described 304 drugs of plant origin [4].
\n
The Arabs preserved a large amount of the Greco-Roman knowledge during the Dark and Middle ages (i.e., fifth to twelfth centuries), and complemented it with their own medicinal expertise, and with herbs from Chinese and Indian traditional medicines [8]. The treatments during the Middle Ages were conducted in the restricted environment of monasteries. Skills of cultivation and collection of herbal medicines, as well as making simple herbal remedies, were reserved for doctors-monks. They used the different herbs: mint, sage, tansy, anise, fenugreek, savory, and so on [7].
\n
At the time of Charles V, the famous medical school of Salerno was founded and started its rise by introducing and applying experiences of Arab medicine and pharmacy. Benedictine monks played an important role in the preservation of the Greco-Roman tradition. Their legacy was large botanical gardens where mainly medicinal plants were grown [4]. The Arab world has promoted many sciences including medicine and pharmacy. Certainly, the most famous Arabic doctor was Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and his famous book, The Canon of Medical Science, has been translated into Latin and other languages, and has been used in Europe for many years.
\n
In medieval Europe, the level of medical knowledge was quite low. Arab medicine, starting from the twelfth century, began to penetrate into Europe, through Spain and Sicily. The Arabic books were translated into Latin medicine, and in this sense also the Arabic translations of ancient Greek and Roman books. Paracelsus (during the late Middle Ages) argued that the salubrity of plant originates from chemical compounds that are represented in it [4]. In the eighteenth century, Swedish botanist Carl von Linné (1707–1778) created the Latin nomenclature for each plant (the name of the genus and species), and a botanical system for determining the species, which due to its transparency and convenience is used even nowadays. Scientific pharmacy began only after the French Revolution, and with it the development of the science of medicinal plants. In this area, the most distinguished pharmacists became Lavoisier in France, Scheele in Sweden, Priestley in England, and so on. [4]. The turning point in the approach and the use of herbal medicines is considered to be the beginning of the nineteenth century, when a German pharmacist Sertürner managed to isolate the alkaloid of morphine in its pure form, from poppy (1806). In the period from 1817 to 1820, French scientists isolated a whole series of alkaloids: caffeine, emetine, quinine, cinchonine, and strychnine. Improvements of instrumental analytical methods have allowed further detection of other groups and complexes of active substances, such as heterosides, saponosides, tannins, vitamins, and so on [7].
\n
In the twentieth century, a large number of synthetic drugs were created and it represented the beginning of commercial production of a large number of allopathic medicines, which significantly led to neglect the use of herbs in pharmacotherapy.
\n
2.2. Plants are valuable sources of drug discovery
\n
As already mentioned, herbal medicines have been an extremely important source for the discovery of many drugs. Morphine, which was the first purely natural product to be isolated, was introduced in pharmacotherapy in 1826 (Merck). The first semisynthetic pure substance of aspirin, salicylic acid-based, was isolated from the bark of Salix alba willow and was produced in 1899 (Bayer). This was followed by the isolation of active compounds from old herbal drugs, such as digitoxin, codeine, pilocarpine, quinine, and many others, some of which are still in use today. Many herbal remedies, emerged after extensive scientific tests of "old and well-known" medicinal plants, were introduced in the therapy. Silymarin, extracted from the seeds of Silibum marianum, is used as a hepatoprotective, Paclitaxel from the bark of Taxus brevifolia in the treatment of lung, ovarian, and breast cancer, and Artemisinin from Artemisia annua herb to combat multiple-resistant malaria [1].
\n
In recent years, many herbal medicines have found their way into the official medicine. Some of them are Dronabinol and Cannabidiol isolated from Cannabis sativa, Tiotropium derivative of atropine from Atropa belladonna for combating obstructive and chronic bronchitis, Galantamine, alkaloid from Galanthus nivalis which is used to relieve symptoms of Alzheimer\'s disease, and Apomorphine, which is a semisynthetic compound based on morphine from Papaver somniferum and is intended for people suffering from Parkinson\'s disease [1]. We can certainly say that a large number of medicinal plants, which in the past, were used and represent an important raw material for the production of herbal medicines, or have served as a model for similar synthesis of new molecules.
\n
Given that man is an integral part of nature, the human body is compatible with medicines coming from nature. Nature, much like a flawless, perfect complex of laboratories, has created a variety of sophisticated active compounds contained in herbal medicines, which have a huge range of remedial action. Perhaps, this fact will speed up serious research of old manuscripts related to herbal medicines and brings out the "old drugs" of pure historical curiosity [8].
\n
2.3. Basic terms related to herbal medicines
\n
Phytotherapy, as a complementary part of pharmacotherapy, has an important place in many areas of modern medicine. It represents a system of treatments based on the use of natural medicinal resources (drugs) and herbal remedies (herbal remedies) in the purposes of prevention and treatment.
\n
Herbal drug is the whole or grained, dried part of a plant, algae, fungi, or lichen, which is used for its medicinal properties. In addition to the plant organs (above-ground part of the blooming plant as flower, leaf, root, bark, fruit, and seed), plant exudates can also be considered as a drug (resins, balsams, and rubber). Herbal medicines, herbal remedies, or herbal medicinal products (HMPs) contain as active ingredients exclusively herbal drugs or herbal drug preparations. Herbal drug preparations are obtained from drugs, with the procedures of distillation, extraction, filtration, and so on. This concept does not include powdered forms of drugs, essential oils, fatty oils, tinctures, and extracts [9, 10].
\n
Rational phytotherapy is a modern concept of use of herbal medicines, which was designed in Germany at the end of the last century and soon widely accepted in other European countries. It was created from the need to improve phytotherapy, in order for herbal preparations to be more efficient, safer, and their use based on the results of clinical trials. Herbal medicines, which are used in rational phytotherapy, are prepared from standardized herbal extracts, the chemical nature of their active principles is known, they exhibit dose-dependent therapeutic effect, their adverse effects and contraindications are known, and their pharmaceutical quality is well defined and standardized [11, 12].
\n
Herbal medicines are used preventively, in the treatment of milder forms of a disease, or as adjunctive therapy for the treatment of chronic diseases. Most commonly, they are applied with the dysfunction of the respiratory, digestive, urogenital tract, mild, and medium forms of anxiety and depression, as well as of different lesions of the skin and mucous membranes. Their healing effects accrue gradually, so that the maximum effect manifested 2–3 weeks after the application.
\n
\n
2.4. Regulations
\n
According to the WHO, preparations based on medicinal herbs are used by 80% of the world population. Medical use of medicinal plants has a long tradition in Europe, while in some parts of the world (e.g., China and India), herbal remedies still represent a central link in the chain of health services [13].
\n
Extractive isolates of herbal medicines and herbal preparations are extremely complex multicomponent mixtures, as opposed to synthetic drugs that are most commonly a single pure compound. In the production of herbal remedies, certain actions and procedures are needed to be undertaken (collecting medicinal plants from spontaneous flora and plantation cultivation, obtaining extractive isolates, and their characterization), which do not precede the production of synthetic drugs. Fortunately, the procedures of making herbal medicines are largely modernized and defined in all segments. There are a number of guidelines that prescribe standards in all aspects of making herbal medicines: The European Medicines Agency guidelines for the quality of herbal medicines, the WHO guidelines provide standards and guidelines for good agricultural practices, good laboratory practices, and so on. The development of new, sophisticated analytical, and technological methods and procedures within the development and characterization of extractive isolate has greatly improved the quality of the final plant products. On the other hand, the process of harmonization of the quality system for the production and herbal drugs control is present in many countries. But globally speaking, more effort is yet to be made in order to revive the prescribed guidelines and regulations in practice [3]. The main goal of the Committee for herbal products (Herbal Medicinal Product Committee—HPMC) is to prepare a detailed list of monographs and processed herbal substances and preparations, which are in medical use for long enough time that their use is safe under normal conditions. The monograph contains the professional opinion of the Committee on a particular plant products based on scientific data or traditional use within the European Union (EU). For each plant, the substances are stated indications, speed, usage, and other relevant data concerning its safe use or composition that contains it. List and versions of monographs are available for public consultation [14]. In Europe, companies can apply for three different types of market authorization of an herbal medicinal products (HMPs):
\n
Full implementation. Manufacturer of a herbal drug must provide documentation proving its efficiency and safety, and studies are identical to those submitted for the registration of a synthetic drug.
Well-established use. Manufacturer of a herbal drug may be permitted to register, on the basis of the submitted detailed scientific literature, stating that the herbal medicinal preparation is in use for medical purposes not less than 10 years in Europe and has recognized efficiency and an acceptable level of safety.
Traditional use. Efficiency and safety of a herbal drug can be accepted on the basis of long experience. Herbal remedies can be registered, if the documents prove their use in mitigating certain ailments, not less than 30 years, with at least 15 years in Europe.
\n
The registration procedure for herbal medicines, at all levels of the European Union (EU), is done according to European Directive 2004/24/EC, which introduces simplified, but strictly defined procedures and affects the harmonization of existing national legislative regulations. Regarding the registration in the non-EU countries, despite the efforts made within the framework of national legislation and harmonization in larger systems, a limited number of herbal medicines have been registered. Therefore, the identification of problems and discrepancies and the systematic plan for overcoming them represent a major challenge for the presence of these herbal drugs on the market of EU countries [15].
\n
In Republic of Serbia, legislation on plant products is harmonized with recommendations of The European Directive 2004/24/EC. Law on medicines and medical devices (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 30/2010), Regulation on health safety of dietary products (Official Gazette of RS No. 45/2010), Guidelines of Good Manufacturing Practice, Annex 7- Manufacture of herbal medicines, are all in effect. According to the Law on medicines and medical devices, Herbal medicine, is each drug whose active ingredients are exclusively one or more substances of vegetable origin or one or more herbal preparations, or one or more substances of vegetable origin in combination with one or more herbal preparations. Traditional herbal medicine may be based on scientific principles and is the result of tradition or other traditional therapeutic approaches. The active components of a herbal medicine/traditional herbal medicine are herbal drugs and herbal preparations and their combinations, and this is widely accepted in all European and national documents. In the context of food supplements (dietary supplements), a new the Regulation defines the notion of herbal dietary supplements. These are supplements that contain medicinal plants, their parts or preparations and their quantity in a daily dose of the product should not be less than 15% and greater than 65% compared to a known therapeutic dose of these plant materials or preparations.\x3c!--
Please check the change made to the sentence “Herbal medicine (Sl. Gl. 2010) is where the active ingredients of ...”.
--\x3e\n
\n
2.5. Parameters of quality and quality control
\n
The quality of each final product is ensured by the standard quality of raw materials, the application of validated production processes and procedures on validated equipment. It is similar with herbal remedies, which are made of high-quality herbal raw materials, extractive preparations (extracts and tinctures) and isolates (essential oil and fatty oil). The latest European Pharmacopoeia Ph Eur 8 comprises 270 Monographs on herbal drugs and herbal drug preparations [16]. Monographs define parameters of quality control.
\n
2.5.1. Quality control of herbal drugs
\n
The basis of high-quality herbal remedies is the plant material of a standard quality. Many factors affect the quality of plant material. Regardless of whether the medicinal plants are grown or collected from the wild, biogenetic factors are certainly important (species, variety, chemotype, and sorta). The following are the conditions in which a plant grows as air, climate, land, then agro-technical measures that are applied during the large-scale production (proper sowing, irrigation, fertilization, control against weed and pests), and then collection from the wild or harvest of the plantation, transport, proper storage, drying, and grinding. It is very important to educate people how to deal with the collection of herbal raw materials from spontaneous flora, as well as those who grow the plants, whether they are doing so in the conventional conditions or organic conditions of medicinal plants production. Quality control of herbal raw materials is strictly defined and traceable. First, the identification of plant raw materials is approached. Responsible and expert persons in laboratories for the pharmaceutical control or in other relevant institutions, conduct identification, and categorization under a certain number.
\n
Table 1 gives a list of parameters of quality control of herbal drugs by Ph Eur 8.0, based on whose defined border values the quality of herbal drugs can be determined. For all the aforementioned parameters, Pharmacopoeia prescribes the procedure. Any organization deals with herbs, forming his specs-attests that rely on the requirements of the applicable European Pharmacopoeia, standards, national regulations, and internal regulations. Definition includes biological source of drug, the Latin name of the genus and species, and the minimum amount of essential oil in the case of aromatic drugs or the minimum quantities of active substances to which the drug is declared. Characteristics define appearance, odor, taste, and solubility. Identification in addition to macroscopic analysis (organoleptic inspection), which includes appearance, color, odor, and microscopic analysis, is carried out for certain herbal drugs, followed by chemical analysis (specific chemical reactions and thin-layer chromatography (TLC)). Predicted tests include water, loss on drying, total ash, foreign matter, swelling index, microbiological purity, bitterness value, starch, and broken drug. Assay includes essential oils, tannins, declared active substance (gas chromatography (GC), GC/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), liquid chromatography (LC), and UV-VIS spectroscopy). For the evaluation of herbal raw materials quality, in addition to the determination of microbiological safety, complete analysis of the health safety is often performed, according to the current regulations (which includes not only the results of physical, physicochemical, and chemical tests but also organoleptic findings, preservatives, sweeteners, mycotoxins, metals and metalloids, pesticide residue, microbiological tests, and radioactivity).
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameters of quality control
\n
\n
\n
Herbal drugs
\n
1. Definition: the name of the herbal drugs and content of active substances 2. Characters: appearance, taste, odor, solubility 3. Identification: macroscopic and microscopic examination, TLC 4. Tests: water, loss on drying, total ash, foreign matter, insoluble matter, extractable matter, swelling index, microbial contamination, bitterness value, broken drug 5. Assay: essential oils, tannins, declared active substances (GC, LC, UV/VIS)
\n
\n
\n
Herbal preparations
\n
Dry extract (Extractum siccum) 1. Definition: standardized dry extract prepared from..., content of active substances 2. Production: method of extraction and solvents 3. Characters: appearance 4. Identification: TLC 5. Tests: loss on drying, total ash, microbial contamination 6. Assay: declared active substances (LC) Liquid extract (Extractum fluidum) 1. Definition: liquid extract produced from …, and content of active substances 2. Production: method of extraction and solvents 3. Characters: appearance, taste, odor 4. Identification: TLC 5. Tests: ethanol, methanol and 2-propanol, loss on drying, microbial contamination 6. Assay: declared active substances (LC, UV/VIS) Tincture (Tinctura) 1. Definition: tincture produced from…, and content of active substances 2. Production: method of extraction and solvents 3. Characters: appearance, taste, odor 4. Identification: TLC 5. Tests: ethanol, methanol and 2-propanol, dry residue, microbial contamination 6. Assay: declared active substances (LC, UV/VIS) Essential oil (Aetheroleum) 1. Definition: essential oil obtained by …, and content of dominant components 2. Production: method of extraction and solvents 3. Characters: appearance, odor, solubility 4. Identification: TLC and chromatographic profile (GC and GC-MS) 5. Tests: relative density, refractive index, optical rotation, chromatographic profile
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Parameters of quality control of herbal drugs and herbal preparations (Ph Eur 8).
\n
2.5.2. Quality and quality control of extracts
\n
The extracts are one of the most widely used herbal preparations. The extracts can be liquid, semi-solid, or solid consistency. They are most commonly made of dried and grained plant material. For the extract production various processes may be applied: maceration, percolation, extraction of the continuous, and so on. Nowadays, the procedure for extracting plant material by super critical fluids is increasingly in use [17−20]. Tinctures are extractive products which are usually obtained by the method of maceration.
\n
The most often used extragents are ethanol, water, mixtures of water, and ethanol. The choice of solvent depends on the nature of ingredients that need to pass into the extract. In the product declaration, the ratio of components of the solvent mixture used for extraction must always be given. The quality of obtained extract depends on the plant material, the solvent, the drug/solvent ratio, and the extraction process technology. The process of extracts standardization is common. After the quantitative analysis, the extract is adjusted in order to contain a particular amount of an active compound or the group of compounds (or a marker compound) using an inert material or another extract [21]. Parameters of quality control of extracts are shown in Table 1. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the essential oils are carried out by methods GC and GC-MS according to regulation Ph Eur or modified method [22].
\n
2.5.3. Quality and quality control of phytopreparations
\n
When it comes to mono-components teas, their quality matches the one defined for the individual drugs (Table 2). Quality control refers to the verification of the identity, the declared weight of packaging, and microbiological safety. In the case of multi-component (mixtures) teas, their control refers to the verification of the identity of each herbal drug on the recipe, checking the declared weight relationship of the components and microbiological purity.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Phytopreparations
\n
Parameters of quality control
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Mono-component tea and tea mixture
\n
1. Identification 2. Appearance 3. Verification of components, declared mass ratio of components 4. Verification of package weight 5. Microbial contamination
\n
\n
\n
Liquid herbal preparations (liquid extracts, tinctures, and mixtures of extracts or tinctures) Herbal drops, solutions, syrups
\n
1. Identification 2. Appearance 3. Loss on drying 4. Content of ethanol 5. Relative density 6. Refractive index 7. Verification of package weight 8. Qualitative and quantitative analysis 9. Microbiological contamination and/or complete health safety control
\n
\n
\n
Semi-solid forms (herbal gels, cream, and unguent)
\n
1. Identification 2. Appearance 3. Verification of package weight 4. pH value 5. Microbiological contamination and/or complete health safety control
\n
\n
\n
Solid-dosage forms (capsules, tablets, etc.)
\n
1. Identification 2. Appearance 3. Declared mass of single-dose preparations 4. Disintegration 5. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of the declared active components 6. Microbiological contamination and/or complete health safety control
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Parameters of quality control of phytopreparation.
\n
When a herbal remedy represents a mixture of plant extracts or tinctures, it is usually difficult to perform the quantitative analysis of active ingredients for each individual extract. For these preparations, the content analysis of active substances for which the preparation is declared is conducted (LC, UV-VIS spectroscopy, GC and GC-MS spectrometry, infrared (IR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), etc.). Also, in principal, a manufacturer appends the typical fingerprint of chromatogram, spectrum, or some other physical parameter, of the preparation ingredient, which may be used by a control laboratory for identification. This approach can also be used for the quantitative analysis of the preparation.
\n
Semi-solid forms (herbal gel, cream, and ointment) are checked for authentication, filling, pH, and microbiological purity. For solid-dosage galenic forms (capsules, tablets, etc.), a control is performed for each individual dose. Control for these forms of herbal remedies includes authentication, appearance, the declared weight of the package, or of the each individual dose of the preparation. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the declared active components, or a marker compound, of the preparation, are obligatory. For this analysis, similar (or appropriately modified) methods to the analysis of herbal drugs or extractive preparations are applied (if not according to Pharmacopoeia, these methods must be validated by the CPMP/ICH/281/95)s.
\n
2.5.4. Monitoring of phytopreparation stability
\n
Medicinal herbs and products based on medicinal herbs are very sensitive to external influences—the presence of elevated temperatures, moisture, and direct light. They are prone to reactions of oxidation, degradation, hydrolysis, and evaporation, so during the preparation of herbal remedies special attention must be placed to a number of factors that can affect the quality of the final product. In order to determine the stability of a product, to define storage conditions, and durability, stability tests are carried out, which include the investigation of the environmental factors effect on the change in the final product quality. Stability tests are performed at different stages of development and production. During the period of investigation, the first stress test is carried out, in order to select the most optimal, compatible excipients, and the best formulation. All raw materials used, excipients, active ingredients, and extraction products, are subject to stability testing and durability defining, for appropriate packaging and under certain environmental conditions. Stability is defined as the period during which the product remains within the set quality limits of the prescribed specification. In accordance with the requirements of the EMEA, various specific stability tests are placed for different herbal [23].
\n
2.6. Planning and development of new herbal preparation
\n
The formulation of a new herbal products is a process that has strictly defined phases and includes the work of several sectors of the company that is developing products based on medicinal herbs. The dynamics of the process is divided into stages, and they are completed by performing a multitude of necessary activities. Of course, the scope of new product development depends on the complexity of the galenic form of the new herbal preparation. All steps are defined in the documents of quality standards and other regulations of the company (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Schematic representation of the planning and development of new herbal preparation.
\n
Furthermore, the procedures of developing a new herbal preparation will be explained on the example of the development of herbal remedies in the Institute for Medicinal Plant Research "Dr Josif Pancic," Belgrade, Republic of Serbia (the Institute).
\n
Stages in the development of new herbal products have their logical sequence. Administration, management, the sales department, and the demand of patients expressed through visits to our herbal pharmacies may suggest the need for a new preparation, to the department of pharmaceutical research and development. Management gives the order to the department of pharmaceutical research and development, to create a team that will be allocated to the project and appoint a project manager.
\n
Project manager, who is usually a doctor of pharmaceutical sciences in the field of pharmacognosy, forms a team, writes, and presents a plan for a new product development. The plan, according to the system of quality management, must contain general information: project name, the subject of research, description of development activities, the aim of the research, the necessary equipment, an indication of the place of realization of activities, project duration, and start time of the applicability of the project results. The second segment is represented through dynamic activities (through phases) and the engagement of researchers (throughout activities phases). The third segment is the planning of all material costs for the development of a new herbal remedy. When management of the Institute approves the presented plan for developing a new product, project manager starts with its execution.
\n
The beginning phase represents preformulation studies. Market analysis and the review of relevant literature are very complex. It covers the activities of the Institution’s herbal pharmacies that collect patients\' requirements, commercial department, which collects data on herbal remedies from the observed therapeutic groups in the domestic and foreign markets. Analysis of relevant literature includes search for relevant directives and monographs, scientific, technical papers, patents, and so on.
\n
When all relevant data are collected, an expert research team approaches the formulation of a recipe. The recipe for herbal remedies and the content of active substances, which will be declared in the preparation, depends on the plan for a herbal product registration. In addition to the selection of galenical form, auxiliary materials are also selected at this stage. Of course, the recipe is subject to small corrections during the production process.
\n
Further on, laboratories are included in the process of preparations formulation. Analysis of active substances in the selected plant raw materials and quality control prescribed by Pharmacopoeia or other relevant document are performed. Then, the quality control of semi-final product is conducted. In the case of capsules, the analysis of the active substance in dry extract is performed, and also the analysis of other parameters that define its quality, and that is defined by Pharmacopoeia monographs or summarized in an internal specification or a certificate.
\n
Afterwards, the preparation formulation is conducted (formulation of teas or herbal drops, herbal creams, capsules, etc.). In addition to the main plant raw materials, secondary raw materials are selected, which will synergistically facilitate the functioning of the dominant plant drugs, and auxiliary pharmaceutical raw materials are selected. Auxiliary raw materials are used as the basis for semi-solid galenic forms (creams, ointments, and gels), and capsule fillers (for the preparation of granules—mass for the capsule filling).
\n
When the herbal remedy is designed, all laboratory examinations are carried out, as prescribed in specifications. The determination of the average capsule weight is performed, also the determination of active ingredients per capsule, stability testing for active substances per capsule, the capsule dissolution testing, and testing of complete health safety.
\n
From the Intellectual Property Office, the search “recharge” is required and then the protection of the preparation name. The proposal for the primary and secondary packaging graphic layout is carried out. Technological documentation gets completed (processes specifications, recipes, and norms). After the test production of capsules, the production of capsules is introduced into regular production. The validation of technological processes, the validation of equipment, and the validation of laboratory methods are performed. Registration documentation, report writing, and the presentation of results are being prepared.
\n
When the preparation is produced and packed in its primary and secondary packaging, quality testing of the final product is conducted (tea blends and herbal drops, ointments, and capsules). Quality testing is conducted according to the attest or the specification of the final product. It is necessary to examine the complete health safety of the preparation. The stability of the active substance is also monitored, to determine and define the expiration date.
\n
Along with a new preparation production, the writing of technical documentation that represents the preparation file is carried out. The specifications of raw materials, semi-final products, and auxiliary materials are written. In order to define the dose for preparations, it is necessary to determine the range of content of the active substance. This is achieved by validation of the process, on the validated equipment.
\n
Finally, the registration documents are prepared. The scope of the documentation is correlated with the desired herbal remedies group for registration (herbal medicine, traditional herbal medicine, or dietary supplement). If it is planned to register a new product as a herbal medicine or a traditional herbal medicine, then the instructions of the EMEA monographs need to be followed. If it is planned to register a new product as a dietary supplement, then the dose needs to be below 65% of the therapeutic dose.
\n
Development of different galenic form of herbal remedies is presented in the following examples.
\n
2.6.1. Mono-component tea
\n
Herb yarrow Achillea millefolium L. is highly regarded medicinal and aromatic plant and has a long traditional use. According to WHO monograph, yarrow exhibits antibacterial, anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antipyretic, antispasmodic, and antiviral activity. According to the Commission E monograph and the EMEA, yarrow is traditionally used only for temporary loss of appetite, mild spasmodic complaints of the digestive organs, bloating, flatulence, and externally as a bath with problems in the lower abdomen in women, and with superficial wounds [24].
\n
The process of making mono-component tea from yarrow takes place in the following stages:
\n
Purchase of high-quality herbal material (overground top part of the blooming herb), which meets the quality parameters as prescribed by Pharmacopoeia.
Grinding the herb up to a prescribed degree of fragmentation. Grinded herbal drug as a semi-final product is controlled on the microbiological safety, which is performed in accordance with the relevant regulations for tea and Pharmacopoeia requirements.
Following the positive results obtained from the pharmaceutical and microbiological laboratories, chopped herbal drug is placed in packaging.
Final product, mono-component yarrow tea, is sent for the control to pharmaceutical and microbiological laboratories. Pharmaceutical laboratory confirms the authentication and filling volume.
When a controlled product receives the confirmation that corresponds to the standard quality, it is dispatched to the warehouse of final products and further distributed to pharmacies and other places.
\n
The user manual is adapted to the prescribed use as a traditional herbal medicinal: as a means of relieving complaints of the digestive system, improve appetite, eliminate gases, regulating the secretion of bile, pains and cramps in the stomach, with the amenorrhea.
\n
2.6.2. Tea for weight loss in filter bags (1.5 g)
\n
For this indication, herbal drugs that have diuretic and laxative effect have been selected on one hand, and on the other hand, we have drugs that aid digestion and herbal drugs rich in polyphenols as potent antioxidants and vitamin C. The following herbal drugs are included in equal parts (ana partes) in the mixture composition: Betulae folium, Frangulae cortex, Foeniculi fructus, Thea folium, and Cynosbati fructus. The mixture of herbs whose active ingredients regulate digestion and excretion of urine, stimulate metabolism, and facilitate the breakdown of fat, and thus contribute to the cleansing and detoxification of body. Its is recommended as a supplement in weight loss diets and for helping to reduce and maintain a desired weight.
\n
The process of making tea for weight loss in filter bags is as follows:
\n
Purchase of high-quality individual herbal material and quality control of parameters as prescribed by Pharmacopoeia.
Grinding the herb up to a prescribed degree of fragmentation. Grinded herbal drugs are controlled on the microbiological safety and Pharmacopoeia requirements (appearance, moisture content, content of essential oils, impurities, and degree of fragmentation).
Following the positive results obtained from the pharmaceutical and microbiological laboratories, homogeneous mixing of grinded herbal drugs is carried out, and then in the machine for tea bags, bags are filled with the contents. Afterwards, they are placed in special filter bags and packaging.
Final product, herbal mixture in filter bags, is sent for the control to pharmaceutical and microbiological laboratories. Pharmaceutical laboratory confirms the authentication and filling volume of tea bags and the number of tea bags in a packaging.
When a controlled product receives the confirmation that corresponds to the standard quality, it is dispatched to the warehouse of final products and further distributed to pharmacies and other places.
\n
2.6.3. Herbal drops for weight loss
\n
Herbal drops, meant to regulate body weight, represent a combination of tinctures and herbal extracts, whose active ingredients stimulate the metabolism, have a beneficial impact on digestion, and eliminate the excess fluids from the body. The composition of herbal drops includes Betulae tinctura, Frangulae tinctura, Foeniculi tinctura and Cynosbati extractum fluidum.
\n
The process of making herbal drops at the Institute, takes place as follows:
\n
Purchase of high-quality individual herbal material and quality control of parameters as prescribed by Pharmacopoeia.
Grinding the herb up to a prescribed degree of fragmentation. Grinded herbal drugs are controlled on the microbiological safety and pharmacopoeia requirements.
Following the positive results obtained from the laboratories, homogeneous mixing tinctures and extract, filtered, and then filled into glass bottles.
Final product is sent for the control to pharmaceutical and microbiological laboratories.
When a controlled product receives the confirmation that corresponds to the standard quality, it is dispatched to the warehouse of final products and further distributed to pharmacies and other places.
\n
2.6.4. Herbal cream with extract of comfrey: Comfrey gel
\n
The root of comfrey Symphyti radix represents a very important medicinal herb raw material. According to the Commission E monograph, it is used for blunt injuries. According to EMEA, the traditional use of herbal preparations, it is used in semi-solid-dosage forms for cutaneous use. Traditional herbal medicinal remedy is also used for the symptomatic treatment of minor sprains and bruises. Gel with 10% propylene glycol extract of comfrey root (Symphyti Extaractumfluidum (1: 7)) containing mucus, tannins, saponosides, and allantoin improves epithelialization, drainage, and tissue regeneration. It has a beneficial effect with swellings, hematoma, fractures, sport injuries, and posttraumatic conditions. It should not be applied to open and infected wounds.
\n
The production process of Comfrey gel is performed in the following stages:
\n
Purchase of high-quality herbal material Symphyti radix and quality control of parameters, as prescribed by Pharmacopeia selection of high-quality pharmaceutical raw materials according to the manufacturer attest.
Grinding of comfrey root and producing the liquid extract with propylene glycol with a method of percolation. The resulting extract is controlled to authentication, relative density, and microbiological safety.
Liquid extract of comfrey, after the processing procedure is incorporated into the semi-solid base, and then filled into tubes. The final product, herbal gel from the roots of comfrey, is sent to the control to laboratories.
When a controlled product receives confirmation that corresponds to the standard quality, it is dispatched to the warehouse of final products and further distributed.
\n
2.6.5. Herbal capsules ODOVAL S®, herbal sedative
\n
Herbal product is used for the defense of organism against the effects of daily stress.
\n
Valerian root (Valerianae radix) has a long traditional use. It is approved by Commission E to help combat restless states and difficulties falling asleep caused by nervousness. According to EMEA monograph, it has a well-established use as a herbal medicinal remedy for the relief of mild nervous tension and sleep disorders.
\n
Melissa leaf (Melissae folium) is a favorite vegetable drug that is used as a mild sedative, carminative, antispasmodic, and aromatic. The EMEA monograph only credits Melissae folium with a traditional use: it is considered to be a traditional herbal medicinal remedy for relief of mild symptoms of mental stress and to aid sleep and for symptomatic treatment of mild gastrointestinal. Capsules of this herbal sedative are designed to have the Valerianae extractum siccum as a dominant component, with the synergistic effects of Melissae extractum siccum.
\n
Odoval S® is a herbal remedy meant for maintaining mental balance. It contains extracts of valerian root and lemon balm leaf, medicinal plants traditionally used for their calming properties. The active ingredients of these extracts have a favorable effect on alleviating anxiety and irritability, facilitate sleep, and establishment of natural sleep patterns. Odoval S® can be used as a valuable help in alleviating various symptoms caused by chronic stress (mental tension and anxiety during the day, irritability, and feelings of worry).
\n
In the Institute , the production process of capsules is carried out in the following stages:
\n
Purchase of high-quality herbal raw material of Valerianae radix and Melissae folium and quality control on parameters, as prescribed by Pharmacopeia.
Production of dry extracts: Valerianae extractum siccum and Melissae extractum siccum in the circular extractor, according to the specifications of the process.
The resulting dry extract is controlled as a semi-final product to authentication, moisture content, and microbiological safety.
Controlled dry extracts, along with additional pharmaceutical materials, are used to produce granulate (mass for encapsulation). Granulate, as a semi-final product, also goes to the control to pharmaceutical and microbiological laboratories. Pharmacopoeial method is used to determine the content of valeric acid [2].
Upon obtaining the results of quality control, encapsulation, that is, automatic filling of gelatin capsules with prepared granulate, is conducted. Capsules are forwarded in the glass jars, and then into the boxes.
The final phytopreparation is sent to the control to laboratories. The following parameters are determined: properties, number of capsules in a package, the average weight of the capsule content, uniformity of mass capsule, identification of valeric acid LC and TLC for lemon balm, disintegration of capsules, and microbiological safety. The product is sent to the analysis of the complete health safety.
When results confirm the quality according to certificates and specifications, the final product is dispatched to the warehouse of final products and afterwards distributed to pharmacies and other places.
\n
3. Conclusions and perspectives
\n
Natural products discovered so far have played a vital role in improving the human health and have been the drugs of choice despite facing a tough competition from compounds obtained by chemical procedures, due to their safety and efficacy. The most striking feature of natural products in connection to their long-lasting importance in drug discovery is their structural diversity that is still largely untapped [1].
\n
Comprehensive development of science and technology, able to produce high-quality herbal medicines, is greatly improved in recent decades. The acceptance of herbal medicine as a natural and gentle alternative to synthetic drugs is very high in public in developed countries and, from a global perspective, unit sales of herbal medicines is constantly growing. However, we still face many problems in these areas [2].
\n
A comprehensive approach to these problems, the state of the field of medicinal plants and herbal remedies, can be repaired. A better education of people is involved in the collection and cultivation of medicinal plants on the necessity of obtaining plant raw material of high quality. In particular, it should encourage the concept of organic production herbal products. Producers should be required to produce only quality-assured medicines.
\n
Improved harmonization of regulatory classification of herbal preparations in the world would inevitably lead to greater transparency and consistency of the market.
\n
Special attention should be paid to improving knowledge about the benefits of rational phytotherapy, particularly evidence-based phytotherapy, health workers, especially doctors.
\n
The aim of all efforts would be to improve the overall awareness of the possibilities of choice in prevention and treatment and can judge the effectiveness of the use of medicinal herbs and herbal preparations.
\n',keywords:"medicinal plants, medicinal plant raw material, quality control, formulation of phytopreparation, regulations",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/53301.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/53301.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53301",totalDownloads:4754,totalViews:4054,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:9,impactScorePercentile:97,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 15th 2016",dateReviewed:"October 27th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 15th 2017",dateFinished:"December 3rd 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The use of medicinal plants is old as the existence of mankind. According to World Health Organization (WHO) data, about 80% of world population are using products based on medicinal herbs. Phytotherapy is based on the use of herbal drugs and medicinal products for the purpose of prevention and treatment. Rational phytotherapy is a modern concept of herbal medicines using, which are made of standardized herbal extracts. The quality of each final product is guaranteed by the use of raw materials of a standard quality, defined process of production, and validated equipment. Quality control of herbal drugs and herbal isolates (tinctures, extracts, and essential oils) is done according to the requirements of Pharmacopoeia and other relevant regulations. The scope of phytopreparation quality control depends on its pharmaceutical form. The formulation of a new phytopreparation is a process that has strictly defined phases: from analysis of literature and market, through defining recipes, validation of the production process, quality control of a final product to the preparation of technological and registration documents. The aim of this chapter is to present the process of herbal preparations production from selecting plant raw materials to herbal remedies (on the examples of making tea, tea mixture, drops, gels, and capsules).",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/53301",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/53301",book:{id:"5612",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature"},signatures:"Sofija M. Djordjevic",authors:[{id:"84281",title:"Dr.",name:"Sofija",middleName:null,surname:"Djordjevic",fullName:"Sofija Djordjevic",slug:"sofija-djordjevic",email:"sdjordjevic@mocbilja.rs",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Development and manufacturing of herbal preparations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Use of medicinal plants through history",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Plants are valuable sources of drug discovery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Basic terms related to herbal medicines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Regulations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Parameters of quality and quality control",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.5.2. Quality and quality control of extracts",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.5.4. Monitoring of phytopreparation stability",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.6. Planning and development of new herbal preparation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.6.1. Mono-component tea",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.6.2. Tea for weight loss in filter bags (1.5 g)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.6.3. Herbal drops for weight loss",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.6.4. Herbal cream with extract of comfrey: Comfrey gel",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.6.5. Herbal capsules ODOVAL S®, herbal sedative",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18",title:"3. Conclusions and perspectives",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Veeresham C. Natural products derived from plants as a source of drugs. Journal of Advanced Pharmaceutical Technology & Research. 2012;3(4):200–201. DOI: 10.4103/2231-4040.104709'},{id:"B2",body:'Đorđević S, Dickov A, Pavkov S, Tadić V, Arsić I, Žugić A. Manufacturing process of high quality phytopreparation on example of herbal sedative. Medicinski Pregled. 2013;66(3–4):170–176. DOI: 10.2298/MPNS1304170D'},{id:"B3",body:'Fürst R, Zündorf I. Evidence-based phytotherapy in Europe: where do we stand? Planta Medica. 2015;81(12–13):962–967. DOI: 10.1055/s-0035-1545948'},{id:"B4",body:'Tasić S, Šavikin K, Menković N. Guide to Medicinal Herbs. 2nd ed. Belgrade: Alexandria; 2009. 6 p. ISBN: 978-86-6119-034-6'},{id:"B5",body:'Kišgeci J. Medicinal Plants. Belgrade: Partenon; 2002. 7 p. ISBN: 978-86-7157-188-6'},{id:"B6",body:'Cragg GM, Newman DJ. Natural products: A continuing source of novel drug leads. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 2013;1830(6):3670–3695. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.02.008'},{id:"B7",body:'Petrovska BB. Historical review of medicinal plants’ usage. Pharmacognosy Reviews. 2012;6(11):1–5. DOI: 10.4103/0973-7847.95849'},{id:"B8",body:'Atanasov AG, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Linder T, Wawrosch C, Uhrin P, Temml V, Wang L, Schwaiger S, Heiss EH, Rollinger JM, Schuster D, Breuss JM, Bochkov V, Mihovilovic MD, Kopp B, Bauer R, Dirsch VM, Stuppner H. Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review. Biotechnology Advances. 2015;33(8):1582–1614. DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001'},{id:"B9",body:'Blumenthal M, Hall T, Goldberg A, Kunz T, Dinda K. The ABC Clinical Guide to Herbs. Austin, TX: American Botanical Council; 2003. 19 p. ISBN: 3-13-132391-4'},{id:"B10",body:'Wichtl M. Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals. Stuttgart: Medpharm; 2004. 17 p. ISBN 9780849319617.'},{id:"B11",body:'Schulz V, Hänsel R, Tyler V. Rational Phytotherapy. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 2001. 326 p. DOT: 10.1007/978-3-642-98093-0'},{id:"B12",body:'Tadić V, Đorđević S, Arsić I. Herbal drugs in the treatment of nervous and cardiovascular disorders. HealthMED. 2011;5(5):1206–1210. ISSN: 1840-2291'},{id:"B13",body:'Maridass M, John de Britto A. Origins of plant derived medicines. Ethnobotanical Leaflets. 2008;12:373–387. http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/ebl/vol2008/iss1/44'},{id:"B14",body:'Cupara S, Janković S. Significance of herbal drugs legislation for their rational use. Vojnosanitetski pregled. Vojnosanit Pregled. 2009;66(1):53–56. UDC: 615.311:581.19'},{id:"B15",body:'Qu L, Zou W, Zhou Z, Zhang T, Greef J, Wang M. Non-European traditional herbal medicines in Europe: A community herbal monograph perspective. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2014;156:107–114. DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.08.021'},{id:"B16",body:'\x3c!--
Please provide complete details for Ref. [16].
--\x3eEuropean Pharmacopoeia. 8th ed. vol. 1. Ph Eur 8.1. Council of Europe (EDQM). Strasbourg. 2013. 1133 p. ISBN: 978-92-871-7525-0 '},{id:"B17",body:'Žižović I, Stamenić M, Ivanović J, Orlović A, Ristić M, Đorđević S, Petrović DS, Skala D. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of sesquiterpenes from valerian root. Journal of Supercritical Fluids. 2007;43(2):249–258. DOI:10.1016/j.supflu.2007.05.007'},{id:"B18",body:'Žižović I, Ivanović J, Mišić D, Stamenić M, Đorđević S, Kukić-Marković J, Petrović DS. SFE as a superior technique for isolation of extracts with strong antibacterial activities from lichen Usnea barbata L. Journal of Supercritical Fluids. 2012;72:7–14. DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2012.07.018'},{id:"B19",body:'Tadić V, Bojović D, Arsić I, Đorđević S, Aksentijević K, Stamenić M, Janković S. Chemical and antimicrobial evaluation of supercritical and conventional Sideritis scardica Griseb., Lamiaceae extracts. Molecules. 2012;17(3):2683–2703. DOI: 10.3390/molecules17032683'},{id:"B20",body:'Ćujić N, Šavikin K, Janković T, Pljevljakušić D, Zdunić G, Ibrić S. Optimization of polyphenols extraction from dried chokeberry using maceration as traditional technique. Food Chemistry. 2016;194:135–142. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.08.008'},{id:"B21",body:'Kovačević N. Quality and quality control of herbal drugs, extracts and phytomedicines. Lekovite Sirovine. 2001;20:57–68. UDC: 615.322.07'},{id:"B22",body:'Đorđević S, Petrović S, Ristić M, Đoković D. Composition of Carlina acanthifolia root essential oil. Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 2005;41(4):410–412. DOI: 10.1007/s10600-005-0163-2'},{id:"B23",body:'Huynh-Ba K (ed.). Handbook of Stability Testing in Pharmaceutical Development: Regulations, Methodologies, and Best Practices. Delaware: Pharmalytik Newark; 2009. 139 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-85627-8'},{id:"B24",body:'Arsić I, Tadić V, Đorđević S, Žugić A, Vujić Z, Petrović DS. Optimization of extraction of antioxidant components from Yarrow herb. Hemijska Industrija. 2014;68(4):511–517. DOI: 10.2298/HEMIND130910076A'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sofija M. Djordjevic",address:"sdjordjevic@mocbilja.rs",affiliation:'
Institute of Medicinal Plant Research “Dr Josif Pancic”, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"5612",type:"book",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",publishedDate:"March 15th 2017",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5612.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-953-51-2978-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2977-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7348-9",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:74,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"991"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"53735",type:"chapter",title:"Medicinal Plants to Calm and Treat Psoriasis Disease",slug:"medicinal-plants-to-calm-and-treat-psoriasis-disease",totalDownloads:2561,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Azadeh Izadyari Aghmiuni and Azim Akbarzadeh Khiavi",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"193310",title:"Dr.",name:"Azadeh",middleName:null,surname:"Izadyari Aghmiuni",fullName:"Azadeh Izadyari Aghmiuni",slug:"azadeh-izadyari-aghmiuni"},{id:"194012",title:"Prof.",name:"Azim",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh Khyavi",fullName:"Azim Akbarzadeh Khyavi",slug:"azim-akbarzadeh-khyavi"}]},{id:"53014",type:"chapter",title:"Cardiac Glycosides in Medicinal Plants",slug:"cardiac-glycosides-in-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:5747,totalCrossrefCites:12,signatures:"Nagy Morsy",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"193379",title:"Dr.",name:"Nagy",middleName:null,surname:"Morsy",fullName:"Nagy Morsy",slug:"nagy-morsy"}]},{id:"54028",type:"chapter",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7446,totalCrossrefCites:12,signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani",slug:"khodir-madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez",slug:"pierre-duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane"}]},{id:"53244",type:"chapter",title:"Biological Properties of Essential Oils from the Piper Species of Brazil: A Review",slug:"biological-properties-of-essential-oils-from-the-piper-species-of-brazil-a-review",totalDownloads:2337,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Renata Takeara, Regiane Gonçalves, Vanessa Farias dos Santos\nAyres and Anderson Cavalcante Guimarães",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"193541",title:"Dr.",name:"Renata",middleName:null,surname:"Takeara",fullName:"Renata Takeara",slug:"renata-takeara"},{id:"193600",title:"BSc.",name:"Vanessa F. S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ayres",fullName:"Vanessa F. S. Ayres",slug:"vanessa-f.-s.-ayres"},{id:"193601",title:"Prof.",name:"Anderson C.",middleName:null,surname:"Guimarães",fullName:"Anderson C. Guimarães",slug:"anderson-c.-guimaraes"},{id:"194169",title:"BSc.",name:"Regiane",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Regiane Gonçalves",slug:"regiane-goncalves"}]},{id:"53310",type:"chapter",title:"Culture, History and Applications of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Japan",slug:"culture-history-and-applications-of-medicinal-and-aromatic-plants-in-japan",totalDownloads:2796,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Maiko Inoue, Shinichiro Hayashi and Lyle E. Craker",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"193395",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maiko",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",fullName:"Maiko Inoue",slug:"maiko-inoue"},{id:"196850",title:"BSc.",name:"Shinichiro",middleName:null,surname:"Hayashi",fullName:"Shinichiro Hayashi",slug:"shinichiro-hayashi"},{id:"196853",title:"Prof.",name:"Lyle",middleName:null,surname:"Craker",fullName:"Lyle Craker",slug:"lyle-craker"}]},{id:"53226",type:"chapter",title:"Meeting of the Minds: Traditional Herbal Medicine in Multiethnic Suriname",slug:"meeting-of-the-minds-traditional-herbal-medicine-in-multiethnic-suriname",totalDownloads:2001,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Dennis R.A. Mans, Deeksha Ganga and Joëlle Kartopawiro",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"193905",title:"Dr.",name:"Dennis",middleName:"R. A.",surname:"R.A. Mans",fullName:"Dennis R.A. Mans",slug:"dennis-r.a.-mans"},{id:"193909",title:"Dr.",name:"Joelle",middleName:null,surname:"Kartopawiro",fullName:"Joelle Kartopawiro",slug:"joelle-kartopawiro"},{id:"193910",title:"MSc.",name:"Deeksha",middleName:null,surname:"Ganga",fullName:"Deeksha Ganga",slug:"deeksha-ganga"}]},{id:"53285",type:"chapter",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants in Mexico",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-in-mexico",totalDownloads:2381,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Mariana Palma-Tenango, Ruben San Miguel-Chávez and Ramón\nMarcos Soto-Hernández",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"65790",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Soto-Hernández",fullName:"Marcos Soto-Hernández",slug:"marcos-soto-hernandez"},{id:"193077",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Palma-Tenango",fullName:"Mariana Palma-Tenango",slug:"mariana-palma-tenango"},{id:"198076",title:"MSc.",name:"Rubén",middleName:null,surname:"SanMiguel- Chavez",fullName:"Rubén SanMiguel- Chavez",slug:"ruben-sanmiguel-chavez"}]},{id:"53274",type:"chapter",title:"Romanian Aromatic and Medicinal Plants: From Tradition to Science",slug:"romanian-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-from-tradition-to-science",totalDownloads:2516,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Radu Claudiu Fierascu, Irina Fierascu, Alina Ortan, Sorin Marius\nAvramescu, Cristina Elena Dinu-Pirvu and Daniela Ionescu",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"137269",title:"Dr.",name:"Radu Claudiu",middleName:null,surname:"Fierascu",fullName:"Radu Claudiu Fierascu",slug:"radu-claudiu-fierascu"},{id:"176480",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Fierascu",fullName:"Irina Fierascu",slug:"irina-fierascu"},{id:"193808",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina",middleName:null,surname:"Ortan",fullName:"Alina Ortan",slug:"alina-ortan"},{id:"193809",title:"Dr.",name:"Sorin Marius",middleName:null,surname:"Avramescu",fullName:"Sorin Marius Avramescu",slug:"sorin-marius-avramescu"},{id:"193810",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Dinu-Pirvu",fullName:"Cristina Dinu-Pirvu",slug:"cristina-dinu-pirvu"},{id:"193811",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Ionescu",fullName:"Daniela Ionescu",slug:"daniela-ionescu"}]},{id:"53507",type:"chapter",title:"Phytochemistry, Antioxidant, Antibacterial Activity, and Medicinal Uses of Aromatic (Medicinal Plant Rosmarinus officinalis)",slug:"phytochemistry-antioxidant-antibacterial-activity-and-medicinal-uses-of-aromatic-medicinal-plant-ros",totalDownloads:2169,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Imad Hadi Hameed and Ghaidaa Jihadi Mohammed",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"193792",title:"Prof.",name:"Imad Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Hameed",fullName:"Imad Hadi Hameed",slug:"imad-hadi-hameed"},{id:"198325",title:"Prof.",name:"Ghaidaa",middleName:null,surname:"Jihadi",fullName:"Ghaidaa Jihadi",slug:"ghaidaa-jihadi"},{id:"198326",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohanad",middleName:null,surname:"Jawad",fullName:"Mohanad Jawad",slug:"mohanad-jawad"},{id:"203230",title:"Prof.",name:"Amean",middleName:null,surname:"A Yasir",fullName:"Amean A Yasir",slug:"amean-a-yasir"}]},{id:"53488",type:"chapter",title:"Some Mexican Plants Used in Traditional Medicine",slug:"some-mexican-plants-used-in-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:1948,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Mayela Govea-Salas, Jésus Morlett-Chávez, Raúl Rodriguez-Herrera\nand Juan Ascacio-Valdés",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"183439",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Herrera",fullName:"Raul Rodriguez-Herrera",slug:"raul-rodriguez-herrera"},{id:"193767",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Morlett",fullName:"Jesus Morlett",slug:"jesus-morlett"},{id:"197591",title:"MSc.",name:"Mayela",middleName:null,surname:"Govea-Salas",fullName:"Mayela Govea-Salas",slug:"mayela-govea-salas"},{id:"197592",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Ascacio-Valdes",fullName:"Alberto Ascacio-Valdes",slug:"alberto-ascacio-valdes"}]},{id:"53475",type:"chapter",title:"Education for Sustainable Development",slug:"education-for-sustainable-development",totalDownloads:1790,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Busisiwe Ndawonde, Sitwala Namwinji Imenda and Humbulani\nNancy Mutshaeni",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"193656",title:"Dr.",name:"Busisiwe",middleName:null,surname:"Ndawonde",fullName:"Busisiwe Ndawonde",slug:"busisiwe-ndawonde"}]},{id:"54021",type:"chapter",title:"Medicinal Plants in the Northwestern China and Their Medicinal Uses",slug:"medicinal-plants-in-the-northwestern-china-and-their-medicinal-uses",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Liu Dongling, Wang Yinquan and Tian Ling",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"193765",title:"Dr.",name:"Yin Quan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Yin Quan Wang",slug:"yin-quan-wang"}]},{id:"53229",type:"chapter",title:"Aromatic Compounds: From Plant to Nutraceuticals—An Example of Capsaicin",slug:"aromatic-compounds-from-plant-to-nutraceuticals-an-example-of-capsaicin",totalDownloads:1505,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Adebayo Taiwo Ezekiel Jolayemi",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"193523",title:"Dr.",name:"Adebayo",middleName:null,surname:"Jolayemi",fullName:"Adebayo Jolayemi",slug:"adebayo-jolayemi"}]},{id:"52870",type:"chapter",title:"Capsaicin: Aromatic Basis and Mechanism of Action: An Example of Positive Inhibition",slug:"capsaicin-aromatic-basis-and-mechanism-of-action-an-example-of-positive-inhibition",totalDownloads:1799,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Adebayo Taiwo Ezekiel Jolayemi",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"193523",title:"Dr.",name:"Adebayo",middleName:null,surname:"Jolayemi",fullName:"Adebayo Jolayemi",slug:"adebayo-jolayemi"}]},{id:"53283",type:"chapter",title:"Lesser Known Aromatic Plants in Nigeria",slug:"lesser-known-aromatic-plants-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:2025,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ngozichukwuka P. Igoli and John O. Igoli",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"194059",title:"Dr.",name:"Ngozichukwuka",middleName:null,surname:"Igoli",fullName:"Ngozichukwuka Igoli",slug:"ngozichukwuka-igoli"},{id:"196076",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:"Ogbaji",surname:"Igoli",fullName:"John Igoli",slug:"john-igoli"}]},{id:"53301",type:"chapter",title:"From Medicinal Plant Raw Material to Herbal Remedies",slug:"from-medicinal-plant-raw-material-to-herbal-remedies",totalDownloads:4754,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Sofija M. Djordjevic",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"84281",title:"Dr.",name:"Sofija",middleName:null,surname:"Djordjevic",fullName:"Sofija Djordjevic",slug:"sofija-djordjevic"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"497",title:"Soybean and Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11aa0c9ed0f6ea8da765be93b50954bb",slug:"soybean-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Hany El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/497.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"19972",title:"Nutritional Value of Soybean Meal",slug:"nutritional-value-of-soybean-meal",signatures:"Teresa Banaszkiewicz",authors:[{id:"51014",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Banaszkiewicz",fullName:"Teresa Banaszkiewicz",slug:"teresa-banaszkiewicz"}]},{id:"19973",title:"Soy as a Functional Food",slug:"soy-as-a-functional-food",signatures:"Jocelem Mastrodi Salgado and Carlos M. Donado-Pestana",authors:[{id:"47486",title:"Dr.",name:"Jocelem",middleName:null,surname:"Mastrodi Salgado",fullName:"Jocelem Mastrodi Salgado",slug:"jocelem-mastrodi-salgado"},{id:"68007",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Donado-Pestana",fullName:"Carlos Mario Donado-Pestana",slug:"carlos-mario-donado-pestana"}]},{id:"19974",title:"Use of Soybean in Cereal Based Food Formulation and Development of Nutritionally Improved Foods",slug:"use-of-soybean-in-cereal-based-food-formulation-and-development-of-nutritionally-improved-foods",signatures:"Silvina R. Drago, María S. Lassa, Roberto L. Torres, Dardo M. De Greef and Rolando J. González",authors:[{id:"46159",title:"Prof.",name:"Rolando",middleName:null,surname:"González",fullName:"Rolando González",slug:"rolando-gonzalez"},{id:"51227",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvina Rosa",middleName:null,surname:"Drago",fullName:"Silvina Rosa Drago",slug:"silvina-rosa-drago"},{id:"51228",title:"MSc.",name:"María Silvina",middleName:null,surname:"Lassa",fullName:"María Silvina Lassa",slug:"maria-silvina-lassa"},{id:"51229",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",fullName:"Roberto Luis Torres",slug:"roberto-luis-torres"},{id:"51230",title:"Mr.",name:"Dardo Mario",middleName:null,surname:"De Greef",fullName:"Dardo Mario De Greef",slug:"dardo-mario-de-greef"}]},{id:"19975",title:"Phytase: An Enzyme to Improve Soybean Nutrition",slug:"phytase-an-enzyme-to-improve-soybean-nutrition",signatures:"Xin Gen Lei and Jesus M. Porres",authors:[{id:"37513",title:"Prof.",name:"XINGEN",middleName:null,surname:"LEI",fullName:"XINGEN LEI",slug:"xingen-lei"},{id:"45337",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Porres",fullName:"Jesus Porres",slug:"jesus-porres"}]},{id:"19976",title:"Utilization of Soybean as Food Stuffs in Korea",slug:"utilization-of-soybean-as-food-stuffs-in-korea",signatures:"Dong Hwa Shin",authors:[{id:"45642",title:"Prof.",name:"Dong-Hwa",middleName:null,surname:"Shin",fullName:"Dong-Hwa Shin",slug:"dong-hwa-shin"}]},{id:"19977",title:"Soybean Meal Quality and Analytical Techniques",slug:"soybean-meal-quality-and-analytical-techniques",signatures:"W. A. Dozier, III and J. B. Hess",authors:[{id:"55833",title:"Dr.",name:"W. A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dozier, Iii",fullName:"W. A. Dozier, Iii",slug:"w.-a.-dozier-iii"},{id:"136330",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph B. (Joe)",middleName:null,surname:"Hess",fullName:"Joseph B. (Joe) Hess",slug:"joseph-b.-(joe)-hess"}]},{id:"19978",title:"Advances in Soybean and Soybean By-Products in Monogastric Nutrition and Health",slug:"advances-in-soybean-and-soybean-by-products-in-monogastric-nutrition-and-health",signatures:"Samuel N. Nahashon and Agnes K. Kilonzo-Nthenge",authors:[{id:"41915",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:"N.",surname:"Nahashon",fullName:"Samuel Nahashon",slug:"samuel-nahashon"},{id:"48133",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnes",middleName:null,surname:"Kilonzo-Nthenge",fullName:"Agnes Kilonzo-Nthenge",slug:"agnes-kilonzo-nthenge"}]},{id:"19979",title:"Soya, Human Nutrition and Health",slug:"soya-human-nutrition-and-health",signatures:"Sylvia Burssens, Ine Pertry, Delphin Diasolua Ngudi, Yu-Haey Kuo, Marc Van Montagu and Fernand Lambein",authors:[{id:"45563",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernand",middleName:null,surname:"Lambein",fullName:"Fernand Lambein",slug:"fernand-lambein"},{id:"46725",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Burssens",fullName:"Sylvia Burssens",slug:"sylvia-burssens"},{id:"46726",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Ingelbrecht",fullName:"Ivan Ingelbrecht",slug:"ivan-ingelbrecht"},{id:"46727",title:"Dr.",name:"Delphin",middleName:null,surname:"Diasolua Ngudi",fullName:"Delphin Diasolua Ngudi",slug:"delphin-diasolua-ngudi"},{id:"46728",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu-Haey",middleName:null,surname:"Kuo",fullName:"Yu-Haey Kuo",slug:"yu-haey-kuo"}]},{id:"19980",title:"Feeds with Probiotics in Animals’ Nutrition",slug:"feeds-with-probiotics-in-animals-nutrition",signatures:"Joanna Biernasiak, Katarzyna Śliżewska and Zdzisława Libudzisz",authors:[{id:"39929",title:"Dr.",name:"Biernasiak",middleName:null,surname:"Joanna",fullName:"Biernasiak Joanna",slug:"biernasiak-joanna"},{id:"46832",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Slizewska",fullName:"Katarzyna Slizewska",slug:"katarzyna-slizewska"},{id:"46833",title:"Prof.",name:"Zdzisława",middleName:null,surname:"Libudzisz",fullName:"Zdzisława Libudzisz",slug:"zdzislawa-libudzisz"}]},{id:"19981",title:"Using Exogenous Enzymes to Increase the Nutritional Value of Soybean Meal in Poultry Diet",slug:"using-exogenous-enzymes-to-increase-the-nutritional-value-of-soybean-meal-in-poultry-diet",signatures:"Tuoying Ao",authors:[{id:"34231",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuoying",middleName:null,surname:"Ao",fullName:"Tuoying Ao",slug:"tuoying-ao"}]},{id:"19982",title:"Soybean Peptide: Novel Plant Growth Promoting Peptide from Soybean",slug:"soybean-peptide-novel-plant-growth-promoting-peptide-from-soybean",signatures:"Yoshiki Matsumiya and Motoki Kubo",authors:[{id:"33767",title:"Prof.",name:"Motoki",middleName:null,surname:"Kubo",fullName:"Motoki Kubo",slug:"motoki-kubo"},{id:"46758",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshiki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsumiya",fullName:"Yoshiki Matsumiya",slug:"yoshiki-matsumiya"}]},{id:"19983",title:"Dietary Effect of Soybean (Glycine max) Products on Gut Histology and Microbiota of Fish",slug:"dietary-effect-of-soybean-glycine-max-products-on-gut-histology-and-microbiota-of-fish",signatures:"Daniel L. Merrifield, Rolf Erik Olsen, Reidar Myklebust and Einar Ringø",authors:[{id:"37424",title:"Prof.",name:"Einar",middleName:null,surname:"Ringø",fullName:"Einar Ringø",slug:"einar-ringo"},{id:"37436",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Merrifield",fullName:"Daniel Merrifield",slug:"daniel-merrifield"},{id:"91338",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolf Erik",middleName:null,surname:"Olsen",fullName:"Rolf Erik Olsen",slug:"rolf-erik-olsen"},{id:"91341",title:"Prof.",name:"Reidar",middleName:null,surname:"Myklebust",fullName:"Reidar Myklebust",slug:"reidar-myklebust"}]},{id:"19984",title:"Soybean Oil in Horses’ Diets",slug:"soybean-oil-in-horses-diets",signatures:"Fernando Queiroz de Almeida and Fernanda Nascimento de Godoi",authors:[{id:"44613",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Almeida",fullName:"Fernando Almeida",slug:"fernando-almeida"},{id:"44618",title:"MSc",name:"Fernanda",middleName:"Nascimento",surname:"Godoi",fullName:"Fernanda Godoi",slug:"fernanda-godoi"}]},{id:"19985",title:"Effect of Maternal Selenium and Methionine on Poultry Products (Egg and Meat) Qualities and Oxidative Stability",slug:"effect-of-maternal-selenium-and-methionine-on-poultry-products-egg-and-meat-qualities-and-oxidative-",signatures:"D. J. Wu, X. J. Pan, Z. G. Wang, Z. Q. Peng, L. Y. Zhao and Y. W. Zhang",authors:[{id:"32984",title:"Dr.",name:"zengqi",middleName:null,surname:"peng",fullName:"zengqi peng",slug:"zengqi-peng"},{id:"111670",title:"MSc.",name:"wu",middleName:null,surname:"Dingjing",fullName:"wu Dingjing",slug:"wu-dingjing"}]},{id:"19986",title:"Soy and Soy-Based Foods: Role in Health and Nutrition",slug:"soy-and-soy-based-foods-role-in-health-and-nutrition",signatures:"Ana Villares, Ana García-Lafuente, Irene Palacios, Miguel Lozano, Carlos Moro and Eva Guillamón",authors:[{id:"30083",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Villares",fullName:"Ana Villares",slug:"ana-villares"},{id:"46183",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Lafuente",fullName:"Ana García-Lafuente",slug:"ana-garcia-lafuente"},{id:"46184",title:"Ms.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Palacios",fullName:"Irene Palacios",slug:"irene-palacios"},{id:"46185",title:"Mr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Lozano",fullName:"Miguel Lozano",slug:"miguel-lozano"},{id:"46186",title:"Mr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Moro",fullName:"Carlos Moro",slug:"carlos-moro"},{id:"46187",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Guillamón",fullName:"Eva Guillamón",slug:"eva-guillamon"}]},{id:"19987",title:"“Okara” a New Preparation of Food Material with Antioxidant Activity and Dietary Fiber from Soybean",slug:"-okara-a-new-preparation-of-food-material-with-antioxidant-activity-and-dietary-fiber-from-soybean",signatures:"Kohei Suruga, Akihisa Kato, Kazunari Kadokura, Wataru Hiruma, Yoshihiro Sekino, C. A. Tony Buffington and Yasuhiho Komatsu",authors:[{id:"32686",title:"Dr.",name:"Kohei",middleName:null,surname:"Suruga",fullName:"Kohei Suruga",slug:"kohei-suruga"},{id:"136354",title:"Dr.",name:"Akihisa",middleName:null,surname:"Kato",fullName:"Akihisa Kato",slug:"akihisa-kato"},{id:"136355",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazunari",middleName:null,surname:"Kadokura",fullName:"Kazunari Kadokura",slug:"kazunari-kadokura"},{id:"136356",title:"Prof.",name:"Wataru",middleName:null,surname:"Hiruma",fullName:"Wataru Hiruma",slug:"wataru-hiruma"},{id:"136357",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sekino",fullName:"Yoshihiro Sekino",slug:"yoshihiro-sekino"},{id:"136358",title:"PhD.",name:"Tony",middleName:null,surname:"Buffington",fullName:"Tony Buffington",slug:"tony-buffington"},{id:"136359",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuhiho",middleName:null,surname:"Komatsu",fullName:"Yasuhiho Komatsu",slug:"yasuhiho-komatsu"}]},{id:"19988",title:"Soybean: Friend or Foe",slug:"soybean-friend-or-foe",signatures:"Cristina M. Sena and Raquel M. Seiça",authors:[{id:"33878",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Sena",fullName:"Cristina Sena",slug:"cristina-sena"},{id:"45039",title:"Prof.",name:"Raquel",middleName:null,surname:"Seiça",fullName:"Raquel Seiça",slug:"raquel-seica"}]},{id:"19989",title:"Metabolism of α- Linolenic Acid (ALA) in Meat Animals",slug:"metabolism-of-linolenic-acid-ala-in-meat-animals",signatures:"Pilar Teresa Garcia",authors:[{id:"33493",title:"Dr.",name:"Pilar Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",fullName:"Pilar Teresa Garcia",slug:"pilar-teresa-garcia"}]},{id:"19990",title:"Soya Bean Meal and Its Extensive Use in Livestock Feeding and Nutrition",slug:"soya-bean-meal-and-its-extensive-use-in-livestock-feeding-and-nutrition",signatures:"Yulong Yin, Andrew A. Fatufe and Francois Blachier",authors:[{id:"32700",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulong",middleName:null,surname:"Yin",fullName:"Yulong Yin",slug:"yulong-yin"},{id:"136352",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Fatufe",fullName:"Andrew Fatufe",slug:"andrew-fatufe"},{id:"136353",title:"Prof.",name:"Francois",middleName:null,surname:"Blachier",fullName:"Francois Blachier",slug:"francois-blachier"}]},{id:"19991",title:"Soybean and Allergy",slug:"soybean-and-allergy",signatures:"Keiji Sugiura and Mariko Sugiura",authors:[{id:"32619",title:"Dr.",name:"Keiji",middleName:null,surname:"Sugiura",fullName:"Keiji Sugiura",slug:"keiji-sugiura"},{id:"32625",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariko",middleName:null,surname:"Sugiura",fullName:"Mariko Sugiura",slug:"mariko-sugiura"}]},{id:"19992",title:"Soybean: Food or Remedy?",slug:"soybean-food-or-remedy-",signatures:"Sandra Maria Barbalho and Flávia, M. V. Farinazzi-Machado",authors:[{id:"32415",title:"Dr",name:"Sandra",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Barbalho",fullName:"Sandra Barbalho",slug:"sandra-barbalho"},{id:"33325",title:"MSc",name:"Flávia",middleName:"Maria Vasques",surname:"Farinazzi-Machado",fullName:"Flávia Farinazzi-Machado",slug:"flavia-farinazzi-machado"}]},{id:"19993",title:"Soybean the Main Nitrogen Source in Cultivation Substrates of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms",slug:"soybean-the-main-nitrogen-source-in-cultivation-substrates-of-edible-and-medicinal-mushrooms",signatures:"Diego Cunha Zied, Jean-Michel Savoie and Arturo Pardo-Giménez",authors:[{id:"29145",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Zied",fullName:"Diego Zied",slug:"diego-zied"},{id:"45408",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Savoie",fullName:"Jean-Michel Savoie",slug:"jean-michel-savoie"},{id:"45409",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Pardo-Giménez",fullName:"Arturo Pardo-Giménez",slug:"arturo-pardo-gimenez"}]},{id:"19994",title:"Assessing Compositional Differences in Soy Products and Impacts on Health Claims",slug:"assessing-compositional-differences-in-soy-products-and-impacts-on-health-claims",signatures:"Joyce Boye and Sabine Ribéreau",authors:[{id:"29137",title:"Dr.",name:"Joyce",middleName:null,surname:"Boye",fullName:"Joyce Boye",slug:"joyce-boye"},{id:"136334",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabine",middleName:null,surname:"Ribéreau",fullName:"Sabine Ribéreau",slug:"sabine-ribereau"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5494",title:"Chinese Medical Therapies for Diabetes, Infertility, Silicosis and the Theoretical Basis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7b3b6a2700d7fd0511770bf77290a422",slug:"chinese-medical-therapies-for-diabetes-infertility-silicosis-and-the-theoretical-basis",bookSignature:"Xing-Tai Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5494.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73821",title:"Dr.",name:"Xing-Tai",surname:"Li",slug:"xing-tai-li",fullName:"Xing-Tai Li"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5612",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccf7987200bfc541e2e56bb138de86f3",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5612.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10907",title:"Herbs and Spices",subtitle:"New Processing Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95ecdf9c56db9567aa29b880dba5836",slug:"herbs-and-spices-new-processing-technologies",bookSignature:"Rabia Shabir Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10907.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"239057",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia Shabir",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rabia-shabir-ahmad",fullName:"Rabia Shabir Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10926",title:"Traditional Plant-Based Forms of Treatment of Fungal Infections in Suriname",subtitle:"Phytochemical and Pharmacological Rationale",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6e1a574ef8f9d3d79e4f6b22d4d44d91",slug:"traditional-plant-based-forms-of-treatment-of-fungal-infections-in-suriname-phytochemical-and-pharmacological-rationale",bookSignature:"Dennis R.A. Mans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193905",title:"Dr.",name:"Dennis",surname:"R.A. Mans",slug:"dennis-r.a.-mans",fullName:"Dennis R.A. Mans"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"4",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"5612",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccf7987200bfc541e2e56bb138de86f3",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5612.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"77986",title:"COVID-19 Transmission in Children: Implications for Schools",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99418",slug:"covid-19-transmission-in-children-implications-for-schools",body:'
1. Introduction
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is caused by a virus in the beta-coronavirus family, SARS-CoV-2. The specific characteristics of COVID-19 infection in children are of particular interest. Little is unknown about the epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 transmission in children. The transmissibility of COVID-19 in general is greater than other coronaviruses [1]. COVID-19 is typically asymptomatic or presents with mild symptoms [1, 2]. Coronavirus causes up to 14% of respiratory infections in children however influenza virus infections remain the most common pediatric infections. Those most likely to be infected with SARS-CoV-2 are children under three years of age [1] and more specifically, children under one year of age. Furthermore, according to a metanalysis, 50% of children under the age of five infected with COVID-19 were infants under one year of age, male and were exposed to the infection via community transmission [3]. This highlights the importance of testing and disease monitoring in families with infants and young children.
COVID-19 disease is less common in children than adults [1, 2]. The lower incidence of COVID infection in children may be explained by the lower expression of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) and TMORSS2 (protease) in alveolar epithelial cells in children in comparison to adults and decreased viral transmission [2, 3, 4]. The higher rates of infection seen in infants may be due to their immature immune system, which not only increases their risk of infection, but also makes vaccination less effective [1, 3]. Maternal immunization may provide maternal-fetal protection [1, 3, 4]. In addition, maternal immunization may protect young children as transmission from COVID-positive mothers to children has been documented [1, 4]. Therefore, targeted maternal vaccination may be an important tool to protect vulnerable infants and children.
2. SARS-CoV-2 overview
Since the discovery of SARS in 2002, including the recent detection of SARS-CoV-2, seven strains of human coronavirus have been identified, defined by the WHO as “A broad family of viruses that cause various conditions, from the common cold to more serious illnesses, such as the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus and the one that causes severe acute respiratory syndrome.” Among them, SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the 2019 coronavirus disease, originated in Wuhan (Hubei, China) in December 2019, was declared a pandemic by the WHO in March 2020 and is defined as an “enveloped positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus 80-220 nm in diameter. The envelope has corona-shaped peaks 20 nm in length that resemble the corona of the sun under electron microscopy” [5].
The coronaviral genome encodes four major structural proteins, the spike protein (S), the nucleocapsid protein (N), the membrane protein (M), and the envelope protein (E), all of which are necessary to produce a structurally complete viral particle. Unlike the other major structural proteins, N is the only protein that functions primarily to bind to the CoV RNA genome, forming the nucleocapsid. Although N is largely involved in processes related to the viral genome, it is also involved in other aspects of the CoV replication cycle and the host’s cellular response to viral infection [6]. Furthermore, protein S plays a crucial role in the entry of the virus into host cells and the structural capabilities of this newly discovered SARS-CoV-2 enhance its intended actions. Because these prominent peaks are the first point of contact with host receptors, therapeutic strategies can be applied to prevent their binding to target receptors and prevent viral entry into host cells [7].
The WHO reported that the most common symptoms of COVID-19 are fever, dry cough and tiredness. Other less frequent symptoms include nasal congestion, headache, conjunctivitis, sore throat, diarrhea, loss of taste or smell, skin rashes or changes in the color of the fingers or toes [8]. These symptoms are usually mild and begin gradually. Approximately 80% of people recover without the need for hospital care, while approximately 1 in 5 people who contract COVID-19 end up with severe symptoms and experience breathing difficulties. Elderly people with underlying diseases, such as high blood pressure, heart disease, lung problems, diabetes or cancer are more likely to suffer from an aggravated clinical stage [8].
The primary route of transmission to humans was zoonotic, via interaction with animals. A hypothesis that was later confirmed and defined by the WHO was that the virus was spread through droplets that are expelled from the nose or mouth of an infected person by coughing, sneezing, or talking, and even by touching infected objects and surfaces, such as tables, doorknobs, and railings, so that healthy people can become infected if they touch those objects or surfaces and then touch their eyes, nose, or mouth [9].
Kotfis & Skonieczna-Żydecka identified viral cells in gastrointestinal biopsy samples, including those that belonged to patients who had left the hospitals, which may partially explain gastrointestinal symptoms, potential recurrence, and transmission of SARS by persistent shedding in stool as well. Specifically, the virus is protein molecule covered by a protective lipid layer that is absorbed into ocular, nasal, oral and gastrointestinal mucosal epithelial cells and replicates there [10].
2.1 ACE2: The door to SARS-CoV2
The renin angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS) is the primary regulator of plasma volume, maintaining cardiovascular and fluid homeostasis. This system plays a protective and adaptive role against risk phenomena, such as hypotension, sodium or water deprivation, and in turn, its dysregulation has implications in the development of hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases [11].
Activation of the classic RAAS pathway begins in the juxtaglomerular apparatus with the release of preformed renin from its prorenin precursor, secondary to baroreflex, beta-adrenergic or molecular stimuli in the macula densa. Renin takes the hepatic precursor angiotensinogen and converts it into angiotensin I (Ang I) [11]. This decapeptide has no specific known physiological action and ends up being converted into octapeptide angiotensin II (Ang II) by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), which is located primarily in cells of the pulmonary endothelium, as well as other tissues [11].
Ang II acts on AT1 receptors and exerts powerful vasoconstrictive, profibrotic and proinflammatory effects [6]. The action of Ang II on the AT2 receptor generates the opposite vasodilator and antiproliferative effect [11].
ACE is an essential component of the renin angiotensin aldosterone system, functioning as a transmembrane protein with two N- and C-terminal active catalytic domains. The C-terminal domain generates the soluble carboxypeptidase that removes the carboxy-terminal dipeptide of Ang I, generating Ang II, while hydrolysis of the vasodilator peptides, called bradykinins, occurs by the enzymatic action of both domains. ACE2 is a monocarboxypeptidase homologous to ACE but has only one transmembrane helix, an intracellular segment, and N- and C-terminal domains with a single enzymatic active site, endowing ACE with distinct characteristics [11].
ACE2 is also homologous to ACE, which plays a role in the cleavage of angiotensin I into angiotensin-(1–9) and the vasoconstrictor peptide angiotensin II in the vasodilator angiotensin-(1–7). Consequently, ACE2 acts as the entry point into cells for various coronaviruses [12]. By cleaving angiotensin II and increasing vasodilator angiotensin-(1–7), it can act as an important regulator of cardiac function and plays a protective role in acute lung injury.
Possible antitumor effects of ACE2 and future therapeutic prospects for cancers have been reported for ACE2. Unfortunately, ACE2 has a high affinity for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) [7], which may explain its manifestations at the respiratory level.
2.2 SARS-CoV-2 and ACE2
Viral infections bind their viral structures with receptors on the host cell surface. Although it has been shown that there are several coronaviruses that cause human diseases, only three of them bind ACE2: SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2 and HCoV-NL63, with SARS-CoV being responsible for a health emergency known as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003 in China. Curiously, glycoprotein S is characterized as the critical determinant for viral entry into host cells, consisting of two functional subunits, S1 and S2. The S1 subunit recognizes and binds to the host receptor through the receptor-binding domain (RBD), while S2 is responsible for fusion with the host cell membrane. MERS-CoV uses dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) as an entry receptor, while SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 use ACE2, which is abundantly expressed in pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells and enterocytes, suggesting glycoprotein S as a potential drug target to stop SARS-CoV-2 entry [13].
However, SARS-CoV infection downregulates surface expression of the binding protein (ACE2), a fundamental component for the entry of the host cell. Low ACE2 expression is associated with a greater severity of the infection in epithelial cells of the human respiratory tract [14].
3. Presentation of COVID-19 in children
The presentation of COVID-19 in children differs somewhat from the presentation seen in adults. COVID-19 in children most commonly present with fever and cough [15] and gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea and vomiting. Gastrointestinal symptoms are reported in a considerable portion of cases [1, 3, 15] which is less characteristic of adult cases. While some patients develop respiratory distress syndrome, the severe form of COVID-19 is less common in children as compared to adults [15] and the mortality rate of COVID-19 in children is <0.1%. COVID-19 infection in children may present with anemia, thrombocytopenia, hypoalbuminemia, and altered INR [12]. Other laboratory abnormalities may include leukopenia, lymphopenia, increased transaminases and inflammatory markers such as procalcitonin and C-reactive protein [1, 16]. While patchy lesions in pulmonary lobules of children are identified on chest computed tomographic scans with moderate infection, the ground-glass opacities which are a typical feature in adults are rare in pediatric patients [15]. The mechanisms underlying the unique presentation of COVID-19 in children are unknown and further study is required to understand why the presentation differs in children.
IgA antibodies have been found both in Kawasaki disease and in COVID-19 cases with vasculitis. This suggests that MIS-C could be triggered by a COVID-19 infection and that similar to Kawasaki disease, IgA antibodies are produced. These antibodies have receptors in endothelial, mucosal, and cardiac cells [1]. This hypothesis that the vasculitis is mediated by IgA antibodies may explain the similarities between the two pathologies and the potential post-infectious origin [1].
Another common pathology associated with COVID-19 in children is “COVID toes”, or chilblains. This primarily affects the toes but can also be seen in the heels and fingers, presenting as red-purple, tender, or itchy bumps [17]. The cause appears to be the result of vascular damage through the impact of the SARS-CoV-2 virus on endothelial cells as well as T-cells CD4, CD8, and B-cells [1].
3.1 Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C)
While most cases of COVID-19 in children range from asymptomatic to mild/moderate disease, severe disease has been documented in children. Some countries have documented cases of COVID-19 in children under the age of five [1, 18] with an acute inflammatory syndrome called Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) [1, 3] that is similar to Kawasaki disease [1, 3, 19] that is a medium-vessel vasculitis [1, 18] and typically presents 2 weeks after initial infection. The most commonly affected vessels in MIS-C are the coronary arteries [20].
Most infants (more than 80%) infected with SARS-CoV-2 develop mild COVID-19 with a natural history similar to other self-limited respiratory viruses, without complications [21]. But in the case of children who develop MIS-C, severe systemic inflammation occurs with elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines and acute phase reactants, affecting multiple organ systems including the gastrointestinal, respiratory, cardiovascular, renal, hepatic, hematological and nervous systems among others [22, 23]. The most comprised organ systems include the gastrointestinal, dermatologic and cardiovascular organ systems.
MIS-C typically presents with fever lasting more than 4 days [1, 12, 16] as the universal characteristic. Gastrointestinal symptoms [1, 3, 12] may also present as the first symptoms [24]. These include abdominal pain, vomiting [1, 3, 12], and diarrhea [24]. Neurological symptoms such as headache, sensory disturbances, and meningeal signs [1, 24] can also be present. Hemodynamic instability can be present as well as cardiovascular complications including heart failure, myocarditis and pericarditis. Laboratory values may demonstrate elevations in troponin, proBNP, ferritin, C-reactive protein, and D-dimer with neutrophilia and lymphopenia [1, 12, 16]. Patients may also develop shock [1, 16] with single or multi-organ dysfunction requiring intensive care, mechanical ventilation [1, 12] and/or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) [3, 12]. Cytokine storm and ferritin counts >1400 μg/L may present in older patients [1]. In summary, MIS-C presents as a hyperinflammatory syndrome with gastrointestinal, neurologic and cardiac manifestations.
3.2 Epidemiology of MIS-C
In April 2020, the United Kingdom reported a series of cases with clinical presentation similar to Kawasaki disease (KD), toxic shock syndrome (TSS) and hyper-inflammatory state that had an epidemiological link with SARS-CoV-2 [25]; since that event, clinically similar cases have been reported in other parts of the world, including France, Switzerland, the United States, Canada, Norway, among others [18, 26, 27, 28]. After the notification of these cases, an expert consensus among critical care, infectiology, rheumatology and hematology pediatric subspecialists named this new clinical condition “Multisystemic inflammatory syndrome in children”.
The worldwide incidence of SARS-CoV-2 in children under 18 years of age is 322 cases per 100,000 inhabitants and the incidence of MIS-C is 2 per 100,000 inhabitants [29]. The first cases were reported in the United Kingdom, as well as in other places in Europe (France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Sweden), later in Canada and the United States [30]. Most cases of MIS-C occur in previously healthy children older than 8 years and adolescents. Children of African-American and Latino ancestry are the most affected, in contrast to classic KD, which typically affects children under 5 years of age and has a higher incidence in East Asia and in children of Asian descent [31].
The first report of MIS-C was a series of 8 cases receiving medical assistance in southeast England [25]. Subsequently, 3 series of cases were reported in England (n = 58), France and Switzerland (n = 35) and New York (n = 33). In most cases, the children were previously healthy, that is, without underlying comorbidities (88% in the United Kingdom, 89% in France, and 79% in the New York series) [12, 18]. In those with comorbidities, obesity and asthma were the most frequent. The average age was 10 years with an age range of 1 to 17 years [32].
To date, the prognostic factors of severe disease in children are not known, however, a French prospective study that took data from 397 children admitted for COVID-19 in 60 hospitals identified three factors that were independently associated with severe evolution of the disease in the univariate analysis: age ≥ 10 years (OR: 3.4; p = 0.034), hypoxemia (OR: 8.9; p = 0.0004) and C-reactive protein ≥80 mg / L (OR: 6; p = 0.012) [33]. Meanwhile, research presented at the 2021 ENDO Virtual Congress revealed that children with type 1 diabetes whose glycated hemoglobin (A1c) is greater than 9% have a higher risk of severe forms of COVID-19 [34]. At the moment many efforts are being carried out in order to better characterize the pediatric population at risk, with the aim of identifying susceptible populations early and preventing life-threatening events in infants.
3.3 The epidemiology of MIS-C in the Americas
As of January 14, 2021, a total of 17 countries in the Region of the Americas have officially notified PAHO / WHO or have published information through an official website a total of 2,737 cumulative confirmed cases of MIS-C that coincide chronologically with COVID-19, including 78 deaths [18]. Of the total reported cases, 66% were between 0 and 9 years old at the time of illness and only 10% were in the age group between 15 and 19 years. Regarding the outcome of these cases, the highest proportion of deaths is observed in the age group of 15 to 19 years. Regarding the distribution by sex, 56% of the cases are male [35].
The countries with the highest number of confirmed cases are the United States with 1,659 cases, Brazil with 631 cases, Chile with 151 cases, the Dominican Republic with 102 cases, and Argentina with 65 cases [36]. So far in Colombia, 3 cases of MIS-C have been identified in the district of Cartagena. These cases were detected through media monitoring. The incidence rate of COVID-19 in people under 18 years of age per 100,000 inhabitants in Colombia by department, shows us that the departments and districts above the 75th percentile are: Amazonas, Barranquilla, Atlántico, Bogotá, Cartagena, Chocó, Cesar and Nariño; Between the 50 to 75 percentiles are the departments of Valle del Cauca, Cundinamarca, Santa Marta, Sucre, Tolima, Bolívar, Magdalena, Antioquia. At the 25th percentile are Risaralda, Arauca, Cauca, Santander, Córdoba, Quindío, Caldas and Norte de Santander and below the 25th percentile are Boyacá, Guajira, Meta and Huila [37].
3.4 Pathophysiology of MIS-C
MIS-C is a clinically severe event that mimics other pathologies that present with hyper-inflammatory status in the pediatric population, in mention: KD, SST, Hemophagocytic Lymphohistocytosis (HHL), Macrophage Activation Syndrome (SAM), among others [38]. It is characterized by persistent fever (≥38°C) for more than 24 hours, with involvement of vital organs and consequent cardiological, renal, gastrointestinal, respiratory and / or hematological affection. Patients may present with maculopapular rash, arthritis, and aseptic bilateral conjunctivitis, similar to KD [39].
Symptoms begin 2 to 6 weeks after the resolution of COVID-19 symptoms (in those symptomatic), so it is suggested that it is not due to an effect of the acute event, but to an event mediated by the mechanisms of acquired immunity (cellular and / or humoral) [40]. In the initial stage, fever is usually documented, accompanied by constitutional symptoms, intense headache, general malaise, irritability, GI manifestations such as abdominal pain, vomiting or diarrhea, palmar and / or plantar erythema, mucosal edema, among others less frequent [41].
A range of cardiac dysfunctions are commonly seen with MIS-C, including but not limited to, myocarditis, pericarditis, aneurysms or dilatation of the coronary arteries, valvular insufficiency [1, 16], heart failure [16, 24] and electrocardiographic abnormalities. Other common findings include elevation of troponin, proBNP, C-reactive protein, ferritin, IL-6, D-dimer and need for intensive care [12, 16]. The presence of pericarditis, coronary aneurysms and myocarditis suggest that patients with COVID-19 could have an incomplete form of the Kawasaki disease. Immunomodulators used in treatment have yielded positive results restoring normal left ventricular function [1] in echocardiographic reports after six weeks of treatment.
Subsequently, the patient presents a hyper-inflammatory state, characterized by an increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines such as: Interleukin 1 (IL-1), Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (TNF-α), Interleukin 11 (IL-11), Interleukin 12 (IL-12), and especially, Interleukin 6 (IL-6) [42]. Proinflammatory cytokines exert a pleiotropic and redundant effect, which favors the elevation of acute phase reactants and products of the coagulation system, processes termed “immunothrombosis and thromboinflammation” [43]. Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH), Procalcitonin (PCT), Globular Sedimentation Rate (ESR), C-Reactive Protein (CRP), Serum Ferritin, Serum Amyloid A, Fibrinogen, and D-dimer among other biomarkers may elevated. This state can produce functional alterations at the endothelial level, generating an imbalance between the homeostatic mechanisms of vasoactive control, leading to a state of severe hypotension and the consequent cardiogenic shock. These conditions may lead to multiple organ failure and death in some cases [44].
Immunologically, the mechanisms underlying the hyperinflammation state are not known; however, there are some findings that suggest certain molecular and cellular mechanisms. Regarding immunogenetics (Major Histocompatibility Complex, MHC, and HLA molecules), Nguyen and Cols, by immunoinformatic analysis, examined how HLA variation could affect the cellular immune response against coronavirus peptides that infect humans [45]. The researchers found that the HLA-B * 46: 01 allele has few SARS-CoV-2 peptide binding sites, while the HLA-B * 15: 03 allele showed greater ability to recognize and display highly conserved peptides in SARS-CoV-2, which suggests that host genetic factors may play a role in cellular immune response and clinical presentation in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection [46].
The superantigen hypothesis has also been proposed to understand and clarify the immunological events that support MIS-C [47]. This hypothesis suggests that the SARS-CoV-2 virus produces super antigens that activate the immune system. A superantigen refers to peptides (sometimes motifs and / or proteins) that bind to T lymphocytes of an individual, expressing a particular group or family of genes on the β chain of the variable region (Vβ) of the T-cell receptor (TCR) [48]. The binding of the superantigen with the Vβ domains of the TCR leads to their polyclonal activation, leading to the production of large amounts of cytokines and a clinical syndrome similar to septic shock, similar to what occurs in MIS-C. Superantigens are presented to T-cells through binding to non-polymorphic regions of HLA-II molecules located on antigen presenting cells (APC) and interact with conserved regions of the Vβ domains of the TCR. For example, several staphylococcal enterotoxins are SAg [49].
By structure-based computational modeling Rivas and Cols discovered that the SARS-CoV-2 Spike (S) protein possesses a high affinity motif located close to the S1 / S2 cleavage site with a highly conserved sequence to superantigens [50]. The region containing this motif exhibits a high binding affinity to the complementarity determining regions (CDRs) present in the variable domains of the α and β chain of the TCR. This region is highly similar to the primary sequence and three-dimensional structure of a superantigen fragment corresponding to staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB), which interacts with the TCR and CD28 of T cells [51].
Next-generation immuno-sequencing of the TCR repertoire of COVID-19 patients indicated that the severity of the infection may be associated with some genes that encode the Vβ region of the TCR [52]. Using structure-based computational modeling, Cheng and cols. Demonstrated that the SARS-CoV-2 protein S exhibits a high-affinity TCR-binding motif, being able to form a complex with HLA-II molecules. The researchers argue that this interaction between the virus and human T cells could be enhanced by a rare mutation (D839Y / N / E) from a European strain of SARS-CoV-2 [52]. The studies also found that the SARS-CoV-2 protein S possesses a neurotoxin-like sequence motif in the receptor-binding domain, which exhibits a high tendency to bind to TCR. These findings are consistent with the clinical presentation of patients with MIS-C, who exhibit hyperinflammation and neurological symptoms suggestive of neurotoxicity [53, 54].
3.5 Cases definition
Most children with Covid-19 infection are asymptomatic or present mild symptoms, however, children who may develop a significant systemic inflammatory response have been identified, which may require hospitalization, ICU admission and even management for different medical specialties [55]. This syndrome, although it is a rare complication, can be fatal in children and adolescents. Due to the risk to the health of this population, it is necessary to characterize this disease and its risk factors, as well as to initiate immediate epidemiological surveillance. WHO has developed a preliminary case definition and case report form for MIS-C in children and adolescents. The preliminary case definition reflects the clinical and laboratory features observed in children reported to date and are used to identify suspected or confirmed cases (Figure 1) [56]. The National Institute of Health of Colombia, in its technical document of January 21, 2021, defines the operational concepts of cases as follows (Table 1; Figures 2 and 3) [57].
Figure 1.
Preliminary case definition according to the World Health Organization.
Case
Case characteristics
Probable MIS-C Covid-19 Case
Under 18 years of age with fever for >24 hours, current or recent infection for SARS-CoV-2 evidenced by RT-PCR or IgM / IgG antibody serology or close contact with a COVID-19 confirmed case in the prior 4 weeks.
Also presenting with any of the following symptoms: abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, skin rash, non-purulent bilateral conjunctivitis, erythema on the soles or palms or mucosal edema, headache or altered state of consciousness.
Without alternative diagnosis or other possible causes that explain this clinical picture.
Confirmed MIS-C Covid-19 case
Probable case with clinical findings in at least 2 organ systems (Gastrointestinal symptoms: abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea or Mucocutaneous; skin rash, non-purulent bilateral conjunctivitis, erythema on soles or palms or mucosal edema or Neurological symptoms such as headache or conscious state alteration or Cardiological symptoms: myocardial dysfunction, pericarditis, abnormalities in the coronary arteries or Hematological: evidence of renal or respiratory coagulopathy).
At least one of these altered laboratory findings: Neutrophilia, thrombocytopenia or lymphopenia or elevation of ESR, Fibrinogen, C-reactive protein, Ferritin, lactate, D-Dimer, interleukin-6 orThrombocytopenia.
Dismissed MIS-C Covid-19 case
None of the conditions listed in the probable or confirmed case definitions are met
Table 1.
Case definition according to National Institute of health of Colombia.
Figure 2.
Probable MIS-C COVID-19 case.
Figure 3.
Confirmed MIS-C COVID-19 case.
3.6 MIS-C treatment
Currently, studies comparing clinical efficacy of various treatment options are lacking. According to the United States Center for Disease Control, Colombian Association of Infectious Disease and American College of Rheumatology treatments have consisted primarily of supportive care and directed care against the underlying inflammatory process. Supportive care may include that may include fluid resuscitation, inotropic support; respiratory support and in rare cases, ECMO [58, 59].
Anti-inflammatory measures may include the use of intravenous IgG (IVIG) and steroids. Aspirin may be used due to concerns for coronary artery involvement and antibiotics are sometimes used to treat potential sepsis while awaiting bacterial cultures. Thrombotic prophylaxis is often used to treat the hypercoagulable state typically associated with MIS-C.
The Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (CAID) [60] and the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) (cite website shown above) have provided consensus statements for the management of MIS-C related to the immunomodulatory, antiplatelet and anticoagulation that are summarized below:
Immunomodulatory management of MISC:
A stepwise progression of immunomodulatory therapies should be used to treat MIS-C with IVIG and/or glucocorticoids considered as first tier treatments (ACR)
The use of human polyclonal IVIG at a dose of 2 g / kg is suggested for all patients who meet MIS-C diagnostic criteria (CAID) with stable cardiac function and fluid status (ACR).
In patients that do not respond to IVIG the following approaches may be considered:
Low to moderate doses of glucocorticoids may also be considered (ACR) noting that in endemic countries antiparasitic management with albendazole or ivermectin is needed to avoid hyperinfestation syndromes of strongyloides (CAID).
The use of a second dose of IVIG at a dose of 2 g / kg in case of no response within 36 hours of the first dose, with or without steroid at a low dose (prednisolone orally at a maximum of 1 mg / kg / day or its intravenous equivalent if there is intolerance to the oral route, according to response) may be applied (CAID).
High dose intravenous pulse glucocorticoids may be considered in shock (ACR) such as the administration of pulses of methylprednisolone at 30 mg / kg / day for 3 days (CAID).
Children with severe respiratory symptoms due to COVID-19 should be considered for immunomodulatory therapy if any of the following are present: ARDS, shock/cardiac dysfunction, substantially elevated LDH, d-dimer, IL-6, IL-2R, CRP, and/or ferritin levels, and depressed lymphocyte count, albumin levels, and/or platelet count (ACR). Risks and benefits suggest that anakinra (intravenously or subcutaneously) be used as first-line immunomodulatory treatment of children with COVID-19 and hyperinflammation (ACR).
Tocilizumab may be effective in reducing mortality and intensive care admission in patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia and signs of the hyperinflammation while causing higher risk for bacterial and fungal infections (ACR). When tocilizumab is used to treat children with COVID-19, weight-based dosing should be employed (body weight < 30 kg, 12 mg/kg IV; body weight ≥ 30 kg, 8 mg/kg IV, maximum 800 mg) (ACR). Currently there is no evidence to support the benefits of tocilizumab in the pediatric population, even in special populations such as cancer patients and patients with primary or secondary immunodeficiencies. Current evidence is based on adult patients with a therapeutic dose of 8 mg / kg of body weight (requiring a second dose 8–24 hours after the first), however, the results have also demonstrated adverse events such as gastrointestinal perforation and greater susceptibility to secondary infections when used concomitantly with dexamethasone 6 mg IV every 24 hours or equivalent corticosteroid dose [58].
Taper of immunomodulatory medications is recommended in 2–3 weeks after recovery (ACR and CAID).
Antiplatelet and Anticoagulation management of MISC:
The use of aspirin at anti-inflammatory doses (3–5 mg / kg / day maximum 81 mg/day) is recommended in MIS-C (CAID and ACR) in the event of thrombocytosis (≥450,000 / 𝜇L) or dilatation of the coronary arteries until resolution and if there is no thrombocytopenia (≤80,000/μl), gastrointestinal bleeding, abnormal liver function tests (up to 5 times normal values of transaminases), uncontrolled asthma, oral intolerance, or influenza A or B virus infection (CAID). In cases of thrombocytosis (platelet count ≥450,000/μl), aspirin should be continued until the platelet count normalizes (ACR). Furthermore, patients with MIS-C and documented thrombosis or an ejection fraction <35% should receive therapeutic anticoagulation with enoxaparin until at least 2 weeks after discharge from the hospital (ACR).
4. Back to school
School re-opening is critical to support academic progress, mental health and access to essential services. Considerations of transmission and case severity in children may guide childcare and school policies. Many countries have reported that children under the age of ten have the lowest population based COVID infection rates [2]. Furthermore, while serious infections in children under the age of two are known to occur [2], studies have shown low infection in schools and low probability of transmission between children and teachers suggesting that safe school re-opening may be possible [60].
Despite uncertainties regarding the safety of returning to the classroom, some data collected suggests a partial or total return to face-to-face classes by taking measures to reduce community transmission may be possible. Schools in multiple countries have already reopened their classrooms with little published evidence that schools implementing COVID-19 control policies contribute significantly to COVID-19 transmission [61].
Some studies of COVID-19 transmission demonstrate that school-acquired infections are limited in comparison to community-acquired infections [62]. For example, a case–control study from Mississippi, USA carried out in children over 18 years of age described a total of 154 with SARS-CoV-2 infections and 243 without infection. In this group having attended social gatherings outside the home and receiving visitors was associated with a greater risk of infection, while attending school in person was not associated with a greater risk [62].
Despite this promising data, there have been school-related outbreaks. For example, in Israel 2 weeks after the reopening of the schools in mid-May 2020 there was a large outbreak in a high school when 2 students attended school with mild symptoms. Students (n = 1,161) and the school staff (n = 151) were tested and infection was confirmed in students (n = 153) and staff (n = 25). However, some factors reported that may have contributed to this massive outbreak were full classrooms with insufficient physical distancing, the lack of mask use in some people and the continuous air conditioning that allowed recycle indoor air in closed classrooms. Therefore, perhaps implementation of these preventative measures may mitigate school transmission [61, 62].
Some measures implemented in schools and nurseries to mitigate the contagion are:
Use of universal mask
Adequate physical distancing
Models of alternation classes (face-to-face-virtual)
Avoid overcrowding
Increase air ventilation in classrooms
Increased coverage of rapid screening tests to quickly isolate asymptomatic infected
Online education options for those who are at higher risk of serious illness or death if they contract COVID-19
Limit groupings in classrooms to a maximum of 10 people
Thorough cleaning of classrooms before and after activities
Contingency plan in case someone is exposed to the virus
Staged re-opening by year groups (eg, primary and secondary) or by geographic region to allow close monitoring and changes to the re-opening strategy as needed [63].
It is important to mention that athletic activities may increase the spread of SARS-CoV-2. For example, January 26 the CDC reported an outbreak associated with a wrestling tournament in a high school that occurred in December 2020 including 10 schools and 130 student-athletes, coaches and referees, of the students 38 (30%) contracted laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection [63]. Contact tracing identified 446 contacts of the positive cases that were considered to have had a high risk of transmission. One death of reported in one of the contacts of the students. However, limitations of the evaluation include that fewer than half of the participants were evaluated therefore some cases may have been unrecognized [64].
Simulation models have been used to determine how fast the virus spreads, how easily it is contained, effectiveness of containment strategies, social and economic impacts of closure, and the role of schools in transmission [63]. For example, some simulated transmission control strategies include placing siblings or children who cohabit together in classrooms, assigning one group of children attends face-to-face one week while another group interacts online and then switching roles the following week, or school closure for 14 days if a symptomatic child attends school with those who are asymptomatic returning and symptomatic students staying at home. Another simulation evaluated the effect of child-educator ratios per classroom including 7: 3, 8: 2 and 15: 2. The most favorable transmission profile was shown with 7 students for every 3 educators and group assignment of siblings or students who cohabit together [65]. Whereas the worst transmission profile was shown with 15 students for 2 educators and the random assignment of students [64].
Virtual learning has been used to substitute for in-classroom experiences for many children globally. 143 countries had transitioned to online learning by August 2020, generating stress for both students and their families [66]. Virtual instruction has placed increased demands on family members in terms of time and other resources [67]. Fantini et al. suggests that we must take a deep look into the policies that have led to the necessary closure of the schools and the impacts they have [2]. The isolation school closures cause have great impacts on children, impacting not only their social life, but also their identity and personality development. Without proper social interaction, children may develop anger, guilt, and even depression in addition to anxiety and adjustment disorders. Another consideration is that in the setting of school closures students may spend a greater amount of time with their parents. While this phenomenon has certain benefits, without the support of schoolteachers, parents may become overwhelmed as the only caregivers, potentially exposing children to increased domestic violence, especially when parents have financial and mental health problems that may be exacerbated by the pandemic [2]. Virtual instruction also negatively impacts learning as children are taught best in hands-on learning, especially when learning to write [2]. Together, these factors illustrate some the hardships for children related to the pandemic and school closures.
For these reasons, it is important to implement in-person learning for children as part of early recovery. However, precautions should be effectively implemented and practiced, that may include social distancing, prevention of shared materials, ventilation of spaces, increased hand washing practices and sanitizing availability. Control measures include in-person learning could be started through alternating face-to-face and virtual learning scheduling to decrease density, the use of masks [2] and training of teachers in students in safety procedures [2].
5. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in children
The pandemic has affected children in great ways, impacting the way they grow, learn, play, and cope with their emotions [4, 60]. Younger children may be most at risk from the impacts of COVID-19, as lack of play, exercise, and interaction with peers [4, 60] can be affected. Additionally, other symptoms that affect brain development, such as stress, isolation, and depression [60], may develop if children witness friends and family members becoming infected or passing due to COVID-19. Children with psychiatric disorders face the greatest challenges, as 50% of psychiatric disorders [60] affect children by age 14. It is important to manage symptoms presented by these disorders as they may greatly affect child development.
Other symptoms children develop in this health crisis may include trouble sleeping and mental health problems. COVID-19 impacts the lives of children in various ways and include changing family-life circumstances. Parents might be working from home or become unemployed, increasing the risks for drug use and abuse in the home. These factors, as well as worries about their own physical health could cause children to have trouble sleeping. Additionally, if a child’s mental health is affected, they are at risk for post-traumatic stress [60], depression [60], and suicide [4, 60].
Important factors for mental health in children include good physical health and a good education system. Schools are a valuable resource to provide adequate information and help children understand COVID-19. Schools with trained professionals can also help identify children with problems and develop therapeutic approaches to support them. Teaching children how to cope with their emotions, generate healthy behaviors, and allowing children to participate in activities they enjoy are some of the benefits that schools can provide to try and counteract problems caused by the pandemic.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic poses some unique challenges for child health and learning. In relation to child health, Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) is a rare but severe complication of COVID-19 related to acquired immune responses that requires further research. Despite limited studies to date to define therapeutic guidelines in children, consensus recommendations from multiple organizations recommend the use of immunomodulatory therapies, antiplatelet and anti-coagulant therapies. Furthermore, considerations for safe return to the classroom such as strategies for optimized student to teacher ratios, hand washing, social distancing, sibling pairing and staged re-opening strategies may facilitate child learning in the setting of this evolving pandemic. Further research into efficacy of these proposed interventions will be necessary to inform evidence based guidelines for the prevention and management of COVID-19 in children.
\n',keywords:"COVID-19, children, SARS-CoV-2, MIS-C, Kawasaki",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77986.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77986.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77986",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77986",totalDownloads:138,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 15th 2021",dateReviewed:"July 12th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 13th 2021",datePublished:"March 16th 2022",dateFinished:"August 10th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The COVID-19 pandemic poses multiple issues of importance to child health including threats to physical health and disruption of in-school learning. This chapter reviews what is currently known about COVID-19 epidemiology, presentation, pathophysiology, case definitions, therapies, and in-school transmission in children. COVID-19 has some unique characteristics in children including the rare yet severe Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) that may be related to acquired immune responses. There are limited studies to date to define therapeutic guidelines in children, however consensus recommendations from multiple organizations are summarized including the use of immunomodulatory therapies (intravenous immunoglobulin, steroids, anakinra and tocilizumab), antiplatelet (aspirin) and anti-coagulant (low molecular weight heparin) therapies. Finally, considerations for safe return to the classroom are discussed including strategies for optimized student to teacher ratios, hand washing, social distancing, sibling pairing and staged re-opening strategies.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77986",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77986",signatures:"Evelyn Mendoza-Torres, Franklin Torres, Wendy Rosales-Rada, Liliana Encinales, Lil Avendaño, María Fernanda Pérez, Ivana Terán, David Vergara, Estefanie Osorio-Llanes, Paige Fierbaugh, Wendy Villamizar, Aileen Y. Chang and Jairo Castellar-Lopez",book:{id:"10707",type:"book",title:"Primary Health Care",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Primary Health Care",slug:"primary-health-care",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",bookSignature:"Ayşe Emel Önal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10707.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-807-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-806-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-808-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"25840",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayse Emel",middleName:null,surname:"Onal",slug:"ayse-emel-onal",fullName:"Ayse Emel Onal"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"342716",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Aileen",middleName:null,surname:"Y. Chang",fullName:"Aileen Y. Chang",slug:"aileen-y.-chang",email:"chang@email.gwu.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"342718",title:"Dr.",name:"Evelyn",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Torres",fullName:"Evelyn Mendoza-Torres",slug:"evelyn-mendoza-torres",email:"evelyn.mendozat@unilibre.edu.co",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427633",title:"Dr.",name:"Franklin",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",fullName:"Franklin Torres",slug:"franklin-torres",email:"dummy+427633@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427634",title:"Dr.",name:"Wendy",middleName:null,surname:"Rosales-Rada",fullName:"Wendy Rosales-Rada",slug:"wendy-rosales-rada",email:"dummy+427634@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427635",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Encinales",fullName:"Liliana Encinales",slug:"liliana-encinales",email:"dummy+427635@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427636",title:"Dr.",name:"Lil",middleName:null,surname:"Avendaño",fullName:"Lil Avendaño",slug:"lil-avendano",email:"dummy+427636@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427637",title:"Dr.",name:"María Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez",fullName:"María Fernanda Pérez",slug:"maria-fernanda-perez",email:"dummy+427637@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427638",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivana",middleName:null,surname:"Terán",fullName:"Ivana Terán",slug:"ivana-teran",email:"dummy+427638@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427639",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Vergara",fullName:"David Vergara",slug:"david-vergara",email:"dummy+427639@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427640",title:"Dr.",name:"Estefanie",middleName:null,surname:"Osorio-Llanes",fullName:"Estefanie Osorio-Llanes",slug:"estefanie-osorio-llanes",email:"dummy+427640@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427641",title:"Dr.",name:"Paige",middleName:null,surname:"Fierbaugh",fullName:"Paige Fierbaugh",slug:"paige-fierbaugh",email:"dummy+427641@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427642",title:"Dr.",name:"Wendy",middleName:null,surname:"Villamizar",fullName:"Wendy Villamizar",slug:"wendy-villamizar",email:"dummy+427642@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"457495",title:"Dr.",name:"Jairo",middleName:null,surname:"Castellar-Lopez",fullName:"Jairo Castellar-Lopez",slug:"jairo-castellar-lopez",email:"dummy+427643@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. SARS-CoV-2 overview",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 ACE2: The door to SARS-CoV2",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 SARS-CoV-2 and ACE2",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Presentation of COVID-19 in children",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Epidemiology of MIS-C",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3 The epidemiology of MIS-C in the Americas",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4 Pathophysiology of MIS-C",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.5 Cases definition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.6 MIS-C treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Back to school",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in children",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kabeerdoss J, Pilania RK, Karkhele R, Kumar TS, Danda D, Singh S. Severe COVID-19, multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children, and Kawasaki disease: immunological mechanisms, clinical manifestations and management. Rheumatol Int. 2021;41(1):19-32. Doi:10.1007/s00296-020-04749-4'},{id:"B2",body:'Fantini, M.P., Reno, C., Biserni, G.B., Savoia E., Lanari M. COVID-19 and the re-opening of schools: a policy maker’s dilemma. Ital J Pediatr 46, 79 (2020). Doi:10.1186/s13052-020-00844-1'},{id:"B3",body:'Bhuiyan MU, Stiboy E, Hassan MZ, Chan M, Islam MS, Haider N, et al. Epidemiology of COVID-19 infection in young children under five years: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vaccine. 2021;39(4):667-677. Doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.11.078'},{id:"B4",body:'Bogiatzopoulou A, Mayberry H, Hawcutt DB, Whittaker E, Munro A, Roland D. et al. COVID-19 in children: what did we learn from the first wave?. Paediatr Child Health (Oxford). 2020;30(12):438-443. Doi:10.1016/j.paed.2020.09.005'},{id:"B5",body:'Park SE. Epidemiology, virology, and clinical features of severe acute respiratory syndrome -coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2; Coronavirus Disease-19). Clin Exp Pediatr. 2020;63(4):119-124. doi:10.3345/cep.2020.00493'},{id:"B6",body:'Salvatori G, Luberto L, Maffei M, Aurisicchio L, Roscilli G, Palombo, F, et al. SARS-CoV-2 SPIKE PROTEIN: an optimal immunological target for vaccines. J Transl Med 18, 222 (2020). Doi:10.1186/s12967-020-02392-y'},{id:"B7",body:'Ou X, Liu Y, Lei X, Li P, Mi D, Ren L, et al. Characterization of spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 on virus entry and its immune cross-reactivity with SARS-CoV [published correction appears in Nat Commun. 2021 Apr 1;12(1):2144]. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):1620. Published 2020 Mar 27. Doi:10.1038/s41467-020-15562-9'},{id:"B8",body:'World Health Organization. Questions and Answers About Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) [Internet]. 2020. Available in: https://www.who.int/es/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public/q-a-coronaviruses?gclid=CjwKCAiAjp6BBhAIEiwAkO9Wui6UTAQB2Py7L7Yf_mfrJL9aL2byMKpVpk9I6TV98ylNhgORJjRslxoC9AQQAvD_BwE [Access: 2020-Oct-12]'},{id:"B9",body:'Peng X, Xu X, Li Y, Cheng L, Zhou x, Ren B. Transmission routes of 2019-nCoV and controls in dental practice. Int J Oral Sci 12, 9 (2020). Doi:10.1038/s41368-020-0075-9.'},{id:"B10",body:'Kotfis K, Skonieczna-Żydecka K. COVID-19: gastrointestinal symptoms and potential sources of SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Anaesthesiol Intensive Ther. 2020;52(2):171-172. Doi:10.5114/ait.2020.93867'},{id:"B11",body:'Fu J, Zhou B, Zhang L, Srinivasa K, Wei C, Liu X et al. Expressions and significances of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 gene, the receptor of SARS-CoV-2 for COVID-19. Mol Biol Rep 47, 4383-4392 (2020). Doi:10.1007/s11033-020-05478-4'},{id:"B12",body:'Feldstein LR, Rose EB, Horwitz SM, Collins JP, Newhams MM, Son MBF, et al. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in U.S. Children and Adolescents. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(4):334-346. Doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2021680'},{id:"B13",body:'Lokman SM, Rasheduzzaman M, Salauddin A, Barua R, Tanzina AY., Rumi M, et al (2020). Exploring the genomic and proteomic variations of SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein: A computational biology approach. Infection, genetics and evolution : journal of molecular epidemiology and evolutionary genetics in infectious diseases, 84, 104389. Doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104389'},{id:"B14",body:'Cano, F., Gajardo, M., & Freundlich, M. (2020). Renin angiotensin axis, angiotensin converting enzyme 2 and coronavirus. Rev. Chil. de Pediatr., 91(3). Doi:10.32641/rchped.vi91i3.2548'},{id:"B15",body:'Zhang C, Gu J, Chen Q, Deng N, Li J, Huang L et al. Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of pediatric SARS-CoV-2 infections in China: A multicenter case series. PLoS Med. 2020;17(6):e1003130. Published 2020 Jun 16. Doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003130'},{id:"B16",body:'Valverde I, Singh Y, Sanchez-de-Toledo J, Theocharis P, Chikermane A, Di Filippo S, et al. Acute Cardiovascular Manifestations in 286 Children With Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome Associated With COVID-19 Infection in Europe. Circulation. 2021;143(1):21-32. Doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.050065'},{id:"B17",body:'Medicine, COVID Toes and Other COVID-19 Skin Conditions, 2020. Available at: https://weillcornell.org/news/covid-toe-and-other-covid-19-skin-conditions [Acceso: 2020- 07-09]'},{id:"B18",body:'Singh S, Jindal AK, Pilania RK. Diagnosis of Kawasaki disease. Int J Rheum Dis. 2018 ;21(1):36-44. Doi:10.1111/1756-185X.13224'},{id:"B19",body:'Verdoni L, Mazza A, Gervasoni A, Martelli L, Ruggeri M, Ciuffreda M et al. An outbreak of severe Kawasaki-like disease at the Italian epicentre of the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic: an observational cohort study. Lancet. 2020;395(10239):1771-1778. Doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31103-X'},{id:"B20",body:'Blanco J. FUNDAMENTOS DE SALUD PÚBLICA. 3a ed. Franco Silvana, editor. Medellín, Colombia; 2013. 0-227 p.'},{id:"B21",body:'Whittaker E, Bamford A, Kenny J, Kaforou M, Jones CE, Shah P et al. Clinical Characteristics of 58 Children with a Pediatric Inflammatory Multisystem Syndrome Temporally Associated with SARS-CoV-2. JAMA. 2020;324(3):259-269. Doi:10.1001/jama.2020.10369'},{id:"B22",body:'Cheung EW, Zachariah P, Gorelik M, Boneparth A, Kernie SG, Orange JS, Milner JD. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome Related to COVID-19 in Previously Healthy Children and Adolescents in New York City. JAMA. 2020 Jul 21;324(3):294-296. Doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.10374.'},{id:"B23",body:'Pain CE, Felsenstein S, Cleary G, Mayell S, Conrad K, Harave S, et al. Novel paediatric presentation of COVID-19 with ARDS and cytokine storm syndrome without respiratory symptoms. Lancet Rheumatol. 2020 Jul;2(7):e376-e379. Doi: 10.1016/S2665-9913(20)30137-5.'},{id:"B24",body:'Rafferty MS, Burrows H, Joseph JP, Leveille J, Nihtianova S, Amirian ES. Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and the coronavirus pandemic: Current knowledge and implications for public health. J Infect Public Health. 2021 Apr;14(4):484-494. Doi: 10.1016/j.jiph.2021.01.008.'},{id:"B25",body:'Riphagen S, Gomez X, Gonzalez-Martinez C, Wilkinson N, Theocharis P. Hyperinflammatory shock in children during COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet. 2020 May 23;395(10237):1607-1608. Doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31094-1.'},{id:"B26",body:'Dufort EM, Koumans EH, Chow EJ, Rosenthal EM, Muse A, Rowlands J, et al; New York State and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children Investigation Team. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children in New York State. N Engl J Med. 2020 Jul 23;383(4):347-358. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2021756.'},{id:"B27",body:'Yáñez JA, Alvarez-Risco A, Delgado-Zegarra J. Covid-19 in Peru: from supervised walks for children to the first case of Kawasaki-like syndrome. BMJ. 2020 Jun 22;369:m2418. Doi: 10.1136/bmj.m2418. PMID: 32571770.'},{id:"B28",body:'DeBiasi RL, Song X, Delaney M, Bell M, Smith K, Pershad J, et al. Severe Coronavirus Disease-2019 in Children and Young Adults in the Washington, DC, Metropolitan Region. J Pediatr. 2020 Aug;223:199-203.e1. Doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.05.007'},{id:"B29",body:'Pediatric Intensive Care Society. PICS Statement: Increased number of reported cases of novel presentation of multi- system inflammatory disease. [April 27, 2020] Available at:'},{id:"B30",body:'World Health Organization. Multisystem inflammatory síndrome in children and adolescents temporally related to COVID-19, Scientific Brief. [15 May 2020] Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/multisystem-inflammatorysyndrome-in-children-and-adolescents-with-covid-19.'},{id:"B31",body:'Belhadjer Z, Méot M, Bajolle F, Khraiche D, Legendre A, Abakka S, et al. Acute Heart Failure in Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children in the Context of Global SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic. Circulation. 2020 Aug 4;142(5):429-436. Doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.048360.'},{id:"B32",body:'Jones VG, Mills M, Suarez D, Hogan CA, Yeh D, Segal JB, et al. COVID-19 and Kawasaki Disease: Novel Virus and Novel Case. Hosp Pediatr. 2020 Jun;10(6):537-540. Doi: 10.1542/hpeds.2020-0123.'},{id:"B33",body:'Ouldali N, Yang DD, Madhi F, Levy M, Gaschignard J, Craiu I, et al; investigator group of the PANDOR study. Factors Associated With Severe SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Pediatrics. 2021 Mar;147(3):e2020023432. Doi: 10.1542/peds.2020-023432.'},{id:"B34",body:'Raisinghani M. Resumen OR 23-3. Poor diabetes control in children tied to high risk for COVID-19 complications, death. ENDO 2021. Available at: https://www.endocrine.org/news-and-advocacy/news-room/featured-science-from-endo-2021/poor-diabetes-control-in-children-tied-to-high-risk-for-covid19-complications-death. Presented on March 20, 2021.'},{id:"B35",body:'Organización Panamericana de la Salud / Organización Mundial de la Salud. Actualización epidemiológica: Enfermedad por Coronavirus (COVID-19). 15 de enero de 2021, Washington, D.C.: OPS/OMS; 2021.'},{id:"B36",body:'Shekerdemian LS, Mahmood NR, Wolfe KK, Riggs BJ, Ross CE, McKiernan CA, et al. Characteristics and Outcomes of Children With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Infection Admitted to US and Canadian Pediatric Intensive Care Units. JAMA Pediatr. 2020 Sep 1;174(9):868-873. Doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1948.'},{id:"B37",body:'Ins.gov.co. 2021. Coronavirus Colombia. [online] Available at: <https://www.ins.gov.co/Noticias/paginas/coronavirus.aspx> [Accessed 9 May 2021].'},{id:"B38",body:'Consiglio CR, Cotugno N, Sardh F, Pou C, Amodio D, Rodriguez L, et al. The Immunology of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children with COVID-19. Cell. 2020 Nov 12;183(4):968-981.e7. Doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.016.'},{id:"B39",body:'Shulman ST, Rowley AH. Kawasaki disease: insights into pathogenesis and approaches to treatment. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2015 Aug;11(8):475-82. Doi: 10.1038/nrrheum.2015.54.'},{id:"B40",body:'Diane Marie Del Valle, Seunghee Kim-Schulze, Hsin-Hui Huang, Noam Beckmann, Sharon Nirenberg, Bo Wang, et al. An inflammatory cytokine signature helps predict COVID-19 severity and death. medRxiv 2020.05.28.20115758; Doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.28.20115758.'},{id:"B41",body:'McGonagle D, Sharif K, O\'Regan A, Bridgewood C. The Role of Cytokines including Interleukin-6 in COVID-19 induced Pneumonia and Macrophage Activation Syndrome-Like Disease. Autoimmun Rev. 2020 Jun;19(6):102537. Doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102537.'},{id:"B42",body:'Tay MZ, Poh CM, Rénia L, MacAry PA, Ng LFP. The trinity of COVID-19: immunity, inflammation and intervention. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020 Jun;20(6):363-374. Doi: 10.1038/s41577-020-0311-8.'},{id:"B43",body:'Bonaventura A, Vecchié A, Dagna L, Martinod K, Dixon DL, Van Tassell BW, et al. Endothelial dysfunction and immunothrombosis as key pathogenic mechanisms in COVID-19. Nat Rev Immunol. 2021 May;21(5):319-329. Doi: 10.1038/s41577-021-00536-9.'},{id:"B44",body:'McFadyen JD, Stevens H, Peter K. The Emerging Threat of (Micro)Thrombosis in COVID-19 and Its Therapeutic Implications. Circ Res. 2020 Jul 31;127(4):571-587. Doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.120.317447.'},{id:"B45",body:'Nguyen A, David JK, Maden SK, Wood MA, Weeder BR, Nellore A, et al. Human Leukocyte Antigen Susceptibility Map for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2. J Virol. 2020 Jun 16;94(13):e00510-20. Doi: 10.1128/JVI.00510-20.'},{id:"B46",body:'Habel JR, Nguyen THO, van de Sandt CE, Juno JA, Chaurasia P, Wragg K, Koutsakos M, et al. Suboptimal SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ T cell response associated with the prominent HLA-A*02:01 phenotype. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020 Sep 29;117(39):24384-24391. Doi: 10.1073/pnas.2015486117.'},{id:"B47",body:'Arad G, Levy R, Nasie I, Hillman D, Rotfogel Z, Barash U, et al. Binding of superantigen toxins into the CD28 homodimer interface is essential for induction of cytokine genes that mediate lethal shock. PLoS Biol. 2011 Sep;9(9):e1001149. Doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001149. Epub 2011 Sep 13. Erratum in: PLoS Biol. 2015 Aug;13(8):e1002237.'},{id:"B48",body:'Li H, Llera A, Malchiodi EL, Mariuzza RA. The structural basis of T cell activation by superantigens. Annu Rev Immunol. 1999;17:435-66. Doi: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.17.1.435.'},{id:"B49",body:'Krakauer T. Staphylococcal Superantigens: Pyrogenic Toxins Induce Toxic Shock. Toxins (Basel). 2019 Mar 23;11(3):178. Doi: 10.3390/toxins11030178.'},{id:"B50",body:'Noval Rivas M, Porritt RA, Cheng MH, Bahar I, Arditi M. COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C): A novel disease that mimics toxic shock syndrome-the superantigen hypothesis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2021 Jan;147(1):57-59. Doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2020.10.008.'},{id:"B51",body:'Fraser JD, Proft T. The bacterial superantigen and superantigen-like proteins. Immunol Rev. 2008 Oct;225:226-43. Doi: 10.1111/j.1600-065X.2008.00681.x.'},{id:"B52",body:'Cheng MH, Zhang S, Porritt RA, Noval Rivas M, Paschold L, Willscher E, et al. Superantigenic character of an insert unique to SARS-CoV-2 spike supported by skewed TCR repertoire in patients with hyperinflammation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020 Oct 13;117(41):25254-25262. Doi: 10.1073/pnas.2010722117.'},{id:"B53",body:'Ellul MA, Benjamin L, Singh B, Lant S, Michael BD, Easton A, et al. Neurological associations of COVID-19. Lancet Neurol. 2020 Sep;19(9):767-783. Doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(20)30221-0.'},{id:"B54",body:'Rosene KA, Copass MK, Kastner LS, Nolan CM, Eschenbach DA. Persistent neuropsychological sequelae of toxic shock syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1982 Jun;96(6 Pt 2):865-70. Doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-96-6-865.'},{id:"B55",body:'Paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated with COVID-19 (PIMS) - guidance for clinicians [Internet]. RCPCH. 2021 [cited 9 May 2021]. Available from: https://www.rcpch.ac.uk/resources/paediatric-multisystem-inflammatory-syndrome-temporally-associated-covid-19-pims-guidance'},{id:"B56",body:'Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and adolescents temporally related to COVID-19. [Internet]. Scientific Brief 2020. [cited 10 May 2021]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/multisystem-inflammatory-syndrome-in-children-and-adolescents-with-covid-19'},{id:"B57",body:'Documento técnico para la vigilancia de casos probables y confirmados de Síndrome Inflamatorio Multisistémico en niños asociado a infección por SARS-Cov2, Versión 1 – 21 enero 2021. Instituto Nacional de Salud, Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social. https://www.ins.gov.co/Noticias/paginas/coronavirus.aspx'},{id:"B58",body:'Henderson, L.A., Canna, S.W., ... Mehta, J.J., 2020. American College of Rheumatology Clinical Guidance for Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children Associated with SARS–CoV-2 and Hyperinflammation in Pediatric COVID-19: Version 1. Arthritis and Rheumatology 72, 1791-1805. doi:10.1002/art.41454'},{id:"B59",body:'Information for Healthcare Providers about Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)[Internet]. Fact Sheet 2020. [cited 10 May 2021] https://www.cdc.gov/mis-c/hcp/'},{id:"B60",body:'Saavedra Trujillo C. Consenso colombiano de atención, diagnóstico y manejo de la infección por SARS-COV-2/COVID 19 en establecimientos de atención de la salud. Recomendaciones basadas en consenso de expertos e informadas en la evidencia ACIN-IETS. Infectio, Volumen 24, número 3 (suplemento COVID19), Mayo 2020.'},{id:"B61",body:'Infectious diseases society of America guidelines on the treatment and management of patients with covid-19. last updated March 18, 2021 and posted online at www.idsociety.org/covid19guidelines'},{id:"B62",body:'Shah K, Mann S, Singh R, Bangar R, Kulkarni R. Impact of COVID-19 on the Mental Health of Children and Adolescents. Cureus. 2020 Aug 26 ;12(8): e10051. Doi : 10.7759/cureus.10051.'},{id:"B63",body:'Honein MA, Barrios LC, Brooks JT. Data and Policy to Guide Opening Schools Safely to Limit the Spread of SARS-CoV-2 Infection. JAMA. 2021 ;325(9) :823-824. doi :10.1001/jama.2021.0374'},{id:"B64",body:'Viner, R. M., Bonell, C., Drake, L., Jourdan, D., Davies, N., Baltag, V., Jerrim, J., Proimos, J., & Darzi, A. (2021). Reopening schools during the COVID-19 pandemic: governments must balance the uncertainty and risks of reopening schools against the clear harms associated with prolonged closure. Archives of disease in childhood, 106(2), 111-113; doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2020-319963'},{id:"B65",body:'Phillips, B., Browne, D.T., Anand, M. et al. Model-based projections for COVID-19 outbreak size and student-days lost to closure in Ontario childcare centers and primary schools. Sci Rep 11, 6402 (2021). doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85302-6'},{id:"B66",body:'OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19) - The impact of COVID-19 on student equity and inclusion: Supporting vulnerable students during school closures and school re-openings https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-student-equity-and-inclusion-supporting-vulnerable-students-during-school-closures-and-school-re-openings-d593b5c8/'},{id:"B67",body:'OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19) - Strengthening online learning when schools are closed: The role of families and teachers in supporting students during the COVID-19 crisis https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/strengthening-online-learning-when-schools-are-closed-the-role-of-families-and-teachers-in-supporting-students-during-the-covid-19-crisis-c4ecba6c/'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Evelyn Mendoza-Torres",address:null,affiliation:'
Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Libre, Colombia
Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, Grupo de Investigación Avanzada en Biomedicina, Universidad Libre Barranquilla, Colombia
'}],corrections:[{id:"78823",title:"Erratum: COVID-19 Transmission in Children: Implications for Schools",doi:null,slug:"erratum-covid-19-transmission-in-children-implications-for",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},book:{id:"10707",type:"book",title:"Primary Health Care",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Primary Health Care",slug:"primary-health-care",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",bookSignature:"Ayşe Emel Önal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10707.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-807-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-806-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-808-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"25840",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayse Emel",middleName:null,surname:"Onal",slug:"ayse-emel-onal",fullName:"Ayse Emel Onal"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"158609",title:"MSc.",name:"Meghan",middleName:null,surname:"Caulfield",email:"davisml@umdnj.edu",fullName:"Meghan Caulfield",slug:"meghan-caulfield",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"41031",title:"Focusing on the Possible Role of the Cerebellum in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"focusing-on-the-possible-role-of-the-cerebellum-in-anxiety-disorders",abstract:null,signatures:"Meghan D. Caulfield and Richard J. Servatius",authors:[{id:"31564",title:"Prof.",name:"Richard",surname:"Servatius",fullName:"Richard Servatius",slug:"richard-servatius",email:"Richard.Servatius@va.gov"},{id:"158609",title:"MSc.",name:"Meghan",surname:"Caulfield",fullName:"Meghan Caulfield",slug:"meghan-caulfield",email:"davisml@umdnj.edu"}],book:{id:"3295",title:"New Insights into Anxiety Disorders",slug:"new-insights-into-anxiety-disorders",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"31564",title:"Prof.",name:"Richard",surname:"Servatius",slug:"richard-servatius",fullName:"Richard Servatius",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"57536",title:"Prof.",name:"Claude",surname:"Belanger",slug:"claude-belanger",fullName:"Claude Belanger",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/57536/images/3687_n.png",biography:"Dr. Claude Bélanger est professeur titulaire à l’Université du Québec à Montréal (Canada), professeur associé au département de psychiatrie de l’Université McGill, et Président-directeur des Services de réadaptation Matrix (Voir: www.matrixreadaptation.ca).\nSon intérêt pour la recherche et l’enseignement l’ont amené à enseigner et à superviser un grand nombre d’étudiants et internes en psychologie. Il a de plus donné plusieurs formations aux intervenants en santé mentale, et aux étudiants et residents en médecine et en psychiatrie. Il a publié et diffusé ses recherches dans près de 250 articles scientifiques et conférences internationales. Pour la liste des publications, voir: \nwww.researchgate.net/profile/Claude_Belanger/publications/\nDans sa pratique professionnelle, il pratique comme psychologue certifié depuis 35 ans. Il est actuellement directeur de la firme de réadaptation Matrix. Il s\\'intéresse aux troubles anxieux, aux dysfonctions de la relation maritale, et aux déterminants qui sous-tendent le maintien et l\\'efficacité du traitement cognitivo-comportemental pour le troubles mentaux et pour les problèmes de couple. Il s\\'intéresse aussi aux invalidités chroniques en lien avec les problématiques de santé mentale.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Quebec at Montreal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"155658",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Clare",surname:"Rees",slug:"clare-rees",fullName:"Clare Rees",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Curtin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"157412",title:"Prof.",name:"Ghassan",surname:"El-Baalbaki",slug:"ghassan-el-baalbaki",fullName:"Ghassan El-Baalbaki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/157412/images/4899_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ghassan El-Baalbaki is a professor of psychology at the University of Quebec at Montreal and an adjunct professor at McGill University. Prior to this, he held a position as an international consultant in psychology for a humanitarian project, where he undertook clinical projects with victims of violence, harmed by landmines and war. He also trained healthcare providers in CBT for patients with PTSD and with serious injuries, including amputation, and in working with families to improve support for patients. With his team, he runs several research projects, financed by governmental and institutional grants with the Trauma Studies Center, the Scleroderma Patient-centered Intervention Network, and the Louise Granofsky Psychosocial Oncology Program. He is the author of several scientific publications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Quebec at Montreal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"157420",title:"BSc.",name:"Veronique",surname:"Palardy",slug:"veronique-palardy",fullName:"Veronique Palardy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"157422",title:"BSc.",name:"Catherine",surname:"Fredette",slug:"catherine-fredette",fullName:"Catherine Fredette",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"159182",title:"Dr.",name:"Rebecca",surname:"Anderson",slug:"rebecca-anderson",fullName:"Rebecca Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"160823",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Michail",slug:"maria-michail",fullName:"Maria Michail",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"163659",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ebru",surname:"Salcioglu",slug:"ebru-salcioglu",fullName:"Ebru Salcioglu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"166662",title:"Prof.",name:"Metin",surname:"Basoglu",slug:"metin-basoglu",fullName:"Metin Basoglu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
\\n\\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
\\n\\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\\n\\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
\\n\\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\\n\\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n\\t
850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
\\n
\\n\\n
During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\\n\\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\\n\\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\\n\\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
\\n
\\n\\n
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\\n
\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+5,700 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\t
850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
\n
\n\n
During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
\n
\n\n
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6630},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5913},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2404},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12563},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1009},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17575}],offset:12,limit:12,total:132968},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"11"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11546",title:"Smart and Sustainable Transportation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e8ea27a1ff85cde00efcb6f6968c20f8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11546.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11941",title:"Advances in Turbomachinery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fe2c693976d70c5d0cc5f8003e6e73c5",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11941.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11942",title:"Updates on Spatial Audio",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4ac095defb765e0e9bfebc06dac719e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11942.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11938",title:"Ballistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c64ef67aac55216f08c65a2a179835c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11938.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12047",title:"Groundwater",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5236073db656c6515e1699a637f79c68",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12047.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12051",title:"Energy Storage Devices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1eea21880923a08f5fb0160f56c37a12",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12051.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11984",title:"Nanomedicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"706c35485cbba65658983d40effda16f",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11984.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12053",title:"Coal Energy in the 21st Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4c68d59ef3f1106d1321570678b3a5c3",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12053.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12024",title:"UWB Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6158349f714de7cee2337adf57b2617d",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12024.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12060",title:"Offshore Constructions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1ef3e82fa480e0ea47994959072c694a",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12060.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12025",title:"Cognitive Radio Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"75b14778d5efbcfe9c1f51d2e31f6aeb",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12025.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12062",title:"Public Transportation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c045089da37d46be1ee7e5e74f93cc93",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12062.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:36},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:31},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:95},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:31},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:31},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9808",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb6371607c2c6c02c6a2af8892765aba",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki and Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9808.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9544",title:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb8cb09b9599246add78d508a98273d5",slug:"global-trade-in-the-emerging-business-environment",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Jingbin Wang , Md. Samim Al Azad and Selim Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9544.jpg",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4387},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3385,editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1875,editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3842,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3008,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1109,editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1010,editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3918,editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1654,editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7686,editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3444,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10522",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6357e1dd7d38adeb519ca7a10dc9e5a0",slug:"coding-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Sudev Naduvath",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10522.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10821",title:"Automation and Control",subtitle:"Theories and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18463c2291ba306c4dcbabd988227eea",slug:"automation-and-control-theories-and-applications",bookSignature:"Elmer P. Dadios",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11348",title:"Mutagenesis and Mitochondrial-Associated Pathologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"001972b3c5b49367314b13025a449232",slug:"mutagenesis-and-mitochondrial-associated-pathologies",bookSignature:"Michael Fasullo and Angel Catala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"258231",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Fasullo",slug:"michael-fasullo",fullName:"Michael Fasullo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11123",title:"Epoxy-Based Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c1c5447cf3b9d6c7688276ac30e80de6",slug:"epoxy-based-composites",bookSignature:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai, Ramesh Arthanari and M.R.Meera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11123.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"247421",title:"Dr.",name:"Samson Jerold Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Chelladurai",slug:"samson-jerold-samuel-chelladurai",fullName:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10632",title:"Theory and Practice of Tunnel Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ba17749f9d0b6a62d584a3c320a1f49",slug:"theory-and-practice-of-tunnel-engineering",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10632.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"79083",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10906",title:"Fungal Reproduction and Growth",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f84de0280d54f3b52e3e4585cff24ac1",slug:"fungal-reproduction-and-growth",bookSignature:"Sadia Sultan and Gurmeet Kaur Surindar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10906.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"176737",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"sadia-sultan",fullName:"Sadia Sultan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10914",title:"Effective Elimination of Structural Racism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6a2562646c0fd664aca8335bc3b3e69",slug:"effective-elimination-of-structural-racism",bookSignature:"Erick Guerrero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10914.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"294761",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero",slug:"erick-guerrero",fullName:"Erick Guerrero"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d66af42fb17d0a6556bb9ef28e273c7",slug:"animal-reproduction",bookSignature:"Yusuf Bozkurt and Mustafa Numan Bucak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10940",title:"Plant Hormones",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5aae8a345f8047ed528914ff3491f643",slug:"plant-hormones-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Christophe Hano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10940.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10207",title:"Sexual Abuse",subtitle:"An Interdisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1ec1d5a7093490df314d7887e0b3809",slug:"sexual-abuse-an-interdisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Ersi Kalfoğlu and Sotirios Kalfoglou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10207.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"68678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ersi",middleName:null,surname:"Kalfoglou",slug:"ersi-kalfoglou",fullName:"Ersi Kalfoglou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"625",title:"Atmospheric Radio Occultation",slug:"atmospheric-radio-occultation",parent:{id:"99",title:"Atmospheric Sciences",slug:"atmospheric-sciences"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1,numberOfWosCitations:34,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"625",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"3346",title:"Radio Occultation Method for Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere and Ionosphere",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d4dfd4dd08972d7b32ff687d73a3f253",slug:"radio-occultation-method-for-remote-sensing-of-the-atmosphere-and-ionosphere",bookSignature:"Ya Liou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3346.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"149113",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuei-An",middleName:null,surname:"Liou",slug:"yuei-an-liou",fullName:"Yuei-An Liou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"9209",doi:"10.5772/7492",title:"Radio Occultation Method for Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere and Ionosphere",slug:"radio-occultation-method-for-remote-sensing-of-the-atmosphere-and-ionosphere",totalDownloads:3196,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:null,book:{id:"3346",slug:"radio-occultation-method-for-remote-sensing-of-the-atmosphere-and-ionosphere",title:"Radio Occultation Method for Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere and Ionosphere",fullTitle:"Radio Occultation Method for Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere and Ionosphere"},signatures:"Y.A. Liou, A.G. Pavelyev, S.S. Matyugov, O.I. Yakovlev and J. Wickert",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"9209",title:"Radio Occultation Method for Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere and Ionosphere",slug:"radio-occultation-method-for-remote-sensing-of-the-atmosphere-and-ionosphere",totalDownloads:3196,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:null,book:{id:"3346",slug:"radio-occultation-method-for-remote-sensing-of-the-atmosphere-and-ionosphere",title:"Radio Occultation Method for Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere and Ionosphere",fullTitle:"Radio Occultation Method for Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere and Ionosphere"},signatures:"Y.A. Liou, A.G. Pavelyev, S.S. Matyugov, O.I. Yakovlev and J. Wickert",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"625",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:52,paginationItems:[{id:"80761",title:"Extractions Methods and Biological Applications of Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102955",signatures:"Sonu Kumar Mahawer, Himani, Sushila Arya, Ravendra Kumar and Om Prakash",slug:"extractions-methods-and-biological-applications-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81545",title:"Physiochemical Properties of Essential Oils and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104112",signatures:"Sunil Kumar Yadav",slug:"physiochemical-properties-of-essential-oils-and-applications",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"11579",title:"Animal Welfare - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11579.jpg",hash:"12e4f41264cbe99028655e5463fa941a",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"51520",title:"Dr.",name:"Shao-Wen",surname:"Hung",slug:"shao-wen-hung",fullName:"Shao-Wen Hung"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11578",title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg",hash:"3731c009f474c6ed4293f348ca7b27ac",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 3rd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"225390",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghar Ali",surname:"Kamboh",slug:"asghar-ali-kamboh",fullName:"Asghar Ali Kamboh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81831",title:"Deep Network Model and Regression Analysis using OLS Method for Predicting Lung Vital Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104737",signatures:"Harun Sümbül",slug:"deep-network-model-and-regression-analysis-using-ols-method-for-predicting-lung-vital-capacity",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Decision Science - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11604.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Business and Management",value:86,count:1,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10795",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:"Perspectives in Agriculture",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10795.jpg",slug:"plant-stress-physiology-perspectives-in-agriculture",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman and Kamran Nahar",hash:"c5a7932b74fe612b256bf95d0709756e",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Plant Stress Physiology - Perspectives in Agriculture",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7999",title:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7999.jpg",slug:"free-radical-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Kusal Das, Swastika Das, Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar, Varaprasad Bobbarala and S. Subba Tata",hash:"083e5d427097d368a3f8a02bd6c76bf8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8762",title:"Melatonin",subtitle:"The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8762.jpg",slug:"melatonin-the-hormone-of-darkness-and-its-therapeutic-potential-and-perspectives",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marilena Vlachou",hash:"bfbc5538173f11acb0f9549a85b70489",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Melatonin - The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",editors:[{id:"246279",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marilena",middleName:null,surname:"Vlachou",slug:"marilena-vlachou",fullName:"Marilena Vlachou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246279/images/system/246279.jpg",institutionString:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institution:{name:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8002",title:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8002.jpg",slug:"tumor-progression-and-metastasis",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar and Karine Cohen-Solal",hash:"db17b0fe0a9b6e80ff02b81a93bafa4e",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32546/images/system/32546.png",institutionString:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institution:{name:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6897",title:"Biophysical Chemistry",subtitle:"Advance Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6897.jpg",slug:"biophysical-chemistry-advance-applications",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohammed A. A. Khalid",hash:"0ad18ab382e2ffb9ff202d15282297eb",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Biophysical Chemistry - Advance Applications",editors:[{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8430",title:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disorder",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8430.jpg",slug:"neurodevelopment-and-neurodevelopmental-disorder",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michael Fitzgerald",hash:"696c96d038de473216e48b199613c111",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disorder",editors:[{id:"205005",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205005/images/system/205005.jpg",institutionString:"Independant Researcher",institution:{name:"Trinity College Dublin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",institutionString:"Cairo University",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8797",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:"An Update",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8797.jpg",slug:"adipose-tissue-an-update",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",hash:"34880b7b450ef96fa5063c867c028b02",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Adipose Tissue - An Update",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Plant Physiology",value:13,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Human Physiology",value:12,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell Physiology",value:11,count:8}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. Neiva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213786/images/system/213786.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Beira Interior",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"39275",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Ryan",middleName:null,surname:"Marini",slug:"herbert-ryan-marini",fullName:"Herbert Ryan Marini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/39275/images/9459_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Messina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"196218",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Cianci",slug:"pasquale-cianci",fullName:"Pasquale Cianci",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196218/images/system/196218.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",signatures:"Jelena Milić",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81298",title:"Roles of Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Metastasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103798",signatures:"Eman Helmy Thabet",slug:"roles-of-extracellular-vesicles-in-cancer-metastasis",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81290",title:"Musculoskeletal Abnormalities Caused by Cystic Fibrosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104591",signatures:"Mark Lambrechts",slug:"musculoskeletal-abnormalities-caused-by-cystic-fibrosis",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Advances in Skeletal Muscle Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11675.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81226",title:"Computational Methods for the Study of Peroxisomes in Health and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103178",signatures:"Naomi van Wijk and Michal Linial",slug:"computational-methods-for-the-study-of-peroxisomes-in-health-and-disease",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"80871",title:"Tumor-Derived Exosome and Immune Modulation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103718",signatures:"Deepak S. Chauhan, Priyanka Mudaliar, Soumya Basu, Jyotirmoi Aich and Manash K. Paul",slug:"tumor-derived-exosome-and-immune-modulation",totalDownloads:39,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"80326",title:"Anti-Senescence Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101585",signatures:"Raghad Alshadidi",slug:"anti-senescence-therapy",totalDownloads:94,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"79834",title:"Morphology and Formation Mechanisms of Cellular Vesicles Harvested from Blood",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101639",signatures:"Veronika Kralj-Iglič, Gabriella Pocsfalvi and Aleš Iglič",slug:"morphology-and-formation-mechanisms-of-cellular-vesicles-harvested-from-blood",totalDownloads:53,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"80195",title:"Diversity of Extracellular Vesicles (EV) in Plasma of Cancer Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101760",signatures:"Theresa L. Whiteside and Soldano Ferrone",slug:"diversity-of-extracellular-vesicles-ev-in-plasma-of-cancer-patients",totalDownloads:72,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"79955",title:"The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Immunomodulation and Pathogenesis of Leishmania and Other Protozoan Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101682",signatures:"Zeynep Islek, Batuhan Turhan Bozkurt, Mehmet Hikmet Ucisik and Fikrettin Sahin",slug:"the-role-of-extracellular-vesicles-in-immunomodulation-and-pathogenesis-of-em-leishmania-em-and-othe",totalDownloads:104,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"80126",title:"Extracellular Vesicles as Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets in Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101783",signatures:"Prince Amoah Barnie, Justice Afrifa, Eric Ofori Gyamerah and Benjamin Amoani",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-as-biomarkers-and-therapeutic-targets-in-cancers",totalDownloads:88,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"80108",title:"Exosomes and HIV-1 Association in AIDS-Defining Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101919",signatures:"Sushanta Kumar Barik, Sanghamitra Pati, Keshar Kunja Mohanty, Sashi Bhusan Mohapatra, Srikanta Jena and Srikanth Prasad Tripathy",slug:"exosomes-and-hiv-1-association-in-aids-defining-patients",totalDownloads:77,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"79850",title:"Retracted: The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in the Progression of Tumors towards Metastasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101635",signatures:"Bhaskar Basu and Subhajit Karmakar",slug:"retracted-the-role-of-extracellular-vesicles-in-the-progression-of-tumors-towards-metastasis",totalDownloads:155,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"79828",title:"Cellular Senescence in Bone",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101803",signatures:"Danielle Wang and Haitao Wang",slug:"cellular-senescence-in-bone",totalDownloads:93,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"79775",title:"Extracellular Vesicles as Intercellular Communication Vehicles in Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101530",signatures:"Gaspar Bogdan Severus, Ionescu Ruxandra Florentina, Enache Robert Mihai, Dobrică Elena Codruța, Crețoiu Sanda Maria, Crețoiu Dragoș and Voinea Silviu Cristian",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-as-intercellular-communication-vehicles-in-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:95,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7004",title:"Metabolomics",subtitle:"New Insights into Biology and Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7004.jpg",slug:"metabolomics-new-insights-into-biology-and-medicine",publishedDate:"July 1st 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Wael N. Hozzein",hash:"35a30d8241442b716a4aab830b6de28f",volumeInSeries:16,fullTitle:"Metabolomics - New Insights into Biology and Medicine",editors:[{id:"189233",title:"Prof.",name:"Wael N.",middleName:"Nabil",surname:"Hozzein",slug:"wael-n.-hozzein",fullName:"Wael N. Hozzein",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189233/images/system/189233.jpeg",institutionString:"Beni-Suef University",institution:{name:"Beni-Suef University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6967",title:"Prebiotics and Probiotics",subtitle:"Potential Benefits in Nutrition and Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6967.jpg",slug:"prebiotics-and-probiotics-potential-benefits-in-nutrition-and-health",publishedDate:"March 4th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Elena Franco-Robles and Joel Ramírez-Emiliano",hash:"11781d6b1c070edcf204518e632033be",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Prebiotics and Probiotics - Potential Benefits in Nutrition and Health",editors:[{id:"219102",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Franco-Robles",slug:"elena-franco-robles",fullName:"Elena Franco-Robles",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219102/images/system/219102.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad de Guanajuato",institution:{name:"Universidad de Guanajuato",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8292",title:"Oral Health by Using Probiotic Products",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8292.jpg",slug:"oral-health-by-using-probiotic-products",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Razzagh Mahmoudi",hash:"327e750e83634800ace02fe62607c21e",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Oral Health by Using Probiotic Products",editors:[{id:"245925",title:"Dr.",name:"Razzagh",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoudi",slug:"razzagh-mahmoudi",fullName:"Razzagh Mahmoudi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245925/images/system/245925.jpg",institutionString:"Qazvin University of Medical Sciences",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 26th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:289,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/158609",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"158609"},fullPath:"/profiles/158609",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()