\r\n\t2) The divergence between the levels of reliability required (twelve-9’s are not uncommon requirements) and the ability to identify or test failure modes that are increasingly unknown and unknowable
\r\n\t3) The divergence between the vulnerability of critical systems and the amount of damage that an individual ‘bad actor’ is able to inflict.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe book examines pioneering work to address these challenges and to ensure the timely arrival of antifragile critical systems into a world that currently sees humanity at the edge of a precipice.
In 2005, about 1.6 billion adults (above 15 years of age) were estimated to be overweight, whereas about 400 million people were obese. Obesity is a condition with such an increasing prevalence that it can be defined as a global epidemic. In 2015, approximately 2.3 billion adults will be overweight and more than 700 million will be obese (WHO, 2006). Obesity increases the risk of many health complications such as cardiovascular diseases, some types of cancer, osteoarthritis, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and hypercholesterolemia, and is associated with early death (Flegal, Graubard, Williamson, & Gail, 2005; Whitlock, et al., 2009). Obesity is a strong risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes (Klein, et al., 2004a, 2004b). Indeed, as BMI (Body Mass Index) increases, the risk of developing type 2 diabetes increases in a "dose-dependent" manner (Colditz, et al., 1990; Must, et al., 1999). The prevalence of type 2 diabetes is 3–7 times higher in obese than in normal-weight adults, and those with a BMI >35 are 20 times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than those with a BMI between 18.5 and 24.9 (Field, et al., 2001; Mokdad, et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tObesity-related medical complications weigh heavily on public health care costs and developing effective interventions for substantially reduce weight, maintain weight loss and prevent or manage associated diseases like type 2 diabetes in cost-effective manner is a priority.
\n\t\t\tStand-alone and combined treatment options (dietetic, nutritional, physical, behavioral, cognitive-behavioral, pharmacological, surgical) are available, but clinical practice and research have shown significant difficulties with regard to availability, costs, treatment adherence and long-term efficacy (Weinstein, 2006). These procedures imply high costs both for the obese individuals and the public health system, overall within an enduring care setting. Indeed, the main challenge in the treatment of obesity is to maintain weight loss in the long term (Hill, Thompson, & Wyatt, 2005). Most overweight and obese individuals regain about one third of the weight lost with treatment within 1 year, sometimes even before the end of the intervention, and they are typically back to baseline in 3 to 5 years (Jeffery, et al., 2000; Katan, 2009; Wing, Tate, Gorin, Raynor, & Fava, 2006). Similarly, few patients with diabetes go on taking their prescribed medication entirely as intended (Dale, Caramlau, Docherty, Sturt, & Hearnshaw, 2007; Donnan, MacDonald, & Morris, 2002).
\n\t\t\tContinuous and cost-effective approaches that can reach a large number of obese individuals are thus needed. A new promising method for granting continuity of care to wide populations of patients at low costs is telemedicine and its more specific branches called “e-therapy”, “telecare” and “e-health”: information and communication technologies (ICT) used in order to exchange information useful for the diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation and prevention of diseases (Eysenbach, 2001; Pagliari, et al., 2005). Telecare can be carried out with tools such as web-sites, e-mail, chat lines, videoconference, telephone and mobile phones (Castelnuovo, Gaggioli, Mantovani, & Riva, 2003). As already indicated in several studies (Cline & Wong, 1999; Goulis, et al., 2004; Jeffery, et al., 2003; Maglaveras, et al., 2002; Rice, 2005) and in various reviews (Neve, Morgan, Jones, & Collins, 2009; Saperstein, Atkinson, & Gold, 2007; Weinstein, 2006), behavioral treatments delivered through the internet (web-site and e-mail) may be valid alternatives to reduce expensive and time-consuming clinical visits.
\n\t\tNowadays Clinical Psychology has found a lot of different applications in traditional clinical settings (public and private hospitals, clinics, services, laboratories, etc.) and innovative clinical settings (remote outpatients’ clinics, tele-health and e-health based settings). Medicine alone could be “a soul without psychology” (TIME magazine, Dec. 24, 1956) and so "in these times there is no medical area without a corresponding field in Clinical Psychology: psycho-cardiology, psych-oncology, psycho-geriatrics are only three examples of this significative spread of psychology into the clinical settings, traditionally limited to a bio-medical source" (p.1, Castelnuovo, 2010).
\n\t\t\tThe Internet offers a novel delivery tool in clinical psychology for weight loss and weight loss maintenance interventions, with the potential to offer long-term intervention at a low cost, in comparison to traditional face-to-face treatments.
\n\t\t\tA recent systematic review has underlined the evidence on the effectiveness of internet-based interventions for weight loss and maintenance enhanced by professional feedback (Manzoni, Pagnini, Corti, Molinari, & Castelnuovo, 2011). Moreover, although Internet programs with counseling from a human therapist may make treatment more effective than automated e-counseling, developing technologies make virtual counselors possible.
\n\t\t\tUnfortunately studies that have been conducted up to date on this issue are very heterogeneous and furthermore no study has compared an internet based program with a “real” control group (Manzoni, et al., 2011).
\n\t\t\tAbout the cost of treatment delivery, only 2 studies of the 26 reviewed assessed cost-effectiveness of an internet-based intervention. Telemedicine applications for obesity would take into account the saving of additional costs through elimination of travel costs and travel time (Manzoni, et al., 2011; Rojas & Gagnon, 2008).
\n\t\t\tUp to now Internet and Telemedicine have offered a novel tool for weight loss and weight loss maintenance interventions with the potential to improve long-term intervention at low cost, in comparison to traditional face-to-face treatments (Ekeland, Bowes, & Flottorp, 2010; Khaylis, Yiaslas, Bergstrom, & Gore-Felton, 2010).
\n\t\t\tKhalys and colleagues identified five components that are considered crucial in facilitating weight loss in technology-based interventions (Khaylis, et al., 2010):
\n\t\t\tSELF-MONITORING: the process in which individuals regulate and keep track of their own behaviors and changes.
COUNSELOR FEEDBACK AND COMMUNICATION: the feedback from a professional therapist regarding goals, progress, and results.
SOCIAL SUPPORT: the group treatment modality that could be the preferred setting in behavioral weight-loss interventions.
STRUCTURED PROGRAM:the structured technology-based weight-loss interventions programs including principles of behavior therapy and change.
INDIVIDUALLY TAILORED PROGRAM: the interventions that have to be individually tailored to each participant characteristic
In order to determine which features of telemedicine and internet-based interventions are critical in a cost-effective approach, TECNOB project has been developed.
\n\t\t\tTECNOB (TEChNology for OBesity) Project is a comprehensive two-phase stepped down program enhanced by telemedicine for the medium-term treatment of obese people seeking intervention for weight loss (Castelnuovo, et al., 2011; Castelnuovo, et al., 2010). Its core features are the hospital-based intensive treatment (1-month), that consists of diet therapy, physical training and psychological counseling, and the continuity of care at home using new information and communication technologies (ICT) such as internet and mobile phones. The effectiveness of the TECNOB program compared with usual care (hospital-based treatment only) will be evaluated in a randomized controlled trial (RCT) with a 12-month follow-up. The primary outcome is weight in kilograms. Secondary outcome measures are energy expenditure measured using an electronic armband, glycated hemoglobin, binge eating, self-efficacy in eating and weight control, body satisfaction, healthy habit formation, disordered eating-related behaviors and cognitions, psychopathological symptoms and weight-related quality of life (Castelnuovo, et al., 2011; Castelnuovo, et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\tDuring the in-patient phase, participants attend an intensive four-week hospital-based and medically-managed program for weight reduction and rehabilitation. All patients are placed on a hypocaloric nutritionally balanced diet tailored to the individual after consultation with a dietitian (energy intake around 80% of the basal energy expenditure estimated according to the Harris-Benedict equation and a macronutrient composition of 16% proteins, 25% fat and 59% carbohydrates). Furthermore, they receive nutritional counseling provided by a dietitian, brief psychological counseling provided by a clinical psychologist and have physical activity training provided by a physiotherapist. Nutritional rehabilitation program aims to improve and promote change in eating habits and consists of both individual sessions (dietary assessment, evaluation of nutrient intake and adequacy, nutritional status, anthropometric, eating patterns, history of overweight, readiness to adopt change) and group sessions (45 minutes each twice a week) including: information on obesity and related health risks, setting of realistic goals for weight loss, healthy eating in general, general nutrition and core food groups, weight management and behavior change strategies for preventing relapse) (Castelnuovo, et al., 2011; Castelnuovo, et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\tPsychological counseling is provided once a week both individually and in group setting. Individual sessions, lasting 45 minutes each, are mainly based on the cognitive-behavioral approach described by Cooper and Fairburn and emphasize the techniques of self-monitoring, goal setting, time management, prompting and cueing, problem solving, cognitive restructuring, stress management and relapse prevention. Group sessions (small groups of 5/6 persons), lasting 1 hour each, focus on issues such as motivation to change, assertiveness, self-esteem, self-efficacy and coping. Developing a sense of autonomy and competence are the primary purposes of the in-hospital interventions. Patients are afforded the skills and tools for change and are supported in assigning positive values to healthy behaviors and also in aligning them with personal values and lifestyle patterns (Castelnuovo, et al., 2011; Castelnuovo, et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\tPhysical activity takes place once a day except for week-end and consists of group programs (20 individuals) based on postural gymnastics, aerobic activity and walks in the open. Patients with specific orthopedic complications carry out individual activities planned by physiotherapists and articulated in programs of physical therapy, assisted passive and active mobilization and isokinetic exercise.
\n\t\t\tIn the last week of hospitalization, just before discharge from the hospital, participants allocated to the TECNOB program are instructed for the out-patient phase. Firstly, they receive a multisensory armband (SenseWear® Pro3 Armband), an electronic tool that enables automated monitoring of total energy expenditure (calories burned), active energy expenditure, physical activity duration and levels (METs). Patients are instructed to wear this device on the back of the upper arm and to record data for 36 hours every two weeks in a free-living context. The Armband holds up to 12 days of continuous data which the outpatients are instructed to download into their personal computer and to transmit online to a web-site specifically designed for data storing. Outpatients are also told that they can review their progress using the SenseWear® 6.1 Software which analyzes and organizes data into graphs and reports. Secondly, participants are instructed to use the TECNOB web-platform, an interactive web-site developed by TELBIOS S.P.A. (
The TECNOB web-platform supports several functions and delivers many utilities, such as questionnaires, an animated food record diary, an agenda and a videoconference virtual room. In the “questionnaires” section, patients submit data concerning weight and glycated hemoglobin. In the “food record diary” participants submit actual food intake day by day through the selection of food images from a comprehensive visual database provided by METEDA S.P.A. (
By this way, outpatients can keep a food record diary allowing comparisons between current eating and the recommended hypocaloric diet along the whole duration of the program. The “agenda” allows the patients to remember the videoconference appointments with the clinicians and the days when to fill in the questionnaires. Moreover, the patients can use the “memo” space to note down any important event occurred to him/her in the previous week/month. The clinical psychologist has thus the opportunity to discuss with the outpatients about the significant events reported in the “memo” space during the videoconference sessions and cognitively reconstruct dysfunctional appraisals in functional ways. Finally, outpatients are instructed to use the videoconference tool (see Figure 5).
\n\t\t\tThe TECNOB Telemedicine Platform (devoloped by TELBIOS http://www.telbios.it)
A screenshot of the TECNOB web-platform with the ARMBAND application (devoloped by TELBIOS http://www.telbios.it)
A screenshot of the METADIETA application for mobile phones (devoloped by METEDA http://www.meteda.it)
Two screenshots of the METADIETA application to manage the diet (devoloped by METEDA http://www.meteda.it)
A screenshot of the TECNOB web-platform with the VIDEOCONFERENCE application (devoloped by TELBIOS http://www.telbios.it)
Thanks to this medium, they receive nutritional and cognitive-behavioral tele-counseling with the dietitian and the clinical psychologist who attended the patients inside the hospital. In particular, just after discharge, participants have 6 videoconference contacts with both clinicians along 3 months. From the 3rd to the 6th month sessions are scheduled every 30 days and then even more spaced up to an interval of 60 days. During tele-sessions, clinicians (psychologist and dietitian) test the outpatients’ progress, their mood, the maintenance of the “good alimentary and physical activity habits”, the loss/increase of weight and ask about critical moments, especially those ones reported on the “memo” web-space. In particular, tele-sessions with the clinical psychologist aim to consolidate strategies and abilities acquired during the in-patient phase, to improve self-esteem and self-efficacy, to support motivation, to prevent relapse and to provide problem-solving and crisis counseling. On the other hand, dietitian assesses adherence and compliance to dietary therapy with a special focus on normal eating behavior, sufficient fluid intake, hunger and fullness regulation, appropriate eating/etiquette (pace and timing of meals), slow rate of eating, and addresses critical points such as plateau in weight loss or lack of readiness to improve dietary habits (Castelnuovo, et al., 2011; Castelnuovo, et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\tIn addition to videoconference, outpatients can further contact clinicians by e-mail. Indeed, each patient is given the possibility to join his clinician beyond the established videoconference contacts in case of urgency or emergency. According to the e-message’s content, clinicians choose the most appropriate format for delivering feedback among e-mail or telephone. In order to avoid excessive dependence and to contain costs, a maximum number of 1 not scheduled contact a week is established a priori. Great relevance is given to the clinicians-patient relationship as an important medium and vehicle of change. After discharge, out-patients begin to experience the autonomy and competence to change they develop during the in-patient phase and inevitably face resistances and barriers. Thanks to videoconferences, outpatients are supported by the clinicians who attended them during the in-hospital phase in exploring resistances and barriers they experience and in finding functional pathways to cope. Furthermore, out-patients are helped to experience mastery in terms of the health behavior change that needs to be engaged (Castelnuovo, et al., 2011; Castelnuovo, et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\tSome preliminary results are now available. As indicated in a recent paper (Castelnuovo, et al., 2011), at present 72 obese patients with type 2 diabetes have been recruited and randomly allocated to the TECNOB program (n=37) or to a control condition (n=39). However, only 34 participants have completed at least the 3-month follow-up and have been included in this ad interim analysis. 21 out of them have reached also the 6-month follow-up and 13 have achieved the end of the program.
\n\t\t\tThe first ad interim analysis of the data from the TECNOB study has not revealed any significant difference between the TECNOB program and a control condition in weight change at 3, 6 and 12 months. Within-group analysis showed significant reductions of initial weight at all time-points but not at 12-month follow-up (Castelnuovo, et al., 2011). The median percentage of initial weight loss for the whole sample was -5,1 kg (-6,6 to -3,7) at discharge from the hospital. Completers analysis of data collected at 6 and 12 months showed that participants regained back part of the weight loss and the difference between weight at baseline and at 12-month follow-up was no more statistically significant. Notably, sample sizes at 6 and 12 months are small (n=21 and n=12 respectively) due to the ongoing status of the study and these results may be unreliable (Castelnuovo, et al., 2011).
\n\t\t\tThese ad interim findings did not support the effectiveness of the TECNOB protocol over a control condition. Notably, this kind of data analysis (ad interim analysis) is underpowered and results we obtained may be unreliable, in particular at 6 and 12 months. However, we gained a significant insight into an important component of the study design, i.e. the hospital-based program. The effect that such uncontrolled factor has on weight loss was very high and probably overwhelmed the effect of the TECNOB intervention. Hence, much statistical power is necessary to enhance the chance to detect the effect of the TECNOB program: the hospital-based program has a very high effect in the first months after discharge but such effect may reduce in the long term. A 12-month follow-up is probably sufficient to detect the TECNOB effect over and above the weakened effect of the hospital-base program (Castelnuovo, et al., 2011). Study is still on-going and complete results will be published in the next years.
\n\t\tThe chapter is devoted to the discussion of the telecommunications development strategy. Communication specialists all around the world are facing the problem: how to shift from circuit switching to packet switching. The same problem is the main challenge for the U.S. Department of Defense.
“The DoD today still has analog, fixed, premises-based, time-division multiplexing (TDM) and even asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) infrastructure,”- is the AT&T view [1]. Really, the DoD has one aging network based on circuit switching point-to-point circuits. This “old” technology requires an expensive support of hardware and additional upgrades with difficulties carried on in the IP era.
Cyber threats are another hard obstacle in a move to IP world. In October of 2018, the Government Accounting Office (GAO) has reported [2], the United States weapons systems developed between 2012 and 2017 have severe, even “mission critical” cyber vulnerabilities. DoD weapon systems nowadays are more and more software dependent (Figure 1). We observe the weapons, from ships to aircrafts; use more software than even before. For example, the aircraft F-35 Lighting II software contains eight million lines of code [3].
Software and information technology systems in aircraft (shown for classification reasons) [2].
The rest of paper is as follows. Sections 2 and 3 are about DoD’s strategies “Joint Vision 2010” and “Joint Vision 2020,” respectively. In Sections 4 and 5, we consider the target DISN infrastructure and Joint regional security stacks. In Section 6, the up-to-date JEDI Cloud Strategy and Artificial Intelligence Initiative have given in short. In the concluding Section 7, we point out rather unsuccessful US Army Regulator fights for IP technology. It is exampled by Defense Red Switch Network using 40 years old ISDN technology.
The Defense Information Systems Network (DISN) is a global network. It provides the transfer of various types of information (speech, data, video, multimedia). Its purpose is to provide the effective and secure control of troops, communications, reconnaissance, and electronic warfare.
The new DoD Doctrine [4] had issued by General J. Shalikashvili in 1995. This is the keystone document for Command, Control, Communications, and Computer (C4) systems up to now. At that time, “Joint Vision 2010” doctrine met a strong criticism from the US GAO side [5]. The GAO pointed out that the military services are operating as many as 87 independent networks. DISA initiated a similar data call after GAO survey and identified much more - 153 networks throughout Defense.
General J. Shalikashvili had met the technological uncertainty and the controversial requirements. Under these conditions, DISA (Defense Information Systems Agency) has made a very important decision - to use the “open architecture” and commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) products only for military communication networks. The decision was – to use widely tested developments of Bell Labs, namely, the telephone signaling protocol SS7 and the Advanced Intelligent Network (AIN). These products were rather ‘old’ at that time: SS7 protocols had developed at Bell Labs since 1975 and defined as ITU standards in 1981.
The details regarding the transition to SS7 and AIN we found in a paper [6] from Lockheed Martin Missiles & Space – the well-known Defense contractor.
SS7 is an architecture for performing out-of-band signaling. In supports the call establishment, routing, and information exchange functions as well as enables network performance. In own order, the Advanced Intelligent Network was originally designed as a critical tool to offer sophisticated services such as “800” calls and directory assistance. The functional structure of the SS7 makes it possible to create the AIN by putting together functional parts: Service Control Point, Service Switching Point, the Service Creation Environment, Service Management System, Intelligent Peripheral, Adjunct, and the Network Access Point. Figure 2 describes the AIN components that operate in the worldwide military telecommunication network, as well as how they are deployed in SS7 backbone, the space Wide Area Network (WAN), circuit switched voice network and the packet switched terrestrial WAN.
Advanced intelligent network military service architecture [6].
To illustrate the current DISN architecture (Figure 3) we refer to the certification of Avaya PBX by DISA Joint Interoperability Test Command in 2012 [7]. The SS7 network is some kind of the nervous system of DISN up to the resent time. It connects the channel mode MFS (MultiFunctional Switches) and many others network components. That is, within the DISN network, the connections have established by means of SS7 signaling. All new terminal equipment what appears is largely IP type, nevertheless SS7 network retains its central place.
The simplified DISN view: The current state [7].
Just a few years later as “Joint Vision 2010” had introduced, namely, in 2007 the next Pentagon strategy “Joint Vision 2020” appeared. Pentagon published a fundamental program [8]. There we find the most important point: DISN have been built on basis of IP protocol (Figure 4). IP protocol should be the only means of communication between the network’s transport layer and all available applications. The following 10 years have shown it is an extremely hard challenge.
Joint vision 2020: Each warfare object has own IP address.
To implement Joint Vision 2020, the most important step is the replacing of channel switching electronic Multifunctional switches (MFS) by packet switching routers. The transition to IP protocol has based on the use of Multifunctional SoftSwiches (MFSS) and new signaling protocol AS-SIP (Assured Services Session Initiation Protocol). MFSS operates as a media gateway (MG) between TDM circuits switching and IP packet switching components. During the transition phase, MFSS operates under the control of the media gateway controller (MGC). Communications control protocol H.248 has used between MG and MGC. As shown in Figure 5, MFSS should be pure packet switch besides DRSN ‘island’ using ISDN protocol.
Reference model for multifunction SoftSwitch [9].
A few words about SIP signaling. The SIP protocol widely used now for internet telephony is not able to provide secrecy during transmission (under cyber warfare conditions) and to provide priority calls. Therefore, the Department of Defense ordered to develop one new secure AS-SIP protocol [10]. The AS-SIP protocol turned out to be extremely difficult. AS-SIP uses the services of almost 200 different RFC standards while ordinary SIP uses only 11 RFC standards.
The aim of “Joint Vision 2020” concept is to implement unified services based on Unified Capabilities concept. Army Unified Capabilities (UC) have defined as the integration of voice, video, and/or data services. These services have delivered across secure and highly available network infrastructure [11].
The following are the basic Voice Features and Capabilities:
Call Forwarding (selective, on busy line, etc.)
Multi-Level Precedence and Preemption (MLPP)
Precedence Call Waiting (Busy with higher precedence call, busy with Equal precedence call, etc.)
Call Transfer (at different precedence levels)
Call Hold and Three-Way Calling and many others.
The Unified Capabilities services are covering a plenty of communication capabilities: from point-to-point to multipoint, voice-only to rich-media, multiple devices to a single device, wired to wireless, non-real time to real time, etc. A collection of services include email and calendaring, instant messaging and chat, unified messaging, video conferencing, voice conferencing, web conferencing (Figure 6).
Rich information services surrounding a soldier: not too much?
The target DISN infrastructure contains two level switching nodes: Tier0 and Tier1 (Figure 7). Top level Tier0 nodes interconnect as geographic cluster and a cluster typically contains at least three Tier0 SoftSwitches. The distance between the clustered SoftSwitches must planned so that the return transmission time does not exceed 40 ms. As propagation delay equals 6 μs/km thus the distance between Tier0 should not exceed 6600 km. The classified signaling environment uses a mix of protocols including the vendor-based H.323 and the AS-SIP signaling. The use of H.323 has allowed only during the transition period to all IP protocol based DISN CVVoIP (Classified VoIP and Video). Classified VVoIP interfaces to the TDM Defense RED Switch Network (DRSN) via a proprietary ISDN PRI as a temporary exception.
DISN classified VoIP and video signaling design [12].
In October 2010, the US Army Cyber Command had set up. USCYBERCOM is now a part of the Strategic Command along with strategic nuclear forces, missile defense and space forces [13]. One of Cyber Command key tasks is to build Joint Information Environment (JIE) and to implement Single Security Architecture (SSA).
It is worth noting the US Cyber Command activities significantly slow down the transition to IP world. Cyber Command shall receive UC network situational awareness from all network agents including DoD Network Operations Security Centers (NOSCs), and the DISA Network Operation Center (NOC) infrastructure (Figure 8). Thus, DISA and the other DoD Components shall be responsible for end-to-end UC network management providing the strong cybersecurity requirements. The solution of cyber defense tasks radically changes the all DISN network modernization plans.
Operational construct for unified capabilities network operations [12].
The essence of the Joint Information Environment concept is to create a common military infrastructure, provide corporate services and a unified security architecture. The very concept of JIE is extremely complex, and the requirements of cybersecurity make it even more difficult. According to SSA, Joint regional security stacks (JRSS) are the main components of the JIE environment providing a unified approach to the structure of cybersecurity as well as protecting computers and information networks everywhere in military organizations.
JRSS performs many functions as a typical IP-router providing cybersecurity: firewall functions, intrusion detection and prevention, and a lot other network security capabilities. JRSS equipment contains a complex set of cyber-protection software. For example, the typical NIPR JRSS stack is comprised physically of as many as 20 racks containing cyber-protection software and in real time testing information streams. Currently, JRSS stacks have installed for the NIPRNet (Non-classified Internet Protocol Router Network). It has planned also to install the stacks for the SIPRNet (Secret Internet Protocol Router Network). In 2014, 11 JRSS stacks had installed in the United States, 3 stacks in the Middle East and one in Germany. The total amount of works includes the installation of 23 JRSS stacks on the NIPRNet service network and 25 JRSS stacks on the secret SIPRNet network (Figure 9). By 2019, it has planned to transfer to these stacks all cybersecurity programs. In nowadays, these programs are located in more than 400 places over the world [13].
JRSS current and planned deployments [14].
The DISN and DoD Component enclaves provide the two main network transport elements of the DODIN (Department of Defense Information Network) with the interconnecting JRSS role as shown in Figure 10.
The leading role of JRSS in DODIN transport [15].
On June 2012, Lockheed Martin won the largest tender for managing the DISN network - Global Services Management-Operations (GSM-O) project. The essence of the GSM-O contract was to modernize DISN management system taking into account the USCYBERCOM security requirements. The cost of work was 4.6 billion dollars for 7 years.
In 2013, the GSM-O team began to study the current state of the DISN management. There are four management centers: two centers in the US - at the AB Scott (Illinois) and Hickam (Hawaii) and two more - in Bahrain and Germany. They are responsible for the maintenance and uninterrupted operation of all Pentagon computer networks. The work is very laborious: there are 8100 computer systems in more than 460 locations in the world, which in turn have connected by 46,000 cables. The first deal was to consolidate the operating centers - from four to two, namely, to expand the US centers by closing the centers in Bahrain and Germany.
In 2015, the telecommunications world had shocked by the news: Lockheed Martin is not coping with GSM-O project, not able to upgrade of the DISN network management. Lockheed Martin has sold its division “LM Information and Global Solutions” to the competing firm Leidos. One can assume that the failure of the work was most likely due to the inability to recruit developers. New generation of software makers are not familiar with the ‘old’ circuit switching equipment and are not capable to combine it with the latest packet switching systems. The more, they should take into account the never cybersecurity requirements [16].
This failure is much more scandalous. During several last years, the GAO criticized Pentagon’s budget, particularly paying attention to JRSS budget. Many tests regarding JRSS effectiveness were unsuccessful, they were not able to reduce the number of cyber threats [17].
Despite the strong GAO critics, DoD continues the JRSS initiative. DOD stood up 14 of the 25 security stacks planned across the network in the U.S., Europe, and Pacific and southwest regions in Asia. The final security stack has planned for completing by the end of 2019 [18].
Could be fulfilled this Pentagon’s grandiose JRSS plan? The complexity of the task, in particular, characterizes the set of requirements for potential JRSS developers, named in the invitations to work for Leidos. The requirement list includes work experience of 12–14 years and knowledge of at least two or more products from ArcSight, TippingPoint, Sourcefire, Argus, Bro, Fidelis XPS, and other companies. In reality, it is extremely hard work to combine all these software complexes for cyber defense. The more, these high-level software developers should work in top-secret environment.
It turned out that the project has a significant critical flaw: JRSS equipment is too S-L-O-W, the time for information stream processing is too long. It sounds like a sentence on the fate of the JRSS project [19]. Despite of that, the JRSS is going on.
On October 2018, the Defense Information Systems Agency has released a final solicitation for the potential 10-year 6.52 billion dollars project Global Solutions Management-Operations (GSM-O II). The contract winner is Leidos. GSM-O II is a single award contract designed to provide a full global operations and sustainment solution to support DODIN/DISN [20].
The key GSM-O II attributes include the cybersecurity defense of the DISA enterprise infrastructure and Joint Regional Security Stacks aids in the support to enhance the mission (?).
Now we are looking for Leidos success (or failure). It is yet unclear and 10-year period, of course, is a rather long time. Could Leidos cope with GSM-O II?
The Defense Department’s never initiative concerns the cloud strategy. The foundation of cloud initiative is the general-purpose Joint Enterprise Defense Infrastructure (JEDI) [21]. The strategy emphasizes a cloud hierarchy at DOD, with JEDI on top. Many fit-for-purpose military clouds, which include MilCloud 2.0 run by DISA, will be secondary to the JEDI general-purpose cloud.
On April 10, 2019, the Department of Defense confirms that Amazon and Microsoft are the cloud contract winners. The competitors Oracle and IBM are officially out of the race for a key 10 billion dollars defense cloud contract.
Could be the JEDI Cloud Strategy successful? A key technological difficulty for the JEDI project is interoperability of clouds (Figure 11). The Pentagon’s JEDI cloud strategy leaves a series of unanswered questions that could be reasons for disasters in the future [22].
DoD pathfinder to hybrid cloud environments [21].
For internal interoperability, the strategy lays out the correct goal, common data and application standards. There are the 500+ clouds already used within the Pentagon. They have own data formats. Now they need to migrate and interoperate onto the unique JEDI platform.
The next unanswered question regards the JEDI cloud’s external interoperability. It concerns a future conflict situation. Would America’s allies need to use the same cloud provider (e.g., Microsoft) and the same data-formatting practices as the DoD? The strategy does not discuss these long-term issues.
The cloud strategy has started in 2015 by establishing the Defense Innovation Unit (DIU). This DoD organization has founded to help the US military make easier and faster use of innovative commercial technologies. The organization has headquartered in Silicon Valley (California) with offices in Boston, Austin, and some more. The next step – the establishing of Joint Artificial Intelligence Center as a focal point of the DoD Artificial Intelligence Strategy [23].
Taking into account the potential magnitude of Artificial Intelligence’s impact on the whole of society, and the urgency of this emerging technology international race, President Trump signed the executive order “Maintaining American Leadership in Artificial Intelligence” on February 11, 2019. That document has launched the American AI Initiative. This was immediately followed by the release of DoD’s first-ever AI strategy [24].
Artificial intelligence - this is really one great idea, if it happens be successful. Could it have more success than JRSS initiative?
US Army Regulator fights for IP technology but, honesty speaking, unsuccessfully. The Army regulator recognizes in 2017 [25] that there is ‘old’ equipment on the network: time-division multiplex equipment, integrated services digital networking, channel switching video telecommunication services. According to the document [25], all these services will use IP technology, at least, in the nearest future. As an example, name the instructive claim regarding DRSN:
4–2.d. Commands that have requirements to purchase or replace existing Multilevel Secure Voice (previously known as Defense Red Switched Network (DRSN)) switches will provide a detailed justification and impact statement to the CIO/G–6 review authority.
In conditions of cyberwar, no reason to be surprised that the Defense Red Switch Network (DRSN) will use 40 years old ISDN technology for long time yet, the more – in conditions of cyberwar. DRSN is a dedicated telephone network, which provides global secure communication services for the command and control structure of both the United States Armed Forces and the NATO Allies (Figure 12). The network has maintained by DISA and has secured for communications up to the level of Top Secret.
Secure terminal equipment; note slot in front for crypto PC card (left). The DRSN architecture (right) [25].
“Red Phone” (Secure Terminal Equipment, STE) uses ISDN line for connections to the network. “Red Phone” operates at a speed of 128 kbps. There is the slot at the bottom right serving for a crypto-card and four buttons at the top - to select the priority of communications. The STE is the primary device for enabling security. It may be used for secure voice, data, video, or facsimile services.
As we have mentioned above citing the AT&T view [1], the DoD today still has analog, fixed, premises-based, time-division multiplexing and seems could remain for unpredictable period according to the well-known software developers slogan: “Don’t touch what works”. In conditions of cyberwar, the very transition to internet technologies in telecommunications seems doubtful. Thus, we conclude that the long-term channel-packet coexistence seems inevitable, especially in the face of growing cyber threats.
AI | artificial intelligence |
AIN | advanced intelligent network |
AS-SIP | assured services session initiation protocol |
CS | capability set |
DISA | defense information systems agency |
DISN | defense information systems network |
DoD | department of defense |
DODIN | department of defense information network |
DRSN | defense red switched network |
GAO | Government Accounting Office |
IP | internet protocol |
ISDN | integrated services digital network |
JEDI | joint enterprise defense infrastructure |
JIE | joint information environment |
JRSS | joint regional security stack |
MFS | multifunctional switch |
MFSS | multifunctional softswich |
MG | media gateway |
MGC | media gateway control |
NIPRNet | non-classified internet protocol router network |
RFC | request for comments |
SIP | session initiation protocol |
SIPRNet | secret internet protocol router network |
SS7 | signaling system protocol #7 |
SSA | single security architecture |
UC | unified capabilities |
TDM | time division multiplexing |
Supporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.
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