The ceramic samples analyzed
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In 2011, Dr. Wu was recognized as a ‘Top 100 Outstanding Academic Leader for China’s Informatics’ by the China Informatics Society. He was awarded "Outstanding Contribution in Reviewing" by Q1 Journals such as Electronic Commerce Research and Applications (Elsevier).',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"190913",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert M.X.",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"robert-m.x.-wu",fullName:"Robert M.X. Wu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190913/images/system/190913.jpg",biography:"Robert M.X. Wu has a diploma in Computer Science, a bachelor’s degree in Economics, and master’s and doctorate degrees in e-Commerce. He is currently lecturing e-commerce / Information Systems at Central Queensland University Australia (CQU). He has led more than ten industry-based research projects since 2012 and contributes to reviewing five A-level Australian Business Deans Council (ABDC) journals and Q1 journals.\r\nIn July 2011, Dr. Wu was recognized as a ‘Top 100 Outstanding Academic Leader for China’s Informatics’ by the China Informatics Society. In 2017 he was appointed Distinguished Professor at Shanxi Normal University, China. He was also awarded ‘Outstanding Contribution in Reviewing’ in 2016 and 2018 by the Electronic Commerce Research and Applications journal (Elsevier) and ‘Student Voice Commendation – EDUCATORS of THE YEAR 2020’ for Emerging Technologies in E-Business, CQU.",institutionString:"Central Queensland University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Central Queensland University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440204",firstName:"Ana",lastName:"Cink",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440204/images/20006_n.jpg",email:"ana.c@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Ceramics is an inorganic nonmetallic material obtained through thermal processing of natural raw materials at relatively high temperature [2]. The raw materials are clays with finely divided quartz (sand) (0.02–0.04 mm) and feldspar, responsible for the rheology along the thermal processing. Clay is a group of minerals in earth that is granular; plastic, when mixed with a little water; or hard and brittle, if combusted. The clay is composed of hydrated aluminum silicates, with the addition of an appreciable amount of other elements: magnesium, iron, calcium, and potassium [3,4]. The clays retain fluid water (liquid) (from pores between clay particle aggregates) at low temperature, molecular water from the surface of particles or crystallites at medium temperature, and, sometimes, neutral molecules (H2O) or ionic hydroxyl groups (OH−) liberated at higher temperatures during thermal processing [5–7]. The production of ceramics was first implemented in the Neolithic period. The Greeks and Romans developed lime mortar cements, with a remarkable resistance, and some of these archaeological sites stand testimony to this day [8]. The Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries registered significant improvements in the ceramic industry, while the twentieth century contributed to the scientific understanding of these materials. Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage has become one of the main concerns worldwide. In this respect, there is particular interest for investigations by nondestructive techniques some unique heritage ceramics for their subsequent preservation and restoration. These nondestructive analytical methods are able to provide information on composition/chemical nature of cultural artifacts, selected parts and materials in order to elucidate their origin, state of degradation (surface and/or internal) objects as a result of exposure over a period to environmental conditions, and the effects/effectiveness of strategies to conservation/restoration during their implementation.
The traditional ceramics involve those materials that are derived from common, naturally occurring raw materials such as clay minerals and quartz sand. The traditional ceramics is manufactured from naturally occurring raw materials: silicates—compounds based on silica (SiO2) and unmodified or chemically modified aluminosilicates (alumina [Al2O3] plus silica). In addition, the raw materials used in traditional ceramics could be classified into three groups: clay, silica, and feldspar [9].
Clay minerals such as kaolinite (Al2[Si2O5][OH]4) generated either by the weathering of igneous rocks under the influence of water, dissolved carbon dioxide, and organic acids, or from feldspar (KAlSi3O8) eroded from rocks such as granite and deposited in lake beds, which are aluminosilicates that contain sodium (Na), potassium (K), or calcium (Ca) with a composition from NaAlSi3O8 and KAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8. Feldspar acts as fluxing agents to reduce the melting temperatures of the aluminosilicate phases where they are subsequently transformed into clay [10]. Except feldspar, silica, as the second major ingredient in refractories, is usually added as quartz sand, sandstone, or flint pebbles [11]. The role of silica is either to maintain the shape during firing (as filler) or to improve the final mechanical properties.
The behavior of ceramics depends on its chemical, physical, and mechanical properties [7]. In the ancient ceramics, the main minerals are gehlenite (Ca2Al2SiO7), anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8), quartz (SiO2), belite (β-Ca2SiO4), and carbonates/calcite (CaCO3) and/or dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). For ceramics with limestone as raw material, the fired products may also contain akermanite (Ca2MgSi2O7), gehlenite (Ca2(Al,Fe,Mg)(Si,Al)2O7), and Mg-silicates (e.g., diopside and CaMgSi2O6) [12,13].
Ceramics, until the twentieth century, was essentially used for utilitarian purposes for ritual acts. At first, craftsmen did not know the potter’s wheel, but they were very skilled at shaping and baking clay. Ceramic art painting in white, black and red, with models of great beauty and originality, was spread over a territory more extensive than present-day Romania and perfected for almost 2000 years [14]. The pottery techniques are extremely important for archaeologists as a source of results about cultural groups and their distribution areas. Through fragments of pottery, one can identify intercultural links or movements of populations in certain geographical areas [15]. For example, Romania’s geographical region consists of Wallachia until Jiu Valley in Dobrogea, southwest Moldova and southeast Transylvania, and extending south to the Aegean Sea.
Some of the most relevant ceramic types specific to Romania are:
Cucuteni ceramics
For ancient ceramics, the methodological exact sciences have their beginning in the sixth decade of twentieth century, when it was widely used in X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique [18], investigation of thermal expansion [19], and optical microscopy ceramic artifact analysis [20]. In the next decade, new analytical methods such as Mössbauer spectroscopy [21], differential thermal analysis [22,23], and electron microscopy [24, 25] were explored. Through improvements in the investigation methods in the last decade of the twentieth century, the characterization of such ceramics reached impressive new levels [26–28]. The eighth decade of the twentieth century coincided with the development of some methods based on SEM that currently dominates the studies about pottery. The use of these methods allowed for a better understanding of structural changes due to the different types of clay burning at different temperatures [14], which allowed the extraction of information, enabling economic and social outline of the communities that produced these artifacts. At present, the world can identify and understand the most stages of the technological process of making ceramics in different chronological periods and in different cultures.
It is important to use modern chemical analysis, both nondestructive (which can be in some cases fully noninvasive) methods and destructive methods of modern microanalysis, for small samples analysis [29–32]. They may be extremely valuable in the provenance investigation of an object, the origin of the materials used for its manufacture, in determining its degradation state and, finally, to choose the most suitable methods of restoration and conservation, the type of materials for conservation, and also in monitoring the progress of conservation processes, or to identify the fake art objects [33]. The main aspects of ceramic characterization are classification, production technology, and provenance through specific techniques for chemical and mineralogical characterization: spectroscopic techniques (FT-IR, Raman, XRD, EDXRF, and ICP-AES) and thermoanalytical techniques [34].
Modern chemical methods and measuring techniques can be used for archaeometric purposes. Some analytical techniques have been investigated with exemplification for different Romanian artifacts.
Sampling, reported in Table 1, was performed at the ruins of the Schneckenberg culture (sixteenth century), Dealul Melcilor, Braşov, Romania. Some examples of the investigated ceramic samples are shown in Figure 2.
Different ceramic samples
It is interesting that this region conserved many cultures (Vatina, Gârla Mare, Luciu de Sus, Wietenberg and Otomani). Eight differently fabricated contemporary pottery samples were selected for characterization, as shown in Table 1.
Clay minerals, as the main material for production of ceramics and pottery, show some characteristic reactions—dehydroxylation, decomposition, transformation—during the firing (heating effects, 20–800°C), and several steps for reconstruction of former production conditions are identified, knowing that the temperature at which ancient ceramics and pottery were fired varies over a wide range (600–800°C) depending on the type of clay used. Thermogravimetric (TG) analysis and differential thermogravimetric (DTG) analysis are very important characterization methods used for the control of the reaction process and of the properties of the materials obtained [35–38]. The presence of some minerals is related to the ceramics firing process, giving information about the manufacture technology of the pottery. For a firing temperature higher than 900°C (observed for all the analyzed samples), a certain conclusion had been reached that the glazed ceramics was usually fired at temperatures ranging from 900°C to 950°C, mostly due to the reaction between quartz and carbonates when the temperature reaches 900°C.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\tCeramic | \n\t\t\tBlack/Dealul Melcilor | \n\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\tCeramic | \n\t\t\tGrey/Dealul Melcilor | \n\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\tCeramic | \n\t\t\tRed/Dealul Melcilor | \n\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\tCeramic | \n\t\t\tWhite/Dealul Melcilor | \n\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\tCeramic | \n\t\t\tGreen/Dealul Melcilor | \n\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\tCeramic | \n\t\t\tBrown/Dealul Melcilor | \n\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\tCeramic | \n\t\t\tBraşov tile | \n\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\tCeramic pot | \n\t\t\tBraşov medieval customs/Bran-Braşov | \n\t\t
The ceramic samples analyzed
Thermal analysis enables detection of exothermic and endothermic peaks (effects due to gain/loss of enthalpy) occurring in the sample when undergoing controlled heating and compares to an inert reference material [39–46]. The endothermic peak around 100°C is due to moisture water, whereas those appearing at about 200–250°C are attributed to “bound” water, or to “hydrated” interlayer cations (as in swelling clay minerals). The TG/DTG diagrams for different colored ceramics are shown in Figure 3.
Thermal analyses of colored ceramics
Figure 4 shows the TG/DTG diagram for the Transylvania tile ceramics.
Thermal analyses of tile ceramics
Some effects have been observed as follows:
endothermic effects attributed to gypsum appear in the range 120–160°C [47];
endothermic peak that could be attributed either to water lost from iron hydroxides, or to recrystallization of amorphous and/or crystallized Fe-oxy hydroxides appears at 300°C, through an exothermic peak in the range 300–350°C.
some exothermic peaks in the range 550–650°C could be attributed to some organic matter (binder used in the preparation of the ceramic paste, or external coating).
In both cases, an abrupt increase in weight starts immediately at room temperature and lasts up to 200°C. To our knowledge, such thermoanalytical behavior of pottery samples has never been observed previously.
Usually, the ceramic heritage contains mostly the following clay types: kaolinites (kaolinite, dickite, nacrite, and halloysite), illites (illite, hydrous micas, phengite, glauconite, and celadonite), smectites (montmorillonite, beidellite, and saponite), vermiculites, and palygorskite (palygorskite and sepiolite). Some minerals, such as kaolinite, illite, and smectite, show strong endothermic peaks (in the range 550–650°C (higher for chlorite)), and some endothermic peaks are at 840°C (single peak)—for calcite and dublets at 780°C and 860°C—for dolomite. They are due to the escape of CO during the breakdown of their structure (other carbonates are unusual in ancient ceramic materials). The presence of these characteristic thermal effects indicates that the primary minerals survived the firing processes required to destroy the structure of the minerals. The DTA curves of salts are complex, and their interpretation needs familiar experience with the technique, and also information from other analytic techniques, such as XRD, XRF, ICP-AES, FT-IR [48], micro-chemical tests, and microanalyses (scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis (SEM-EDX)).
The X-ray diffraction, as one of the most important techniques for potteries analysis, led to the identification of the following mineral phases: quartz, kaolinite, illite, gibbsite, goethite, feldspar, and mixed layers (smectite/illite). The presence of illite peak in X-ray diffraction patterns indicates the presence of calcite, too. We observe that quartz, kaolinite, and K-feldspar are common elements. These are basic constituents of the original clay matrix.
From profile of the DTG curves, the clays could be classified as Ca-rich and Ca-poor raw clays.
For them some processes could be observed:
for calcite presence, which decomposes by oxidation at lower temperature than illite, generated CaO is visible until 800°C.
hygroscopic water is visible at 80°C, and gypsum at 145°C.
for almost all clay minerals, their decomposition is visible in the region 580–640°C [33,49–54].
XRD diagram for tile (F1) and ceramics (green (F2) and brown (F3))
(a) XRF spectra of the analyzed samples. (b) XRF spectra of the analyzed samples: a break was inserted in order to observe the variation of the elements; the color codes are the same as for
Quartz, feldspar, white mica, biotite-like mica, iron oxides, and calcite are the main phases present, but the archaic ceramics contain smaller amounts of detrital feldspar. Also, ilmenite, sphene, zircon, rutile, spinel, epidote, apatite, and monazite have been identified by EDXRF (Figure 6 a,b,c) and SEM in some samples [57]. Cs and Rb concentrations are influenced by the presence of K-feldspar and mica (Cs and Rb are substitute for K). This observation, coupled with their low K2O and Na2O content and high Al2O3 content, suggests that during the preparation of the raw materials, the potters production followed a procedure, probably “levigation,” separating the less fine nonplastic particles such as K-feldspar and albite. Th and Sc are considered as proper sensors for ancient ceramics provenance due their insolubility and their reduced effects on metamorphism, weathering, and diagenesis [58,59].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Si | \n\t\t\t25.3% | \n\t\t\t5.56% | \n\t\t
Ti | \n\t\t\t10.1% | \n\t\t\t15.3% | \n\t\t
Al | \n\t\t\t3,34% | \n\t\t\t6.42% | \n\t\t
Fe | \n\t\t\t3.05% | \n\t\t\t4.17% | \n\t\t
K | \n\t\t\t1.21% | \n\t\t\t0,49% | \n\t\t
Na | \n\t\t\t1.19% | \n\t\t\t2,97% | \n\t\t
Ca | \n\t\t\t0.28% | \n\t\t\t0.93% | \n\t\t
Ba | \n\t\t\t0.11% | \n\t\t\t2.27% | \n\t\t
Mg | \n\t\t\t702 ppm | \n\t\t\t0.15% | \n\t\t
Zr | \n\t\t\t147 ppm | \n\t\t\t0.056% | \n\t\t
Mn | \n\t\t\t355 ppm | \n\t\t\t0.025% | \n\t\t
Cr | \n\t\t\t85.3 ppm | \n\t\t\t84 ppm | \n\t\t
Zn | \n\t\t\t71.2 ppm | \n\t\t\t97 ppm | \n\t\t
Sr | \n\t\t\t46.4 ppm | \n\t\t\t0.026% | \n\t\t
Li | \n\t\t\t24.9 ppm | \n\t\t\t41% | \n\t\t
Ag | \n\t\t\t1.99 ppm | \n\t\t\t49 ppm | \n\t\t
Pd | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t0.015% | \n\t\t
Pb | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t26.2% | \n\t\t
Cu | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t0.68% | \n\t\t
Tl/Bi | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t26% | \n\t\t
P | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t0.22% | \n\t\t
Sb | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t0.17% | \n\t\t
As | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t5.4 ppm | \n\t\t
Au | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t55% | \n\t\t
Major and trace elements ICP-AES analytical results for ancient ceramics and raw material sample (in wt.% and ppm)
The presence of certain chemical elements in the composition of ceramic samples and in the composition of the enamel can provide interesting data on the types of materials used in the medieval period. Some of these elements are found in the recipes used in painting [60–64]. The fact that the composition was found in zirconia ceramics is proof of the use of bentonite as raw material [15,33].
The degradation of the ceramic parts can be explained by the presence of potassium. Depending on environmental conditions, potassium becomes potassium hydroxide by artifact drying and then potassium carbonate by reacting with CO2 from the atmosphere. The presence of KOH makes the area around the vessel to become alkaline, this being responsible for corrosion layer present only in enamel. This is the reason that it should be kept in a controlled humid environment to prevent the subsequent artifacts degradation [30].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Na2O | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t4.2 | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t
MgO | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t\t2.9 | \n\t\t
Al2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t20.2 | \n\t\t\t18.5 | \n\t\t\t24.2 | \n\t\t\t17.6 | \n\t\t
SiO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t30.2 | \n\t\t\t36.9 | \n\t\t\t36 | \n\t\t\t52.6 | \n\t\t
SO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t12.1 | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t0.63 | \n\t\t
Cl | \n\t\t\t5.46 | \n\t\t\t3.4 | \n\t\t\t5.79 | \n\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t
K2O | \n\t\t\t2.23 | \n\t\t\t3.89 | \n\t\t\t1.67 | \n\t\t\t3.45 | \n\t\t
CaO | \n\t\t\t2.16 | \n\t\t\t2.2 | \n\t\t\t3.27 | \n\t\t\t9.66 | \n\t\t
TiO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.29 | \n\t\t\t1.21 | \n\t\t\t1.63 | \n\t\t\t0.985 | \n\t\t
V2O5\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.02 | \n\t\t\t0.03 | \n\t\t\t0.03 | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t
Cr2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.04 | \n\t\t\t0.05 | \n\t\t\t0.041 | \n\t\t\t0.04 | \n\t\t
MnO | \n\t\t\t0.043 | \n\t\t\t0.04 | \n\t\t\t0.079 | \n\t\t\t0.22 | \n\t\t
Fe2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.53 | \n\t\t\t2.17 | \n\t\t\t1.96 | \n\t\t\t9.17 | \n\t\t
Co3O4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.070 | \n\t\t\t0.24 | \n\t\t\t0.02 | \n\t\t\t0.069 | \n\t\t
NiO | \n\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t0.36 | \n\t\t\t0.02 | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t
CuO | \n\t\t\t0.047 | \n\t\t\t0.064 | \n\t\t\t0.042 | \n\t\t\t0.02 | \n\t\t
As2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.03 | \n\t\t\t0.35 | \n\t\t\t—- | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t
PbO | \n\t\t\t22.3 | \n\t\t\t36.9 | \n\t\t\t18.7 | \n\t\t\t0.17 | \n\t\t
ZnO | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | — | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t0.03 | \n\t\t
Chemical composition of artifacts detected by XRF and XRD
From Tables 2 and 3, similarities for different tempers can be observed, as a proof that most samples fall close, but the ceramic fragment containing sand and feldspar are less similar.
SiO2 and Al2O3 together comprise more than 50 wt.% of the ceramic chemical composition. The alkali oxides (K2O, Na2O, CaO, and MgO) constitute together less than 5 wt.% and Fe2O3 reaches 10 wt.% on average. A high H2O value (10 wt.% on average) is observed, which is too high for burned ceramic material. The Al2O3 and H2O contents explain the great abundance of clay-derived minerals, and confirm the abundance of partial dehydroxylation of clay material derived from kaolinite (main mineral of the ceramics) [65].
The chemical and mineralogical data, as well as textural aspects, conclude that the main raw material for ceramic elaboration comes from fine-grained clay quartz-rich material. Some important conclusions could be reached:
When SiO2 concentration is high, the sample contains quartz sand.
When the sample contains feldspar, the concentration of K, Na, Ca increases the firing temperature. Kaolinite is the main mineral of the ceramics [66].
K2O, Na2O, MgO, and CaO build the feldspar (microcline and albite) and together indicate the presence of illite, hematite, maghemite, goethite, and anatase in the raw material.
The extremely high SiO2 contents correspond, besides clay-derived material and the abundance of quartz, to sand grains and rock fragments. The predominance of SiO2 (61.2%), Al2O3 (34%), Fe2O3 (2%), CaO (<10%), MgO (<3%), and 1.3% loss on ignition confirm clay-derived minerals, quartz, and some iron oxyhydroxides as the main minerals of ceramic fragments. The chemical composition of high-quality refractory clays is as follows: silicon oxide, aluminum oxide, and 2% iron oxide.
The P2O5 contents relatively high for clay material normally are responsable for amorphous to criptocrystalline (Al,Fe) phosphate.
The water contents are still high (5.6–8.9 wt.%) showing the rehydration of the ceramic vessel after their discharge and the formation of the soil with black earth.
Barium, phosphorus, and even Pb seem to be the anomalous elements found in the ceramic fragments of Scheneckenberg. The anomalous values of Ba were frequently found in the ceramic fragments with temper.
The iron contents represent hematite and goethite, and some maghemite, minerals also identified in the studied ceramic fragments. Maghemite is responsible for the red color of the potteries. This phase is formed by partial dehydroxylation of clay material (visible at 600 °C). These potteries are used for cooking. They contain elements such as Mg, Ca, Ba, Zn, Pb, Y, from aluminum phosphates and Ba-Mn oxyhydroxides.
After breaking, these potteries in long contact with soil concentrate in P, Mg, Ca, Mn, Ba, Zn, and Pb. In this phase, hematite and maghemite rehydrate and form kaolinite and goethite, respectively.
The composition and origin of the tile sample taken from the Medieval Customs archaeological site, Bran region, Braşov County, dating back to the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries, have been used at first for ceramic composition for making ceramics and for the composition of paints used to decorate this tile. The chemical composition of ancient pigments is an important criterion for the identification of pottery preservation, decoration, and technology used. The study was focused on red, brown, and black pigments from a pre-Roman pottery—a Transylvania tile, Figure 7 [67].
Transylvania tile
It seems like ancient tiles appeared in Germany around 1300. The tiles were more advantageous than open fireplace due to storage of warmth and for elimination of smoke in the room. Their use is common in our country and quickly spread throughout Europe, thanks to their advantages. The oldest tile known to us dates from the early fifteenth century. These are unglazed and they represent biblical scenes, mythological strange mermaids with fish or snake tail and wing, real or fantastic animals, pictures knighthood, geometrical, and floral motifs. The tiles could be glazed and polychrome painted with cobalt blue, green, yellow, and brown pigment-based enamel. Besides functionality, tiles were always meticulously decorated in relief. They had to be not only stove plates, but beautiful objects, providing protection and comfort family space. We have too few studies about the representations that appear on Transylvania tiles, how they were chosen, who were favorite reasons, motivations, and their symbolism elections. It is interesting to follow the trail forms and reasons in the European recurrence in different cultures. It seems that often the choice of decoration for tiles was linked to beliefs and rituals apotropaic, popular superstitions. In this respect, chimney, hearth were considered passageways, as well as threshold or window. Transitional spaces were exposed to evil spirits, evil eye, magic outside. And inside the house, the stove was considered a dangerous object, which could cause fire and smoke poisoning of the occupants of the house. Hence the need for home care through icons and symbols apotropaic fireplace [68]. An analysis of the compositions of the Roman ceramics reveals that the latter tend to have lower concentrations in Cs, Rb, K2O, Na2O, and CaO and higher in Al2O3.
Ceramic is a type of kaolin as hydrated aluminum silicate double, feldspar formed by the decomposition of igneous rocks and by the action of carbonic acid and water, under pressure, and subjected to high temperatures. The clays are some of the most common rocks from the earth, with smaller grains of 0.002 mm, composed of a complex mixture of clay minerals: kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite, etc. These are aluminum and magnesium silicate hydrate, made from altered feldspar and other silicates. They add muscovite, feldspar, heavy minerals (zircon, ilmenite, rutile, magnetite, garnets, etc.), fragments of shells, and other sulfide minerals as diagenetic, glauconite, calcite, and very fine particles of minerals from rock unspoiled page of complex colloidal silicate, hydrated, and the remnants of organic substances. The chemical composition of clays varies by minerals they contain. Ceramic clays and semi-acid clays are used in brick masonry construction, terracotta tiles, or cement. Semi-acid clays have a content of approximately 30%. Al2O3 can be used for the extraction of alumina in the synthesis process; and strong base and basic clays (refractory clays) are used in the manufacture of refractory chamotte for the manufacture of fine ceramics. Clays always contain a greater or lesser amount of impurities, which reduce refractoriness [69].
For aesthetic and for a consistent colored ceramic, pigments are used with metallic oxides and different salts. Pigments vary from green to blue-green to blue. They can be used as dyes in clay bodies and glazes, directly or mixed with water. The coating is constituted of lead-alkali glass with the addition of copper or iron ions as coloring agents.
The presence of the oxides is vital. For example, chrome oxide gives green color, but it may fume or volatilize. If tin is present in a white or pastel glaze, the chrome reacts with the tin to create a pink coloration. If zinc oxide is present in the glaze, a dirty-brown color will be obtained. For green color, cobalt-zinc-alumina-chromite blue-green pigment system could be used, where varying the amounts of cobalt and chrome oxides produces a green ceramic color. Many pigments have mineral origin with different colors; for example, ocher: red and yellow; cinnabar: bright red; azurite: blue; malachite: green; lime: white; carbonized bone: black. As organic pigments red madder and murex shell purple are used, and as binding media, egg, casein, and wax.
The chemical compositions of the ancient ceramics and pigments used are shown in Table 4.
Except all these techniques, FT-IR has been used for ceramic composition identification, including the assignment on the basis of the typical wavenumbers of the contributions to the FTIR absorbance spectra of minerals given in the Sadtler database “Minerals and Clays” [70]. Making a distinction of clays present in the samples was also a difficult task: the contribution centered at ~1033 cm–1 can be attributed both to illite and montmorillonite. Montmorillonite is visible at the peak from ~615 cm-1, while the band centered at ~1,633 cm–1 could be attributed to illite spectrum. Montmorillonite could be derived from hydrolysis process occurring during the burial period of the findings [71]. Calcite, as clearly shown by the FT-IR spectrum in which the large band centered at about 1444 cm–1 and the contribution at about 870 cm-1, typical of this mineral, is present. The absorptions from the main quartz phase (Si–O) could also be easily identified in the FTIR spectrum of ceramics and pigments used for glaze (Figure 8; 1163, 1083, 798, 778, 695, 514 cm –1) [72]. The several intense bands in the range 800–550 cm–1 (725, 646, 584 cm–1) are characteristic of the metal–oxygen vibrations in the ceramic samples [73]. However, additionally the characteristic carbonate (calcite phase) vibrations at 1795, 1430, 876, 713 cm–1 [74] and M–O vibrations at 725, 685, 642,580, 531 cm–1 could also be determined. Characteristic Si–O, C–O, and M–O stretchings could be easily identified in all FT-IR spectra. Broadbands between 3700–3000 cm–1 can be assigned to the adsorbed water (or water of crystallization) and O–H vibrations of glazed pottery. This could be associated with specific surface properties of pottery, which stimulate adsorption of moisture from atmosphere at ambient conditions.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Na2O | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t4.2 | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t
MgO | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t\t2.9 | \n\t\t
Al2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t20.2 | \n\t\t\t18.5 | \n\t\t\t24.2 | \n\t\t\t17.6 | \n\t\t
SiO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t30.2 | \n\t\t\t36.9 | \n\t\t\t36 | \n\t\t\t52.6 | \n\t\t
SO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t12.1 | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t0.63 | \n\t\t
Cl | \n\t\t\t5.46 | \n\t\t\t3.4 | \n\t\t\t5.79 | \n\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t
K2O | \n\t\t\t2.23 | \n\t\t\t3.89 | \n\t\t\t1.67 | \n\t\t\t3.45 | \n\t\t
CaO | \n\t\t\t2.16 | \n\t\t\t2.2 | \n\t\t\t3.27 | \n\t\t\t9.66 | \n\t\t
TiO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.29 | \n\t\t\t1.21 | \n\t\t\t1.63 | \n\t\t\t0.985 | \n\t\t
V2O5\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.02 | \n\t\t\t0.03 | \n\t\t\t0.03 | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t
Cr2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.04 | \n\t\t\t0.05 | \n\t\t\t0.041 | \n\t\t\t0.04 | \n\t\t
MnO | \n\t\t\t0.043 | \n\t\t\t0.04 | \n\t\t\t0.079 | \n\t\t\t0.22 | \n\t\t
Fe2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.53 | \n\t\t\t2.17 | \n\t\t\t1.96 | \n\t\t\t9.17 | \n\t\t
Co3O4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.070 | \n\t\t\t0.24 | \n\t\t\t0.02 | \n\t\t\t0.069 | \n\t\t
NiO | \n\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t0.36 | \n\t\t\t0.02 | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t
CuO | \n\t\t\t0.047 | \n\t\t\t0.064 | \n\t\t\t0.042 | \n\t\t\t0.02 | \n\t\t
As2O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.03 | \n\t\t\t0.35 | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t
PbO | \n\t\t\t22.3 | \n\t\t\t36.9 | \n\t\t\t18.7 | \n\t\t\t0.17 | \n\t\t
ZnO | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | — | \n\t\t\t— | \n\t\t\t0.03 | \n\t\t
Chemical composition of the Transylvania tile
The Raman spectra collected have to be compared with those obtained previously from reference materials. Published libraries of spectra are now widely available in the literature on historical pigments [75,76], enamel and glazing pigments [77], modern synthetic pigments [78], modern inks [79], gums, waxes, varnishes, resins and other binders of historical and archaeological importance [80,89], minerals [70,90,91], and plant fibers [92]. As already mentioned, Raman scattering is a very weak phenomenon that requires an intense monochromatic light source to generate a readily detectable effect. Also, the use of lasers has allowed a wider choice of excitation lines, with wavelengths ranging from 351.1 nm to 1064 nm. In Raman spectra, the hematite (α-Fe2O3) bands are identified at 613 (s); 408 (s); 227 (m); 204 (w) cm–1, whereas 663 cm–1 band indicates the presence of magnetite (Fe3O4) [94]. The 1329cm–1 band is also assigned to hematite. When the sample has been produced in an oxidizing atmosphere, the most important indicator is the hematite [90,93]. If magnetite is present, this is an indicator of its incomplete phase transformation into hematite [91].
The Raman spectrum of the tile ceramic is shown in Figure 9. The representative Raman band for beta-quartz is located at 462 cm–1, while the medium intense 507cm–1 band is assigned to albite (Na-feldspar). Specific bands appear here: 462, 401, 356 cm–1, all being attributed to quartz. The band from 506 cm–1 together with the shoulder around 600 cm-1 indicates the presence of hematite. All these are more pronounced for not-glazed face (red colored spectrum). The broadband around 1350–1500cm–1 is due to amorphous carbon, 461 cm–1 band is assigned to β-quartz. Also, in the Raman spectrum of the ceramic supports, the medium intense—550 cm–1—band reveals the presence of hematite, as shown in Figure 10.
FT-IR spectra of the pigments
FT-IR and RAMAN spectra of calcite
FT-IR and RAMAN spectra of the ceramic tile
Many ceramic pieces known as ceramic heritage have been discovered, characterized by specific techniques of characterization either for raw materials or ceramic objects based on clays, discovered in different archaeological sites, leading to some results about the production technology, provenance, authentication, and historical appartenance. The chemical composition of ancient ceramics and pigments decorating them, excavated from different Romanian archaeological sites, suggested a chemical composition of ceramic based on clay minerals (kaolinite, illite, and smectite), while the pigments belonging to them contain hematite or ocher (a red pigment), manganese oxides (brown pigments), and magnetite or carbon of vegetable origin (black-pigmented layers).
This paper received the financial support of the projects: PN 09.09.03.07, PNII 222/2012 and PNII project 261/2014.
Groundwater’s chemical composition is obtained from a variety of sources of solutes, including gases and atmospheric aerosols, below-surface replacement and precipitation reactions, weathering and erosional activities of soils and rocks, and other anthropogenic effects. The study of water chemistry can reveal a lot about the geological history of rocks as well as the velocity and direction of water flow [1]. Groundwater’s chemical, physical, and bacteriological properties determine its suitability for municipal, commercial, industrial, agricultural, and domestic use [2].
To understand an aquifer’s hydrogeochemistry, a detailed understanding of the rock-water interactions that influence groundwater chemical composition is required. The mineral composition of the rock is the primary component that governs a location’s water chemistry [3]. The local regime differs from other sites due to the continual interfacial reactivity of water with rocks.
Fluoride, currently considered a pollutant in several regions of the world, is frequently related with the dissolution of fluorine-containing minerals in rocks, as well as growing anthropogenic influences [4]. Groundwater chemistry is influenced by mineral water interfacial interactions such as carbonate weathering and dissolution, silicate weathering, and ion exchange activities. Groundwater composition in shallow alluvial aquifers is controlled by hydrogeochemical processes such as dissolution, cation exchange processes, calcite equilibrium, and residence period, as well as the flow channel. The hydrogeochemical fluctuations of groundwater from a semiarid sedimentary basin are caused by salt leaching from the surface, ion exchange processes, and residence time [5].
Fluoride ion concentrations in groundwater can alter owing to chemical processes including hydration and hydrolysis, weathering and deposition, ion exchange processes, oxidation and reduction that occur during mineral-water contact [6]. These interactions influenced the mobility of dissolved constituents and altered the pH of groundwater in diverse sites. Fluoride levels were found to be excessive (10 mg/l) in several areas of Yemen [7]. The very alkaline groundwater conditions were thought to be the primary cause of fluorite disintegration.
The primary aim of this chapter is to understand the influence of geochemical processes on fluoride enrichment in groundwater in Yemen regime, as well as its relationship with other major element concentrations and health implications. The primary goal of this chapter is to review and improve understanding of the factors that influence high fluoride levels in groundwater samples.
Interactions between ground water and the minerals that make up the aquifer system control major-ion chemistry trends in the aquifer system to a large extent. Mineral dissolution and precipitation, oxidation and reduction, and ion exchange are all important geochemical reactions that can affect solute concentrations in groundwater systems. Evaporation and mixing of water from various sources are examples of additional processes that can affect solute concentrations. [8].
Natural causes such as rock-water interactions while flowing are of specific groundwater quality concerns. Fluoride is one of the most common geogenic pollutants found in groundwater [9]. More than 260 million people are thought to be impacted by elevated fluoride levels in drinking water across the world. People in more than 230 districts across 20 states in India are experiencing health problems as a result of elevated fluoride levels in groundwater [10]. Many studies have found that high fluoride concentrations in groundwater are frequently linked to longer residence times in crystalline rocks in arid-semiarid climates with abundant Na-HCO3 and low Ca, as well as alkaline pH [11].
Geographic Information System (GIS) has been used to map and evaluate groundwater quality all around the world [12, 13, 14]. Gibbs [15] used total dissolved solids (TDS) vs. Na/(Na + Ca) and TDS vs. Cl/(CI + HCO3) to identify rock-water interaction. Minerals of various rock types, such as igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary, entirely or partially dissolve in water depending on chemical weathering resistance. Chemical weathering resistance is high to extremely high in quartz-cemented sandstone, silt, slate, shale, schist, gneiss, and quartzite. Calcite cemented sandstone, limestone, rock salt, gypsum, marble, and basalt, on the other hand, have low to moderate chemical weathering resistance. Different minerals, such as halite, pyrite, gypsum, dolomite, and calcite, demonstrate good water dissolution as a result of these interactions. Because of their low resistance, olivine, pyroxene, hornblende, and biotite dissolve in water via oxidation-reduction and hydrolysis reactions. Feldspar, quartz, and clay dissolve slowly in groundwater due to their considerable resistance to weathering. Fluorite and fluorapatite, among other minerals, are regarded possible sources of fluoride as a groundwater contaminant [16].
Fluoride in groundwater comes primarily from natural sources, with earth’s crust containing 0.32% fluoride. Weathering and dissolving of fluoride minerals are the primary controls on its concentration in groundwater, since lithology plays a vital impact in its occurrence [17]. The availability and solubility of fluoride minerals, pH, temperature, anion exchange capacity of aquifer materials, type of geological materials, residence time, porosity, structure, depth, groundwater age, and concentration of carbonates and bicarbonates in water all influence the fluoride contamination of groundwater [18].
The chemical study of groundwater provides insight into the geochemical processes that occur in that area. As previously stated, geological formations regulate water quality when they come into contact with flowing water. Several investigations have found that Na-rich, Ca-poor groundwater with an alkaline pH and high HCO−3 can mobilize fluoride from fluoride-rich rock formations, resulting in higher F concentrations in groundwater. Ionic exchange between F and hydroxyl ions in fluorite minerals such as mica, amphiboles, illite, and others may occur at higher pH levels. As a result, the alkaline composition of groundwater promotes fluoride ion desorption and hence increases solubility [19].
Fluorosis is a major public health problem spot-wise all over the world, including Yemen. Endemic fluorosis has been nearly recognized as a major public health problem in six governorates in Yemen. Since the groundwater forms a major source of drinking water in rural areas, rural populations are facing a major health problem in these governorates. Fluorosis-affected areas in various parts of the country are being discovered on a regular basis. As a result, fluorosis remains an endemic problem in Yemen. Unfortunately, proper fluoride mapping has not been carried in Yemen so as to locate areas with normal, low, or high levels of fluoride. Where, the available report prepared by the General Authority of Rural Water Projects (GARWP) about the increasing fluoride content in groundwater (Between 2000 and 2006) in districts of some governorates (Sana’a, Ibb, Dhamar, Taiz, Al-Dhala, and Raimah) considered to be the first alarming report highlighted the problem of fluoride in Yemen [7].
A systematic study and delineation of fluoride contamination from Taiz and Al-Dahla governorates have been conducted by Alamry [7].
The iso-line contour map of fluoride ion concentration was created using the chemical analyses taken from wells and springs in the selected areas. As demonstrated in Figure 1, locations with a high fluoride concentration of more than 1.5 mg/l are labeled as fluoride-contaminated (bold green color).
Iso-line contour map of fluoride ion concentration from Al-Dhala districts.
The fluoride concentrations map clearly shows that there are two significant areas with high fluoride concentrations. These two places are located in the upper portion of Wadi Tuban in the low land area, separated by the Jehaf district’s highlands plateau. The first is in the Al-Dhala Qat; abah Basin, stretching from Qarad to Qa’tabah and encompassing sections of the Al-Dhala, Qa’tabah, and Al-Husha districts. The second is located south of Al-Dhala city and stretches southwest along the Wadi Tabagyan catchment region in Al-Azerq district, which is a tributary of Wadi Tuban.
The Al-Dhala Qatabah Basin’s morphology ranges from flat plains to steep slopes and hills made up primarily of restricted volcanic rocks; sands and outwash sediments blanketed the wadi basin. The Al-Dhala Qatabah Basin is located between 1100 and 1800 meters above sea level and receives about 269 mm of rainfall per year, as well as significant recharge from nearby mountain drainage.
The delineation of fluoride contamination areas from Taiz governorate has been conducted, and the iso-line contour map of fluoride ion concentration from At Aaiziyah district and its surrounding villages is given in Figure 2.
Iso-line contour map of fluoride ion concentration from Taiz districts.
It’s clearly observed that the villages of Jabal Sabir, Hawban, Hethran, and Al- Bryehey as well as Taiz City are the most affected areas by fluoride contamination in groundwater.
Some of Sana’a governorate districts, particularly Sanhan, had the highest fluoride concentrations in their drinking water (UNICEF, 2008). The majority of Yemenis living in rural areas rely on deep well water for drinking and cooking, and many of these wells are contaminated with fluoride in concentrations ranging from 2.5 to 32 mg/l. Fluorosis, particularly skeletal fluorosis, has never been seen in Yemen before, only about 8–10 years ago since it was first reported. Clinically, it develops as a result of the high fluoride concentration in bones. Dental fluorosis, on the other hand, is not a new phenomenon in Yemen, particularly in the Taiz governorate [7].
A regional hydrogeochemical study from different Yemeni terrains indicated that water-rock interaction was most likely the primary cause of high ion concentrations in groundwater. According to geochemical modeling, the main minerals controlling the aqueous geochemistry of elevated fluoride ion contamination are calcite and fluorite. The concentration of F− in groundwater was positively correlated with the concentrations of HCO3− and Na+, indicating that groundwater with high concentrations of HCO3− and Na+ leads to the dissolution of some fluoride-rich minerals. This situation of fluoride solubility control at higher fluoride concentrations can be explained by the fact that fluoride ions in groundwater can be increased as a result of CaCO3 precipitation at high pH, which removes Ca2+ from solution and allows more fluorite to dissolve [20].
The groundwater data from different Yemeni areas reveals the chemical reactions that take place in the aquifer system. The results of the linear regression study on the relationship between F and HCO3 (total alkalinity) from published papers show a positive connection, which could be owing to the simultaneous release of hydroxyl and bicarbonate ions during the leaching and dissolution of fluoride containing minerals into groundwater. With higher levels of alkalinity, the rate of weathering and mineral leaching rises, resulting in higher fluoride ion concentrations. High amounts of fluoride are also linked to greater Na+ ion concentrations. This also favors that groundwater with high HCO3− and Na+ content is usually alkaline and has relatively high OH− content, so the OH- can replace the exchangeable F− of fluoride-bearing minerals, increasing the F- content in groundwater [20].
Fluoride is one of the few chemicals that have been proven to have harmful effects on people when consumed through drinking water. Fluoride in drinking water has beneficial effects on teeth at low concentrations, but excessive exposure to fluoride in drinking water, alone or in combination with fluoride from other sources, can cause a variety of problems. As the level and duration of exposure increase, these range from mild dental fluorosis to crippling skeletal fluorosis.
The chemical characteristics of the drinking water from the study reflect high fluoride contamination above the permissible limits of Yemeni, and WHO standers and most of them are poor whoever, their nutritional status is expected to be very poor. These factors including the high concentration of Na- and HCO3− and low concentration of Ca2+ions will increase the severity of fluorosis.
The visual observations in some selected Yemeni villages identify that there are two types of fluorosis recognized, they are:
Mottling of teeth is one of the most easily recognized symptoms from different Yemeni governorates especially Taiz and Al Dhalla. The teeth of the children in the affected areas lose their normal creamy white translucent color and become rough, opaque, and chalky white. Some of the local inhabitants indicated that their teeth have be extracted and replaced with dentures. The dental fluorosis ranges from mild to severe fluorosis. The photographs represent some of dental fluorosis from the different areas in Yemen. High percentage dental fluorosis among the children has been observed in Taiz and Al-Dhala basins (Figure 3A and B).
Figures present severe dental fluorosis (A) and moderate dental fluorosis (B) in Yemeni children in the affected area, after Alamry (2009) [
Dental fluorosis is the most common fluoride ailment identified in the afflicted areas, according to visual observations from selected villages. Fluorosis in the teeth can range from mild to severe.
In general, there is a link between fluoride in the water and the occurrence of dental fluorosis in the Taiz and Al-Dhala regions. A published research paper concluded that there is a positive relationship between fluoride in water and the occurrence of dental fluorosis in Sanhan, Taiz, and Al-Dhala regions [7].
Fluorapatite is 1000 times less soluble than hydroxyapatite, the most common mineral found in bone. The F− ion aggressively substitutes for the OH− ion, resulting in an accumulation of F− in bone tissue and skeletal fluorosis [20].
The patient often complains of a vague discomfort in the limbs and trunk early on in the development of fluorotic changes in the skeleton. Back pain and stiffness, particularly in the lumbar region, follow. Fluorosis in the teeth is frequently visible with the naked eye and is easy to detect even by laypeople. On the other hand, even with the assistance of appropriate equipment, skeletal fluorosis and nonskeletal fluorosis are difficult to diagnose. Radiography is frequently used to detect symptoms such as joint enlargements or minor bone deformations.
There are no any publications presenting the problem of the skeletal fluorosis among children in the affected Yemeni places, while I have seen children in Al-Dhalla villages showing skeletal deformation, and these cases among children could be considered as cases of skeletal fluorosis unless proved otherwise, as it is shown in Figure 4.
A group of children showing skeletal deformation from Al-Dhalla region Yemen.
The hydrogeochemical characteristics of the groundwater in the study area indicated that the volcanic and plutonic rocks are the primary sources of fluoride whoever, the food could be the secondary sources.
Fluoride intake during infancy and early childhood is mirrored in dental fluorosis patterns. In most cases, the fluoride content of drinking water is considered sufficient for determining the level of fluoride exposure in a given area. There has been evidence that fluoride uptake from other sources such as food, dust, and beverages is many times higher than that from water [21].
The percentage of children with fluorosis was found to be extremely high. Although high fluoride levels in drinking water may be to blame, various food habits (such as drinking black tea and chewing Gatof Catha edulis Forsk leaves (Khat)) indicated a high fluoride contribution to the diet. Some of the children used to chew Khat also, and the Khat is cultivated in the volcanic soil and irrigated by the high fluoride concentration water [22].
Cooking with fluoridated water raises fluoride levels significantly, particularly in dry foods such as maize flour, which absorbs a lot of water during cooking. It has been reported that the simultaneous intake of food and fluoride-containing compounds can affect fluoride availability in a positive or negative way, depending on the food type, mode of administration, and type of fluoride compound [21].
The diet consumed by the children was not balanced and lacked quality. It is composed of maize flour with milk and a few rare vegetables. Intake of milk and milk products is said to diminish the fluoride availability by 20–50% in humans. Although the area under study had children taking whole milk (boiled or fermented).
A high fluoride concentration has been reported in groundwater in tertiary volcanics, from Yemeni terrain. The major ion chemistry data from groundwater of this rock revealed that Na+ is the most predominant cationic constituent followed by Ca2+ and Mg2+, the HCO3− and SO4− are found to be the most predominant anions followed by Cl− and NO3. High fluoride ion concentration in the Yemeni groundwater appears to be caused by high alkalinity due to HCO3− ions. Na+ has a positive correlation with F−, whereas Ca2+ has a negative correlation, resulting in an equilibrium condition in groundwater. CaCO3 precipitation at high pH can increase fluoride ions in groundwater by removing Ca2+ from solution and allowing more fluorite to dissolve.
Dental fluorosis is the widely fluoride disease observed in the affected areas, whereas skeletal fluorosis is observed in some villages from Al-Dhalla region. The principal causes of fluorosis among the Yemeni population appear to be related to high fluoride concentration in drinking water and Khat chewing habits, which are cultivated in the volcanic soil and irrigated by the high fluoride concentration water.
Despite the high dental fluorosis prevalence in the affected areas, no restorative treatment is being carried out. Therefore, it is highly recommended to provide safe drinking water to fluoride-affected areas.
I would like to thank the National Water Resources Authority (NWRA) Yemen and UNDP for funding this research. Also I would like to thank the publisher and anonymous reviewers for valuable suggestions and comments that have enhanced the chapter quality.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
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\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
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\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"dinh-hoa-nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",slug:"hongbin-ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",slug:"yasushi-kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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