\r\n\tThe sense of proprioception includes various aspects or submodalities such as position sense, motion sense (kinaesthesia; including the duration, direction, amplitude, speed, acceleration and timing of movements), force tension sense, and change in velocity sense.
\r\n
\r\n\tProprioception is mediated by proprioceptors, a specialized subset of about 10-15% of mechanosensory neurons localized in dorsal root ganglia that convey information about the stretch and tension of muscles, tendons, joints and perhaps the skin. So, the neurological basis of proprioception originates from proprioceptors with contact specialized sensory organs in muscles (muscle spindles), tendons (Golgi tendon organs), joints (different morphotypes of sensory corpuscles including Ruffini’s corpuscles and Pacinian corpuscles) and the skin (cutaneous mechanoreceptors). Thereafter, the information originated in the proprioceptors forming complex nerve pathways reach the central nervous system at the level of the spinal cord, the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex for processing. Hence, proprioception can be regarded as a continuous loop of feedforward and feedback inputs between sensory receptors throughout the body and the nervous system.
\r\n
\r\n\tIn limb and axial muscles, the proprioception originates in the muscle spindles. Nevertheless, the cephalic muscles, with the exception of the extraocular muscles and those innervated by the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve, lack muscle spindles. But the facial or pharyngeal proprioception plays key roles in the regulation and coordination of facial musculature and diverse reflexes. At the basis of these functional characteristics are the multiple communications between cranial nerves. Substituting muscle spindles by other kinds of proprioceptors might be at the basis. \r\n\tOn the other hand, since the stimuli for proprioceptors are mechanical (stretch, tension, and so) proprioception can be regarded as a modality of mechanosensitivity. During the last decade progress has been made to understanding the molecular basis of mechanosensitivity. However, identity of mechanotransducers is poorly know. The mechanogated ion channels acid-sensing ion channel 2 (ASIC2), transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) and PIEZO2 have been related to mechanotransduction and have been detected in proprioceptors innervating muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs in mice. Also, mice lacking Piezo2 showed severely uncoordinated body movements and abnormal limb positions. \r\n\tFinally, the lesion of the proprioception receptors, proprioceptors or the nerve center and pathways related to proprioception result in poor proprioception. Importantly, age-related changes also affect proprioception due to a combination of natural age-related changes to the central nervous system, nerves, joints, and muscles. Acute and long-term impairment can be related to toxicological, medical or injury conditions, but also with neuromuscular and central nervous system diseases.
\r\n
\r\n\tBased on the above comments this book intends to provide a comprehensive update an overview of the anatomical, structural and molecular basis of proprioception as well as of the main causes of proprioception impairment and possible treatments.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-070-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-069-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-074-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e104e615fbd94caa987df3a8d8b3fb8b",bookSignature:"Prof. José A. Vega and Dr. Juan Cobo",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10554.jpg",keywords:"Muscle Proprioception, Articular Proprioception, Sensory Receptors, Cephalic Proprioception, Primary Sensory Neurons, Spinal Cord, Cerebellum, Brain, Proprioception Impairment, Mechanosensitivity, Mechano-Gated Ion Channels, Mechanotransduction",numberOfDownloads:69,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 8th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 6th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 5th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 24th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Leading researcher and head of the SINPOS research group (Sensory Organs and Peripheral Nervous System), and full professor of neuroanatomy and human embryology at the University of Oviedo. He is co-author of more than 100 publications on the peripheral nervous system.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Member of the SINPOS research group (Sensory Organs and Peripheral Nervous System), and full professor of Stomatology at the University of Oviedo. He co-authored more than 50 publications on the peripheral nervous system especially in the field of facial proprioception.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"59892",title:"Prof.",name:"José A.",middleName:null,surname:"Vega",slug:"jose-a.-vega",fullName:"José A. Vega",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/59892/images/system/59892.jpg",biography:"Dr. José Antonio A. Vega is a graduate in Medicine and Surgery that obtained PhD (with Extraordinary Prize) from the University of Oviedo, Spain. He completed his postdoctoral training at the universities of Brno and Prague (Czech Republic), 'La Sapienza' and 'Tor Vergata' in Rome specializing in peripheral nervous system and growth factors of the neurotrophin family. Currently he is a Professor of Anatomy and Human Embryology of the Department of Morphology and Cell Biology at the University of Oviedo, and Head of the research group SINPOS (Sensory Organs and Peripheral Nervous System) at the University of Oviedo. He has taught as a contracted professor, at the Universities of Messina, 'Federico II' of Naples, Rome 'La Sapienza' and Rome 'Tor Vergata', Sassari, Barí, and CEU-San Pablo at Madrid. He co-authored more than 350 JCR articles and 50 chapters in books mainly related to peripheral nervous system, neurotrophins and aging, and supervised 54 doctoral theses.",institutionString:"University of Oviedo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"100648",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Cobo",slug:"juan-cobo",fullName:"Juan Cobo",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYYvHQAW/Profile_Picture_1596782950933",biography:"Dr. Juan Cobo is a graduate in Medicine and Surgery from the University of Zaragoza (Spain) that obtained his PhD degree from the University of Oviedo (Spain). He completed his postdoctoral training at the University of Chicago. He is currently a Professor of Orthodontic and Head of the Master Orthodontic and Dentofacial Orthopedics at the University of Oviedo. He co-authored more than 150 JCR articles, 4 books and 30 chapters in books mainly related to orthodontics, and peripheral nervous system.",institutionString:"University of Oviedo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"18",title:"Neuroscience",slug:"life-sciences-neuroscience"}],chapters:[{id:"74257",title:"The Knee Proprioception as Patient-Dependent Outcome Measures within Surgical and Non-Surgical Interventions",slug:"the-knee-proprioception-as-patient-dependent-outcome-measures-within-surgical-and-non-surgical-inter",totalDownloads:55,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"216754",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Wangdo",surname:"Kim",slug:"wangdo-kim",fullName:"Wangdo Kim"}]},{id:"74729",title:"Recording of Proprioceptive Muscle Reflexes in the Lower Extremity",slug:"recording-of-proprioceptive-muscle-reflexes-in-the-lower-extremity",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74677",title:"Proprioceptive Perception: An Emergence of the Interaction of Body and Language",slug:"proprioceptive-perception-an-emergence-of-the-interaction-of-body-and-language",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6628",title:"Circadian Rhythm",subtitle:"Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"628bbcbfaf54a56710498540efe51b87",slug:"circadian-rhythm-cellular-and-molecular-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6628.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56944",title:"Genetic Characteristics of Southern and Northern Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) Populations at the Zone of Contact",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70719",slug:"genetic-characteristics-of-southern-and-northern-brook-trout-salvelinus-fontinalis-populations-at-th",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis, is the only salmonid native to the southern Appalachian Mountains, and it is distributed across eastern North America from Canada to Georgia [1]. This species was once abundant in coldwater lakes and streams throughout its range, but environmental disturbances such as deforestation, development, and pollution: and the introduction of non-native rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brown trout (Salmo trutta) have drastically reduced the number and sizes of wild populations [2].
\n
Beginning in the mid-1800s, fishery managers began stocking hatchery-reared brook trout extensively. However, hatchery-reared brook trout often exhibit lower growth, yield, survival, and natural reproduction than locally adapted wild populations [3, 4]. Further, the hybridization of hatchery-derived fish with wild populations can compromise the genetic integrity and fitness of receiving populations by introducing foreign alleles and breaking up locally adapted gene complexes [5, 6]. The stocking of northern-derived hatchery brook trout is of particular concern in the southern part of its range due to significant population genetic differentiation between southern and northern lineages of brook trout. Genetic differences between the two lineages may be large enough to justify distinction at the subspecies level [7, 8]. In addition, screening of allozyme [7–16], mitochondrial DNA [17–19], and microsatellite nuclear DNA [20, 21] markers has uncovered smaller scale genetic variation throughout the geographic range of brook trout. Differentiation at smaller geographic scales may reflect different colonization histories, as well as differential effects of selective and non-selective population genetic processes.
\n
Native southern Appalachian brook trout (SABT) populations share several biological characteristics [22]. Food availability being a limiting factor in these systems, adult fish are typically small (<229 mm total length) and life span seldom exceeds 3 years [23, 24]. Native SABT and introduced northern-lineage brook trout differed in terms of survival in the laboratory and diet in a natural stream [25]. Comparison of external microbial assemblages suggested that SABT exhibit greater ability to inhibit microbial growth in their epidermal mucus than do northern brook trout of hatchery ancestry [26]. Demonstration that SABT are genetically distinct from northern-origin hatchery stocks led management agencies to assess the heritage of populations within their jurisdiction, for example, in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park [8, 13], Tennessee [11], North Carolina [12, 16, 27], and Georgia [10]. Molecular and adaptive differentiation may warrant management of brook trout populations or groups of populations as evolutionary significant units [28], although some of their population genetic differentiation may reflect stocking history.
\n
The zone of contact between the southern and northern lineages of Appalachian brook trout is roughly at the New River watershed [14, 15, 29]. Against the background of decline of the southern form and history of stocking with non-native strains, genetic characterization of brook trout populations at the zone of contact is needed to support informed management decisions and conserve the native form of the species. The objective of this study was to use established allozyme markers to wild Appalachian brook trout populations at the zone of contact in southwest Virginia as southern or northern lineages or introgressed.
\n
\n
\n
2. Methods
\n
\n
2.1. Sampling
\n
Seventy-eight historic wild brook trout streams from the New, James, Holston, and Yadkin river drainages [30] were sampled by backpack electrofishing. Brook trout tissue samples were collected from 916 individuals from 56 streams (Table 1). Sample sizes ranged from 8 to 26 individuals per stream. Fish were anesthetized, and two samples of dorsal muscle tissue (from fish greater than 120 mm TL) were collected non-lethally using an 18-gauge Monopty Biopsy Instrument (C.R. Bard, Inc., Covington, GA) and immediately placed on dry ice. Anesthetized fish were fully revived in fresh water prior to release. A limited number of fish of <120 mm total length were sacrificed to sample streams from which few adults were collected. Samples were stored at −80°C.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
CK-A2*
\n
G3PDH*
\n
GPI-A*
\n
MDH-B1,2*
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
N
\n
*78
\n
*100
\n
*45
\n
*100
\n
*87
\n
*100
\n
*115
\n
*100
\n
*145
\n
P
\n
A
\n
HO
\n
HE
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Controls
\n
\n
\n
Charles Creek, NC
\n
5
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Paint Bank Hatchery
\n
16
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.44
\n
0.56
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Holston River drainage
\n
\n
\n
Grassy Branch
\n
12
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Henshew Branch
\n
20
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.45
\n
0.55
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.125
\n
0.127
\n
\n
\n
Parks Creek
\n
10
\n
0.05
\n
0.95
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.025
\n
0.025
\n
\n
\n
Pennington Branch
\n
12
\n
0.08
\n
0.92
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.042
\n
0.040
\n
\n
\n
Roaring Fork
\n
8
\n
0.56
\n
0.44
\n
\n
1.00
\n
0.69
\n
0.31
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.188
\n
0.246
\n
\n
\n
Sturgill Branch
\n
16
\n
0.19
\n
0.81
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.75
\n
0.25
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.219
\n
0.175
\n
\n
\n
James River drainage
\n
\n
\n
Barbours Creek
\n
20
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.08
\n
0.93
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.021
\n
0.036
\n
\n
\n
Ewins Run
\n
20
\n
1.00
\n
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Pickles Branch
\n
20
\n
1.00
\n
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
New River drainage
\n
\n
\n
Bear Creek
\n
23
\n
0.02
\n
0.98
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.016
\n
0.016
\n
\n
\n
Big Horse Creek
\n
18
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.011
\n
0.011
\n
\n
\n
Big Laurel Creek
\n
11
\n
0.05
\n
0.95
\n
0.09
\n
0.91
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Big Reed Island Creek
\n
20
\n
0.08
\n
0.93
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.95
\n
0.05
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.068
\n
0.066
\n
\n
\n
Bournes Branch
\n
16
\n
0.03
\n
0.97
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.063
\n
0.061
\n
\n
\n
Buffalo Branch
\n
16
\n
0.06
\n
0.94
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.97
\n
0.03
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.75
\n
1.8
\n
0.125
\n
0.111
\n
\n
\n
Cabin Creek
\n
20
\n
0.05
\n
0.95
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.047
\n
0.046
\n
\n
\n
Chestnut Creek
\n
17
\n
0.12
\n
0.88
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.000
\n
0.024
\n
\n
\n
Chisholm Creek
\n
12
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.96
\n
0.04
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.021
\n
0.021
\n
\n
\n
Crooked Creek
\n
15
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.059
\n
0.053
\n
\n
\n
Ding Branch
\n
26
\n
0.25
\n
0.75
\n
0.02
\n
0.98
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.94
\n
0.06
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
East Fork Cove Creek
\n
14
\n
0.11
\n
0.89
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.93
\n
0.07
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.75
\n
1.8
\n
0.145
\n
0.133
\n
\n
\n
East Fork Crooked Creek
\n
20
\n
0.03
\n
0.98
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.98
\n
0.02
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.089
\n
0.084
\n
\n
\n
East Fork Dry Run
\n
20
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.025
\n
0.025
\n
\n
\n
East Fork Little Reed Island
\n
10
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Elkhorn Creek
\n
10
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.95
\n
0.05
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.125
\n
0.097
\n
\n
\n
Fox Creek
\n
20
\n
0.18
\n
0.83
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.95
\n
0.05
\n
0.88
\n
0.12
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.025
\n
0.025
\n
\n
\n
Grassy Creek
\n
9
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.75
\n
1.8
\n
0.150
\n
0.154
\n
\n
\n
Howell Creek
\n
20
\n
0.05
\n
0.95
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.98
\n
0.02
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Laurel Branch
\n
22
\n
0.23
\n
0.77
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.98
\n
0.02
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.038
\n
0.037
\n
\n
\n
Laurel Creek
\n
10
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Laurel Creek
\n
20
\n
0.10
\n
0.90
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.98
\n
0.02
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.063
\n
0.059
\n
\n
\n
Little Indian Creek
\n
19
\n
0.79
\n
0.21
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.95
\n
0.05
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.125
\n
0.101
\n
\n
\n
Little Snake Creek
\n
8
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.132
\n
0.111
\n
\n
\n
Little Stony Creek
\n
14
\n
0.11
\n
0.89
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.96
\n
0.04
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Little Wilson Creek
\n
19
\n
0.21
\n
0.79
\n
0.03
\n
0.97
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.82
\n
0.18
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.071
\n
0.067
\n
\n
\n
Middle Fox Creek
\n
12
\n
0.04
\n
0.96
\n
\n
1.00
\n
0.04
\n
0.96
\n
\n
0.58
\n
0.42
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Mill Creek
\n
17
\n
0.12
\n
0.88
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.82
\n
0.18
\n
0.75
\n
1.8
\n
0.184
\n
0.176
\n
\n
\n
NB Elk Creek
\n
14
\n
0.25
\n
0.75
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.75
\n
1.8
\n
0.250
\n
0.168
\n
\n
\n
NF Stony Creek
\n
21
\n
0.02
\n
0.98
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.98
\n
0.02
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.147
\n
0.128
\n
\n
\n
No Business Creek
\n
20
\n
0.20
\n
0.80
\n
0.03
\n
0.98
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.90
\n
0.10
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.024
\n
0.024
\n
\n
\n
Oldfield Creek
\n
12
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.75
\n
1.8
\n
0.163
\n
0.141
\n
\n
\n
Opossum Creek
\n
17
\n
0.03
\n
0.97
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.72
\n
0.28
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Pearis Thompson Branch
\n
17
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.15
\n
0.85
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.91
\n
0.09
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.155
\n
0.119
\n
\n
\n
Ripshin Creek
\n
10
\n
0.15
\n
0.85
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.75
\n
0.25
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.200
\n
0.166
\n
\n
\n
Roads Creek
\n
11
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.95
\n
0.05
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.023
\n
0.023
\n
\n
\n
Snake Creek
\n
20
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.98
\n
0.02
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.200
\n
0.166
\n
\n
\n
Standrock Branch
\n
20
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.013
\n
0.013
\n
\n
\n
Stony Creek
\n
20
\n
0.18
\n
0.83
\n
0.03
\n
0.98
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.95
\n
0.05
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.100
\n
0.111
\n
\n
\n
Sulfur Springs Branch
\n
10
\n
0.30
\n
0.70
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Tory Creek
\n
19
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Upper West Fork Dry Run
\n
10
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
West Fork Dry Run
\n
19
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.25
\n
1.3
\n
0.063
\n
0.057
\n
\n
\n
Whitetop Creek
\n
12
\n
0.13
\n
0.88
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
West Fork Furnace Creek
\n
17
\n
0.12
\n
0.88
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.97
\n
0.03
\n
0.50
\n
1.5
\n
0.044
\n
0.068
\n
\n
\n
Yadkin River drainage
\n
\n
\n
Pauls Creek
\n
20
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
South Fork Stewarts Creek
\n
24
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
1.00
\n
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Allele frequencies and genetic diversity at four polymorphic loci (CK-A2*, G3PDH*, GPI-A*, sMDH-B1,2*) in wild brook trout populations in 56 southwest Virginia streams, grouped by drainage.
Charles Creek, a known southern-strain population, was included as a southern-strain reference group. Individuals from Paint Bank Hatchery, which cultures the northern strain, were included as a northern-strain reference group. Abbreviations: number of individuals analyzed (N), proportion of polymorphic loci (P), mean number of alleles per locus (A), expected heterozygosity (Ho), and observed heterozygosity (He).
\n
\n
\n
2.2. Protein analysis
\n
Genetic analysis was performed using cellulose acetate gel electrophoresis to observe variability at nine loci encoding five polymorphic enzymes: creatine kinase (CK-A2*), aspartate aminotransferase (sAAT-1,2*), glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3PDH*), glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (GPI-A*, GPI-B1,2*), and malate dehydrogenase (sMDH-B1,2*). Muscle tissue was homogenized in 200 μl of 0.09 M tris-HCl (pH 8.0), and subjected to electrophoresis in tris-glycine buffer (pH 7.5 or 8.0) for 45 min, followed by staining for enzyme activity. Electrophoretic conditions and histochemical staining procedures were modified from those described by Hebert and Beaton [31] and Galbreath et al. [16]. Individuals from the Paint Bank Hatchery in Virginia were included in the analysis as a northern reference population because the hatchery is known to culture the northern lineage. The North Carolina Wildlife Resource Commission provided tissue samples from individuals from Charles Creek of the North Toe River drainage, a known SABT population, for use as a reference population.
\n
\n
\n
2.3. Data analysis
\n
Allele frequencies for CK-A2*, G3PDH*, GPI-A*, and MDH-B1,2* were calculated for all populations using the Excel Microsatellite Toolkit [32]. Allele frequencies could not be calculated for sAAT-1,2* and GPI-B1,2* using that program because both enzymes are encoded by isoloci (i.e., duplicated loci with alleles of overlapping mobility). Since genotypes among heterozygous individuals could not be determined with certainty for sAAT-1,2*, phenotype frequencies were calculated using the program FDASH [33]. The GPI-B1,2* isoloci contain multiple alleles that could not be assigned to either locus with confidence; hence, they were treated as a single tetraploid locus and allele frequencies were estimated using the program AUTOTET [34]. Initially, allele frequency data from all nine marker loci were used to calculate genetic distance, population differentiation, contingency-table analysis of heterogeneity among populations, and hierarchical cluster analysis using the program BIOSYS-1 [35]. The same statistics then were calculated using only the five marker loci with unambiguous interpretation of allelic expression (i.e., omitting data from sAAT-1,2* and GPI-B1,2*), to determine any effect of omitting these data from analysis. Similar conclusions were drawn from analysis of both data sets. Here, we report results based on analysis of the reduced dataset only.
\n
Initial characterization of the genetic origin of each population was based on allele frequencies at the diagnostic CK-A2* locus. Allele frequencies at the other markers were compared to those observed in northern and SABT populations characterized in previous studies [7–16]. Individual heterozygosity and polymorphism were calculated across five loci to assess levels of genetic diversity within each population [32]. Arlequin [36] was used to test for departures from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and to perform analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) to characterize the distribution of the genetic diversity within and among populations and river basins. Cluster analysis using the unweighted pair-group with arithmetic averaging algorithm (UPGMA, [37]) was performed using BIOSYS-1 [35], and a dendrogram was built based on Nei’s unbiased genetic distance [38].
\n
Allele frequency data from previous studies of brook trout population genetics were compiled and combined with the results from this study to gain a better understanding of the geographic distribution of SABT in Virginia, as well as the genetic composition of brook trout populations throughout the Appalachian portions of the native range.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Results
\n
Of 56 wild brook trout populations from 4 major river drainages analyzed in this study, 19 were fixed for the diagnostic CK-A2*100 allele, and were designated as pure SABT populations (Table 1). Five populations fixed for the CK-A2*78 allele were designated as northern, and 32 populations exhibiting variation at the CK-A2* locus were designated as introgressed. The three James watershed populations exhibited alleles characteristic of northern-form brook trout. Populations in other watersheds were characterized as southern (n = 19), northern (n = 2), or introgressed (n = 32).
\n
Only the Cabin Creek population (New River drainage, Grayson County) deviated significantly (p < 0.05) from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at the CK-A2* locus. No other deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium were detected, indicating that the respective populations were in reasonable conformance with assumptions underlying the model. The proportions of polymorphic loci (P), the mean number of alleles per locus (A), and mean heterozygosities (H) for each population are listed in Table 1. Observed mean P and H0 values were lowest in the putative southern populations (P = 0.05, H0 = 0.004; Table 2). The introgressed populations exhibited the highest means for metrics of genetic variability (P = 0.48, H0 = 0.099), and the northern populations exhibited intermediate means (P = 0.20, H0 = 0.053). Grouped by drainage, Yadkin River populations had the lowest means (P = 0, H0 = 0), followed by James River (P = 0.08, H0 = 0.007), New River (P = 0.34, H0 = 0.064), and Holston River (P = 0.29, H0 = 0.100) populations. Atlantic-slope populations exhibited lower mean percent polymorphic loci and heterozygosity values (P = 0.05, H0 = 0.004) than Gulf of Mexico drainage populations (P = 0.33, H0 = 0.068). Analysis of molecular variance showed that approximately 34% of the total genetic diversity resulted from variation within populations, 18% among populations within drainages, and 48% among drainages. Most of the total limiting variance was attributed to the CK-A2* locus, meaning that most of the variance that we measured with allozyme markers was due to differentiation among northern and southern lineages of the species.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Group
\n
N
\n
P
\n
A
\n
Ho
\n
He
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Holston River drainage
\n
6
\n
0.29
\n
1.3
\n
0.100
\n
0.102
\n
\n
\n
James River drainage
\n
3
\n
0.08
\n
1.1
\n
0.007
\n
0.012
\n
\n
\n
New River drainage
\n
45
\n
0.34
\n
1.4
\n
0.064
\n
0.058
\n
\n
\n
Yadkin River drainage
\n
2
\n
0.00
\n
1.0
\n
0.000
\n
0.000
\n
\n
\n
Southern lineage
\n
19
\n
0.05
\n
1.1
\n
0.004
\n
0.004
\n
\n
\n
Northern lineage
\n
5
\n
0.20
\n
1.2
\n
0.053
\n
0.036
\n
\n
\n
Introgressed
\n
32
\n
0.48
\n
1.5
\n
0.099
\n
0.091
\n
\n
\n
Atlantic Ocean drainages
\n
5
\n
0.05
\n
1.1
\n
0.004
\n
0.007
\n
\n
\n
Gulf of Mexico drainages
\n
51
\n
0.33
\n
1.4
\n
0.068
\n
0.063
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Genetic diversity of brook trout populations, variously grouped by drainage, lineage, and geographic location relative to the eastern continental divide.
Based on analysis at four polymorphic allozyme loci (CK-A2*, G3PDH*, GPI-A*, sMDH-B1,2*). Abbreviations: number of populations per group (N), proportion of polymorphic loci (P), mean number of alleles per locus (A), expected heterozygosity (Ho), and observed heterozygosity (He).
\n
There was no apparent pattern regarding where populations characterized as southern, northern, or introgressed were located geographically within the New, Holston, Yadkin, and James drainages (Figure 1). Cluster analysis of unbiased genetic distances [38] among all populations showed that all populations of northern origin or with a high frequency of the CK-A2*78 allele clustered together; these included populations from the James River drainage (Barbours Creek, Ewin Run, and Pickles Branch), the Holston drainage (Henshew Creek), the New River drainage (Pearis Thompson and Little Indian Creek), and Paint Bank Hatchery. The Roaring Fork population in the Holston drainage had a high frequency of the northern allele, but did not cluster closely with the other northern populations due to a high frequency of a rare allele at the GPI-A* locus. Cluster analysis of unbiased genetic distances [38] among populations showed no geographic patterns of genetic variation among the populations of putative southern Appalachian origin.
\n
Figure 1.
Genetic characterization at the CK-A2* locus for 83 wild brook trout populations in southwest Virginia, including 56 populations characterized in this study and 27 populations characterized previously.
\n
\n
\n
4. Discussion
\n
\n
4.1. Decline of brook trout
\n
We sampled 78 streams that historically contained brook trout populations, but found the species in only 56 of them [30]. The range of brook trout is shrinking [39] for several reasons, including habitat alteration, overexploitation, competition with introduced rainbow trout (O. mykiss) and brown trout (S. trutta) and more recently, climate change.
\n
\n
\n
4.2. Duplicated isozyme loci in brook trout
\n
Certain allozyme markers posed complications to interpretation of underlying genotype. Brook trout show a high incidence of duplicated enzyme loci due to the tetraploid ancestry of salmonids [40]. Duplicated loci (termed isoloci) are genetically independent, but exhibit alleles of similar electrophoretic mobility that cannot be unambiguously assigned to either locus. Three of the five enzymes that we screened were encoded by isoloci (i.e., MDH-B1,2*, sAAT-1,2*, and GPI-B1,2*). Ambiguous interpretation of the banding patterns of two of these isoloci, sAAT-1,2* and GPI-B1,2*, led us to eliminate them from statistical analysis [30]. Precise estimation of genetic diversity and differentiation metrics require data from many loci [41, 42]. Information from only four markers clearly limited the power of statistical analysis of genetic differentiation, especially with small sample sizes for some of the populations [43]. Genotypic data from more markers likely would reveal genetic differentiation not detected with only four loci. Ongoing screening of additional, more highly polymorphic markers, such as microsatellite DNA markers, will increase the ability to quantify population genetic differentiation.
\n
\n
\n
4.3. Geographic distribution of SABT in southwest Virginia
\n
Based on fixation for the diagnostic allele at the CK-A2* locus and allele frequency differences at three other marker loci, 34% (n = 19) of the brook trout populations analyzed in this study were of southern Appalachian origin, 9% (n = 5) were of northern origin, and 57% (n = 32) were of mixed genetic origin (Tables 1 and 2). The level of certainty for precise characterization of a population is directly related to sample size. That is, any population observed to be fixed for the common allele actually may harbor the alternate allele at a low, undetected frequency. For example, with a sample size (s) of 20, our likelihood (p) of detecting an allele with a frequency (pa) of 5% is 36% (i.e., p = (1−pa) s = 0.9520, [44]). Therefore, there is a non-zero likelihood that some populations characterized as “pure” southern Appalachian are of mixed genetic origin. Similarly, sample size also affects estimation of within-population diversity statistics such as P and H0. Sampling of a limited number of populations in a watershed also would affect estimates of between-population genetic variability.
\n
Of the six populations from the Holston drainage, four were of mixed genetic origin, with the southern allele at frequencies ranging from 0.44 to 0.95. The Grassy Branch population was characterized as southern Appalachian, and the Henshew Branch population was characterized as pure northern. Results from earlier genetic studies [8, 11, 14] and its geographic location suggest that the Holston River historically contained the southern Appalachian lineage, so the presence of the northern allele is likely due to stocking.
\n
The Yadkin (upper Pee Dee) River is an Atlantic-slope watershed. Despite the common presumption that Atlantic-slope drainages would contain native northern-form brook trout [8, 12, 15], two pure southern Appalachian populations (Pauls Creek, South Fork Stewarts Creek) were found in the Yadkin drainage. Although no early sampling efforts are known from the upper Pee Dee in Virginia [45], the section of the river that flows through North Carolina was excluded from the range of brook trout originally described by Smith [46]. However, several stream capture events have been inferred in this region, suggesting that these populations are descendants of brook trout captured from the New River [45]. Inspection of stocking records showed that both Pauls Creek and South Fork Stewarts Creek were stocked in the recent past, implying that the “native” southern strain persisted despite stocking.
\n
Earlier genetic study [14] and geographic location suggest that the James River historically contained northern-form brook trout. Three populations from the James River screened in this study were characterized as northern form. This finding leaves little doubt that the New River is the boundary between northern and southern Appalachian brook trout populations.
\n
In this study, 16 populations from the New River drainage (36%) were characterized as southern Appalachian brook trout. No geographic patterns of genetic variation were observed among the populations of putative pure southern origin. Interestingly, two of these “pure southern” populations (Crooked Creek and West Fork Dry Run) were stocked in the recent past with northern-derived hatchery fish. Crooked Creek is a “put-and-take” fishing area, and 5000 brook trout are stocked annually, yet it maintained an apparently pure southern population. Sixty-three percent of the populations from the New River drainage were of mixed origin, with the southern allele at frequencies ranging from 0.21 to 0.98. Although stocking records are limited, only two of these (Howell Creek and Little Indian Creek) are known to have been stocked with northern-derived hatchery fish. Only one population (Pearis Thompson Branch) in the New River was characterized as pure northern.
\n
In addition to the 56 populations characterized in this study, we compiled data from all known genetic studies of brook trout populations in southwest Virginia [12, 14, 15]. Forty-seven percent (n = 39) of all 83 populations characterized in southwest Virginia were of mixed genetic origin (Table 3); however, many of these introgressed populations were largely southern. In addition, the “pure” southern populations (n = 26) that remain provide opportunities for restoration of southern Appalachian brook trout in Virginia.
Genetic characterization at the CK-A2* locus for southwest Virginia brook trout populations not sampled in this study, compiled from both published and unpublished data sources.
N = number of individuals per sample.
\n
\n
\n
4.4. Range-wide geographic distribution and genetic affinity of New River brook trout populations
\n
With the zone of contact between the northern and southern forms lying roughly at the New River watershed, it is unknown whether the New River historically contained the pure southern Appalachian form, or whether it was a zone of intergradation among southern and northern Appalachian lineages. Interpreting data across this study and the three studies noted above [12, 14, 15], the New River drainage contains 20 pure southern populations, suggesting that the presence of northern alleles could be due to either stocking or stream capture events. However, a large proportion (64%) of populations from the New River are of mixed genetic origin, suggesting either that hatchery fish persisted in the New watershed or that the New River is a zone of natural intergradation. To gain a better understanding of the geographic distribution of southern Appalachian brook trout, we compiled allele frequency data from all known genetic studies of brook trout populations throughout the native range (Table 4). Frequencies of the CK-A2*100 (i.e., southern) allele were weighted based on sample size and averaged across all populations in each river drainage. Figure 2 shows the frequency of the southern allele in each of the major river drainages from which data were collected.
Genetic characterization of brook trout populations in regional river drainages, based on frequency of the diagnostic CK-A2*100 allele using data gathered from all available published and unpublished studies.
Relative to eastern continental divide.
Allele frequency based on number of individuals analyzed per stream and averaged across all populations in each drainage.
\n
Figure 2.
Genetic characterization of brook trout populations in major river drainages, based on the CK-A2* locus, using data compiled from all known genetic studies of brook trout populations throughout the native range. See Table 4 for details.
\n
All river drainages north of the New River were characterized as pure northern, with the exception of the Roanoke River drainage that contained a single population with a low frequency of the southern allele, likely due to the transfer of individuals from another location or stream capture. The frequency of the southern allele in river drainages south of the New River ranges from 29% in the Broad River of North Carolina to 100% in the Coosa River of Georgia. Genetic characterization of individuals from 111 populations in the New River drainage showed an 85% frequency of the southern-form allele. Figure 2 shows that the south/north break is sharp and that this break occurs at the New/Roanoke-James watershed divide. This weakens the hypothesis that the New River is a zone of natural intergradation between the southern and northern forms of brook trout, and supports the hypothesis that the presence of northern alleles is due to either stocking or stream capture. However, it is important to qualify this inference by noting that genetic characterization is based on variation at a single locus. Ongoing screening of New River populations using microsatellite DNA markers will provide further insights into patterns of population genetic differentiation, shedding light on the native character of New River brook trout populations. In particular, microsatellite variation may clarify whether northern alleles observed in populations examined are characteristic of particular hatchery stocks or of native regional variation.
\n
\n
\n
4.5. Management implications
\n
Brook trout is the only salmonid native to the southern Appalachian region. The American Fisheries Society Southern Division Trout Committee developed a position statement [22] expressing the importance of SABT and presenting recommendations for conservation-oriented management of this regional resource. Our results contribute to the recommended completion of genetic inventory of critical populations using non-lethal sampling methods. In this context, we frame the management implications for management of SABT populations.
\n
Results from this and other studies demonstrate that stocking of non-native genotypes poses long-term genetic impacts and interferes with efforts to conserve southern Appalachian brook trout. Although negative effects of stocking have become well known, some fisheries management agencies maintain imprecise stocking records. Further, hatchery personnel often substitute one brook trout stock for another based on availability. We recommend that all stocking and transfers of brook trout be well planned with cognizance of genetic conservation objectives and thoroughly and accurately documented.
\n
Management units—that is, populations that are demographically independent of one another—may be defined functionally as populations that have substantially divergent allele frequencies at many loci [47]. We had but limited ability to estimate levels of genetic diversity and differentiation among regional brook trout populations using allozyme markers. The results of ongoing screening of microsatellite DNA markers will be used to quantify differentiation among native populations, providing the basis for defining defensible management units. Results to date support the view that southern Appalachian brook trout populations should be managed on a stream-by-stream basis.
\n
Those populations characterized as pure SABT should be given conservation priority. The stocking and transfer of non-native genotypes into these populations should be prohibited. Harvest should be allowed only in those populations that are demographically able to sustain themselves. We recommend that introgressed populations that contain less than 5% admixture from northern-strain brook trout be treated as ‘pure’ southern. However, we caution that the level of introgression in these populations may be higher than allozyme frequencies suggest; hence, individuals from these streams should not be transferred into streams that contain pure SABT populations. Hatchery brook trout should be stocked only into those streams that contain pure northern-strain populations and those with greater than 5% admixture.
\n
We caution that any negative consequences of stocking also would apply to native northern-strain populations (i.e., in the James and Roanoke river drainages). Allozyme markers do not provide enough resolution to differentiate between native northern and hatchery populations, and so we recommend that all brook trout populations should be screened and characterized using microsatellite or single nucleotide polymorphism markers. Until we know more about the genetic composition of these populations, it may be wise to stock only infertile triploid brook trout [48].
\n
Southern Appalachian brook trout hatchery stocks are being established in conservation-oriented hatchery programs ([49], https://brooktrouthatchery.wordpress.com/, http://archive.knoxnews.com/news/aquarium-helping-to-restore-native-trout-ep-510367109-355447741.html). SABT can be stocked to re-establish populations in streams where they have been extirpated. Also, while we do not recommend eradicating non-native or introgressed populations in watersheds where brook trout are native, we recommend stocking southern-strain hatchery fish into these populations to shift allele frequencies toward those of native populations. Progress in re-establishing native brook trout populations should be monitored using genetic markers every few generations.
\n
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work was funded through the Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Project F-128-R, administered by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, and is based on the Master’s degree research of Joanne (Davis) Printz. We thank George Palmer and Cliff Kirk for assistance with fieldwork and collection of genetic samples. Ray Morgan of the Maryland Department of Natural Resources kindly provided unpublished data from Maryland populations, and Doug Besler of the NCWRC generously provided tissue samples. Finally, we thank Chris Printz of ATS International, Inc. of Christiansburg, VA for his assistance in the design and production of the maps. Funding for EH’s participation in this work was provided in part by the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station and the Hatch Program of the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
\n
\n',keywords:"southern Appalachian brook trout, conservation, population genetics, trout management, restoration",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56944.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56944.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56944",totalDownloads:413,totalViews:243,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 27th 2017",dateReviewed:"August 28th 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"April 25th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Population genetic evidence suggests differentiation among evolutionarily significant units of southern and northern Appalachian brook trout, with the zone of contact in southwestern Virginia. Before this differentiation was recognized, brook trout of northern origin were stocked throughout the southeastern United States. In order to determine this differentiation, established allozyme markers were used to classify 56 southwest Virginia populations as southern, northern, or introgressed. Variation at 4 polymorphic loci, including the diagnostic creatine kinase (CK-A2*) locus, indicated that 19 populations were of southern origin, 5 of northern origin, and 32 of mixed genetic origin. Data compiled among genetic studies of brook trout in the southern Appalachians showed that the southern/northern break is sharp, occurring at the New/Roanoke-James watershed divide. New River drainage populations exhibited the southern allele at high frequency, suggesting their historic native character as southern, with presence of northern alleles due to stocking or stream capture events. In conclusion, the present study suggests that management of southern Appalachian brook trout should include: (1) genetically cognizant planning of stocking events, (2) management of populations on a stream-by-stream basis, (3) prioritized conservation of pure southern brook trout populations, and (4) use of southern Appalachian hatchery stocks in restoration efforts.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56944",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56944",book:{slug:"biological-resources-of-water"},signatures:"Joanne E. Printz, Joseph Williams and Eric M. Hallerman",authors:[{id:"79633",title:"Prof.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Hallerman",fullName:"Eric Hallerman",slug:"eric-hallerman",email:"ehallerm@vt.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"207766",title:"Ms.",name:"Joanne",middleName:null,surname:"Printz",fullName:"Joanne Printz",slug:"joanne-printz",email:"jedavis@vt.edu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"207768",title:"Mr.",name:"Joe",middleName:null,surname:"Williams",fullName:"Joe Williams",slug:"joe-williams",email:"joe.williams@dgif.virginia.gov",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Sampling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Protein analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Data analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1. Decline of brook trout",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2. Duplicated isozyme loci in brook trout",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3. Geographic distribution of SABT in southwest Virginia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.4. Range-wide geographic distribution and genetic affinity of New River brook trout populations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.5. Management implications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'MacCrimmon HR, Campbell JS. World distribution of brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 1969;26:1699-1723. DOI: 10.1139/f69-159\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Hudy M, Thieling TM, Gillespie N, Smith EP. Distribution, status, and land use characteristics of subwatersheds within the native range of brook trout in the eastern United States. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 2008;28:1069-1085. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1577/M07-017.1.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Webster DA, Flick WA. Performance of indigenous, exotic, and hybrid strains of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in waters of the Adirondack, New York. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 1981;38:1701-1707. DOI: 10.1139/f81-218\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Lachance S, Magnan P. Performance of domestic, hybrid, and wild strains of brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis, after stocking: The impact of intra- and interspecific competition. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 1990;47:2278-2284. DOI: 10.1139/f90-253\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Utter FM. Genetic impacts of fish introductions. In: Hallerman E, editor. Population Genetics: Principles and Applications for Fisheries Scientists. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society; 2003. p. 475. ISBN 1-888569-27-1.\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Allendorf FW, Leary RF, Hitt NP, Knudsen KL, Lundquist LL, Spruell P. Intercrosses and the U.S. endangered species act: Should hybridized populations be included as westslope cutthroat trout? Conservation Biology. 2004;18:1203-1213. DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00305.x\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Stoneking M, Wagner DJ, Hildebrand AC. Genetic evidence suggesting subspecific differences between northern and southern populations of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Copeia. 1981;4:810-819. DOI: 10.2307/1444182\n'},{id:"B8",body:'McCracken GF, Parker CR, Guffey SZ. Genetic differentiation and hybridization between stocked hatchery and native brook trout in great Smoky Mountains National Park. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 1993;122:533-542. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1993)122<0533:GDAHBS>2.3.CO;2.\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Morgan RP, Baker BM. Development of genetic inventories for Maryland game fish: Brook trout. In: . Final Draft Report. Frostburg: University of Maryland, Appalachian Environmental Laboratory, Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies; 1991\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Dunham RA, Dibona J, Robison L, Norgren K, Drniak J, Spencer M. Biochemical Genetics of Brook Trout, Salvelinus fontinalis, in Georgia, Final Report. Dingell-Johnson Project F-42. Atlanta, GA: Georgia Department of Natural Resources; 1994\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Kriegler, F.J., McCracken, G.F., Habera, J.W., & Strange, R.J. Genetic characterization of Tennessee brook trout populations and associated management implications. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 1995;15:804-813. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1577/1548-8675(1995)015<0804:GCOTBT>2.3.CO;2.\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Shull L, Walker G. An electrophoretic study of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) from headwater streams of the blue Ridge Parkway. In: . Unpublished Report. Asheville, NC: Natural Resources Division of the Blue Ridge Parkway; 1995\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Hayes JP, Guffey SZ, Kriegler FJ, McCracken GF, Parker CR. The genetic diversity of native, stocked, and hybrid populations of brook trout in the southern Appalachians. Conservation Biology. 1996;10:1403-1412. DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10051403.x\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Guffey S. Population genetics of brook trout in Virginia. In: . Unpublished Report. Richmond, VA: Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries; 1998\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Palmer GC, Hallerman EM. Genetic characterization of southwest Virginia brook trout populations. In: . Project Completion Report. Richmond, VA: Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries; 2000\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Galbreath PF, Adams ND, Guffey SF. Persistence of native southern Appalachian brook trout populations in the Pigeon River system of western North Carolina. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 2001;21:927-934 http://dx.doi.org/10.1577/1548-8675(2001)021<0927:PONSAB>2.0.CO;2\n\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Burnham Curtis MK. Mitochondrial DNA variation among Lake superior brook trout populations: Summary of genetic analyses. In: . Project Completion Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 1996\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Jones MW, Danzmann RG, Clay D. Genetic relationships among populations of wild resident, and wild and hatchery anadromous brook charr. Journal of Fish Biology. 1997;51:29-40. DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.1997.tb02511.x\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Danzmann RG, Morgan RP II, Jones MW, Bernatchez L, Ihssen PE. A major sextet of mitochondrial DNA phylogenetic assemblages extant in eastern north American brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis): Distribution and postglacial dispersal patterns. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 1998;76:1300-1318. DOI: 10.1139/z98-056\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Angers B, Bernatchez L, Angers A, Desgroseillers L. Specific microsatellite loci for brook charr reveal strong population subdivision on a microgeographic scale. Journal of Fish Biology. 1995;47(A):177-185. DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.1995.tb06054.x\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Castric, V., Forrest, B., & Bernatchez, L. Landscape structure and hierarchical genetic diversity in the brook charr, Salvelinus fontinalis. Evolution. 2001;55:1016-1028. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1554/0014-3820(2001)055[1016:LSAHGD]2.0.CO;2.\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Habera J, Moore S. Managing southern Appalachian brook trout: A position statement. Fisheries. 2005;30(7):10-20 http://dx.doi.org/10.1577/1548-8446(2005)30[10:MSABT]2.0.CO;2\n\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Konopacky RC, Estes RD. Age and growth of brook trout in southern Appalachian streams. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 1986;40:227-236\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Habera JW, Strange RJ, Bivens RD. A revised outlook for Tennessee’s brook trout. Journal of the Tennessee Academy of Science. 2001;76(3):68-73 http://www.tennacadofsci.org/journal/articles/vol76/JTAS76-3-68.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Wesner JS, Cornelison JW, Dankmeyer CD, Galbreath PF, Martin TH. Growth, pH tolerance, survival, and diet of introduced northern-strain and native southern-strain Appalachian brook trout. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 2011;140:37-44 http://afs.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00028487.2011.545022\n\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Edwards, A.T. A comparison of the external microbial assemblages between native southern strains and wild northern brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis, of hatchery ancestry [M.S. thesis]. Cullowhee, NC: Western Carolina University; 2012. https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/wcu/f/Edwards2012.pdf.\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Sherrill LW III, Galbreath PF, Adams ND. Genetic origin of wild brook trout populations in the upper French Broad River system, North Carolina. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 2001;55:52-62\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Waples RS. Pacific Salmon, Oncorhynchus Ssp., and the definition of “species” under the endangered species act. Marine Fisheries Review. 1991;53:11-22 http://aquaticcommons.org/9917/\n\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Hall MR, Morgan RP, Danzmann RG. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of mid-Atlantic populations of brook trout: The zone of contact for major historical lineages. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 2002;131:1140-1151 http://dx.doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(2002)131<1140:MDAOMA>2.0.CO;2\n\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Davis JE. Geographic Distribution of Southern- and Northern-Form Brook Trout Populations in Southwestern Virginia [M.S. Thesis]. Blacksburg, VA, USA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; 2008 http://theses.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-06302008-110327/\n\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Hebert PDN, Beaton MJ. Methodologies for Allozyme Analysis Using Cellulose Acetate Electrophoresis: A Practical Handbook. Beaumont, TX: Helena Laboratories; 1993 http://www.helena.com/Literature/Book%20K%20Rev3%20web.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Park SDE. Microsatellite Toolkit for Microsoft Excel, Version 3.1. 2001. Available online at http://animalgenomics.ucd.ie/sdepark/ms_toolkit/.\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Obbard DJ, Harris SA, Pannell JR. Simple allelic-phenotype diversity and differentiation statistics for allopolyploids. Heredity. 2006;97:296-303. DOI: 10.1038/sj.hdy.6800862\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Thrall PH, Young A. AUTOTET: A program for analysis of autotetraploid genotypic data. Journal of Heredity. 2000;91:348-349 https://155.187.2.24/cpbr/tools/autotet/autotet.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Swofford DL, Selander RB. BIOSYS-1: A FORTRAN program for the comprehensive analysis of electrophoretic data in population genetics and systematics. Journal of Heredity. 1981;72:281-283 https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a109497\n\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Excoffier, L., Laval, G., & Schneider, S. Arlequin, Version 3.01: An Integrated Software Package for Population Genetics Data Analysis. 2006. Available online at http://cmpg.unibe.ch/software/arlequin3\n\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Sneath, P.H.A., & Sokal RR. Numerical Taxonomy. 1973. San Francisco, CA: Freeman, ISBN 0716706970.\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Nei M. Estimation of average heterozygosity and genetic distance from a small number of individuals. Genetics. 1978;89:583-590 http://www.genetics.org/content/89/3/583.short\n\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Trout Unlimited. Eastern Brook Trout: Status and Threats. Arlington, VA: Trout Unlimited; 2006 40 pp. http://easternbrooktrout.org/reports/eastern-brook-trout-status-and-threats/view\n\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Allendorf, F.W., & Thorgaard, G.H. Tetraploidy and the evolution of salmonid fishes. In: Turner BJ, editor. Evolutionary Genetics of Fishes. New York, NY, Plenum Press; 1984; pp. 1-53. ISBN 978-1-4684-4654-8.\n'},{id:"B41",body:'Kidd KK, Cavalli-Sforza LL. Number of characters examined and error in reconstruction of evolutionary trees. In: Hodson FR, Kendall DG, Tautu P, editors. Mathematics in the Archaeological and Historical Sciences. Proceedings of the Anglo-Romanian Conference. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press; 1971. pp. 335-346. https://virginiatech.on.worldcat.org/search?queryString=no%3A+286974.\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Nei M, Roychoudhury AK. Sampling variances of heterozygosity and genetic distance. Genetics. 1974;16:379-390 http://www.genetics.org/content/genetics/76/2/379.full.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B43",body:'Archie JW, Simon C, Martin A. Small sample size does decrease the stability of dendrograms calculated from allozyme-frequency data. Evolution. 1989;43:678-683. DOI: 10.2307/2409072\n'},{id:"B44",body:'Walsh PD. Sample size diagnosis of conservation units. Conservation Biology. 2000;14:1533-1537. DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98149.x\n'},{id:"B45",body:'Jenkins, R.E., & Burkhead NM. Freshwater Fishes of Virginia. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society; 1993. ISBN 0-913235-87-3.\n'},{id:"B46",body:'Smith HM. The fishes of North Carolina. North Carolina Geologic and Economic Survey. 1907;2:1-453\n'},{id:"B47",body:'Moritz C. Defining ‘evolutionary significant units’ for conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 1994;9:373-375 https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(94)90057-4\n\n'},{id:"B48",body:'Allen SK Jr, Stanley JG. Reproductive sterility in polyploid brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 1978;107:473-478 http://dx.doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1978)107<473:RSIPBT>2.0.CO;2\n\n'},{id:"B49",body:'Johnson TC III. Assessment of Southern Appalachian Brook Trout Propagation for Restoring Tennessee Populations. Doctoral Dissertation. Cookeville, TN: Tennessee Technological University; 2016 http://search.proquest.com/docview/1800546730?pq-origsite=gscholar\n\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Joanne E. Printz",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, Blacksburg, VA, USA
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Eric M. Hallerman",address:"ehallerm@vt.edu",affiliation:'
Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6344",title:"Biological Resources of Water",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biological Resources of Water",slug:"biological-resources-of-water",publishedDate:"April 25th 2018",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6344.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"58420",title:"Egg-Laying in the Cuttlefish Sepia officinalis",slug:"egg-laying-in-the-cuttlefish-sepia-officinalis",totalDownloads:573,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Céline Zatylny-Gaudin and Joël Henry",authors:[{id:"220762",title:"Dr.",name:"Céline",middleName:null,surname:"Zatylny-Gaudin",fullName:"Céline Zatylny-Gaudin",slug:"celine-zatylny-gaudin"},{id:"224484",title:"Prof.",name:"Joël",middleName:null,surname:"Henry",fullName:"Joël Henry",slug:"joel-henry"}]},{id:"58026",title:"Pond Snail Reproduction as Model in the Environmental Risk Assessment: Reality and Doubts",slug:"pond-snail-reproduction-as-model-in-the-environmental-risk-assessment-reality-and-doubts",totalDownloads:513,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Zsolt Pirger, Zita Zrinyi, Gábor Maász, Éva Molnár and Tibor Kiss",authors:[{id:"215188",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Pirger",fullName:"Zsolt Pirger",slug:"zsolt-pirger"},{id:"215190",title:"MSc.",name:"Zita",middleName:null,surname:"Zrinyi",fullName:"Zita Zrinyi",slug:"zita-zrinyi"},{id:"215191",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Maasz",fullName:"Gabor Maasz",slug:"gabor-maasz"},{id:"215193",title:"Prof.",name:"Tibor",middleName:null,surname:"Kiss",fullName:"Tibor Kiss",slug:"tibor-kiss"}]},{id:"56944",title:"Genetic Characteristics of Southern and Northern Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) Populations at the Zone of Contact",slug:"genetic-characteristics-of-southern-and-northern-brook-trout-salvelinus-fontinalis-populations-at-th",totalDownloads:413,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Joanne E. Printz, Joseph Williams and Eric M. Hallerman",authors:[{id:"79633",title:"Prof.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Hallerman",fullName:"Eric Hallerman",slug:"eric-hallerman"},{id:"207766",title:"Ms.",name:"Joanne",middleName:null,surname:"Printz",fullName:"Joanne Printz",slug:"joanne-printz"},{id:"207768",title:"Mr.",name:"Joe",middleName:null,surname:"Williams",fullName:"Joe Williams",slug:"joe-williams"}]},{id:"59375",title:"Alien Fish Species in France with Emphasis on the Recent Invasion of Gobies",slug:"alien-fish-species-in-france-with-emphasis-on-the-recent-invasion-of-gobies",totalDownloads:503,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Fabrice Teletchea and Jean-Nicolas Beisel",authors:[{id:"190135",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",middleName:null,surname:"Teletchea",fullName:"Fabrice Teletchea",slug:"fabrice-teletchea"},{id:"207530",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Nicolas",middleName:null,surname:"Beisel",fullName:"Jean-Nicolas Beisel",slug:"jean-nicolas-beisel"}]},{id:"57770",title:"Ice Age Terrestrial and Freshwater Gastropod Refugia in the Carpathian Basin, Central Europe",slug:"ice-age-terrestrial-and-freshwater-gastropod-refugia-in-the-carpathian-basin-central-europe",totalDownloads:693,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Pál Sümegi, Sándor Gulyás, Dávid Molnár, Katalin Náfrádi, Tünde\nTörőcsik, Balázs P. Sümegi, Tamás Müller, Gábor Szilágyi and Zoltán\nVarga",authors:[{id:"84791",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamás",middleName:null,surname:"Müller",fullName:"Tamás Müller",slug:"tamas-muller"},{id:"216563",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandor",middleName:null,surname:"Gulyas",fullName:"Sandor Gulyas",slug:"sandor-gulyas"},{id:"216564",title:"Prof.",name:"Pál",middleName:null,surname:"Sümegi",fullName:"Pál Sümegi",slug:"pal-sumegi"},{id:"216565",title:"Dr.",name:"Dávid",middleName:null,surname:"Molnár",fullName:"Dávid Molnár",slug:"david-molnar"},{id:"216566",title:"Dr.",name:"Katalin",middleName:null,surname:"Náfrádi",fullName:"Katalin Náfrádi",slug:"katalin-nafradi"},{id:"216567",title:"Ms.",name:"Tünde",middleName:null,surname:"Törőcsik",fullName:"Tünde Törőcsik",slug:"tunde-torocsik"},{id:"216568",title:"Mr.",name:"Balázs Pál",middleName:null,surname:"Sümegi",fullName:"Balázs Pál Sümegi",slug:"balazs-pal-sumegi"},{id:"216570",title:"Mr.",name:"Gábor",middleName:null,surname:"Szilágyi",fullName:"Gábor Szilágyi",slug:"gabor-szilagyi"},{id:"216571",title:"Prof.",name:"Zoltán",middleName:null,surname:"Varga",fullName:"Zoltán Varga",slug:"zoltan-varga"}]},{id:"58001",title:"Biodiversity of Gastropod in the Southeastern Gulf of California, Mexico",slug:"biodiversity-of-gastropod-in-the-southeastern-gulf-of-california-mexico",totalDownloads:566,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ruth Escamilla-Montes, Salvador Granados-Alcantar, Genaro\nDiarte-Plata, Paúl de J. Pacheco-Heredia, Juan A. Gill-León, Antonio\nLuna-González, Jesús A. Fierro-Coronado, Píndaro Álvarez-Ruíz,\nHéctor M. Esparza-Leal and Wenceslao Valenzuela-Quiñonez",authors:[{id:"198991",title:"Dr.",name:"Genaro",middleName:null,surname:"Diarte-Plata",fullName:"Genaro Diarte-Plata",slug:"genaro-diarte-plata"},{id:"199061",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruth",middleName:null,surname:"Escamilla-Montes",fullName:"Ruth Escamilla-Montes",slug:"ruth-escamilla-montes"},{id:"199062",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-González",fullName:"Antonio Luna-González",slug:"antonio-luna-gonzalez"},{id:"199065",title:"MSc.",name:"Jesús Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Fierro-Coronado",fullName:"Jesús Arturo Fierro-Coronado",slug:"jesus-arturo-fierro-coronado"},{id:"199067",title:"Dr.",name:"Héctor Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Esparza-Leal",fullName:"Héctor Manuel Esparza-Leal",slug:"hector-manuel-esparza-leal"},{id:"205357",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvador",middleName:null,surname:"Granados-Alcantar",fullName:"Salvador Granados-Alcantar",slug:"salvador-granados-alcantar"},{id:"213875",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenceslao",middleName:null,surname:"Valenzuela-Quiñones",fullName:"Wenceslao Valenzuela-Quiñones",slug:"wenceslao-valenzuela-quinones"},{id:"213876",title:"Dr.",name:"Píndaro",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez-Ruíz",fullName:"Píndaro Álvarez-Ruíz",slug:"pindaro-alvarez-ruiz"},{id:"227451",title:"Prof.",name:"Paúl De J.",middleName:null,surname:"Pacheco-Heredia",fullName:"Paúl De J. Pacheco-Heredia",slug:"paul-de-j.-pacheco-heredia"},{id:"227452",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Alexis",middleName:null,surname:"Gill-León",fullName:"Juan Alexis Gill-León",slug:"juan-alexis-gill-leon"}]},{id:"57531",title:"Marine Snails of the Genus Phorcus: Biology and Ecology of Sentinel Species for Human Impacts on the Rocky Shores",slug:"marine-snails-of-the-genus-phorcus-biology-and-ecology-of-sentinel-species-for-human-impacts-on-the-",totalDownloads:1046,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Ricardo Sousa, João Delgado, José A. González, Mafalda Freitas and\nPaulo Henriques",authors:[{id:"200407",title:"MSc.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Henriques",fullName:"Paulo Henriques",slug:"paulo-henriques"},{id:"200915",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa",fullName:"Ricardo Sousa",slug:"ricardo-sousa"},{id:"200916",title:"MSc.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Delgado",fullName:"João Delgado",slug:"joao-delgado"}]},{id:"59377",title:"Freshwater Crustaceans Decadpos: An Important Resource of Guatemala",slug:"freshwater-crustaceans-decadpos-an-important-resource-of-guatemala",totalDownloads:447,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Juan Carlos Tejeda-Mazariegos, Luis Manuel Mejía Ortíz, Marilú\nLópez-Mejía, Keith A. Crandall, Marcos Pérez-Losada and Oscar\nFrausto-Martínez",authors:[{id:"181100",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Mejia-Ortiz",fullName:"Luis Mejia-Ortiz",slug:"luis-mejia-ortiz"},{id:"185428",title:"Prof.",name:"Keith",middleName:null,surname:"Crandall",fullName:"Keith Crandall",slug:"keith-crandall"},{id:"185429",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Frausto-Martinez",fullName:"Oscar Frausto-Martinez",slug:"oscar-frausto-martinez"},{id:"215819",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan C.",middleName:null,surname:"Tejeda-Mazariegos",fullName:"Juan C. Tejeda-Mazariegos",slug:"juan-c.-tejeda-mazariegos"},{id:"215820",title:"Dr.",name:"Marilú",middleName:null,surname:"López-Mejía",fullName:"Marilú López-Mejía",slug:"marilu-lopez-mejia"},{id:"215821",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Losada",fullName:"Marcos Perez-Losada",slug:"marcos-perez-losada"}]},{id:"57794",title:"Assessment of Proximate and Bioactive Lipid Composition of Black Sea Mussels (M. galloprovincialis) from Bulgaria",slug:"assessment-of-proximate-and-bioactive-lipid-composition-of-black-sea-mussels-m-galloprovincialis-fro",totalDownloads:483,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Albena Merdzhanova, Diana A. Dobreva and Veselina Panayotova",authors:[{id:"214357",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Albena",middleName:null,surname:"Merdzhanova",fullName:"Albena Merdzhanova",slug:"albena-merdzhanova"},{id:"215380",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Dobreva",fullName:"Diana Dobreva",slug:"diana-dobreva"},{id:"215382",title:"Dr.",name:"Veselina",middleName:null,surname:"Panayotova",fullName:"Veselina Panayotova",slug:"veselina-panayotova"}]},{id:"60368",title:"Biological and Medicinal Importance of Sponge",slug:"biological-and-medicinal-importance-of-sponge",totalDownloads:1600,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Musarat Amina and Nawal M. Al Musayeib",authors:[{id:"213049",title:"Dr.",name:"Musarat",middleName:null,surname:"Amina",fullName:"Musarat Amina",slug:"musarat-amina"},{id:"213050",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawal",middleName:null,surname:"M. Al Musayeib",fullName:"Nawal M. Al Musayeib",slug:"nawal-m.-al-musayeib"}]},{id:"58863",title:"Chemical Ecology of Biocompounds in Molluscs",slug:"chemical-ecology-of-biocompounds-in-molluscs",totalDownloads:514,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Nooshin Sadjadi",authors:[{id:"215257",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Sajjadi",fullName:"Nooshin Sajjadi",slug:"nooshin-sajjadi"}]},{id:"59973",title:"Genetic Applications in the Conservation of Neotropical Freshwater Fish",slug:"genetic-applications-in-the-conservation-of-neotropical-freshwater-fish",totalDownloads:811,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Vito Antonio Mastrochirico Filho, Milena V. Freitas, Raquel B.\nAriede, Lieschen V.G. Lira, Natália J. Mendes and Diogo T.\nHashimoto",authors:[{id:"215385",title:"Dr.",name:"Diogo",middleName:null,surname:"Hashimoto",fullName:"Diogo Hashimoto",slug:"diogo-hashimoto"},{id:"226741",title:"MSc.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Matrochirico-Filho",fullName:"Vito Matrochirico-Filho",slug:"vito-matrochirico-filho"},{id:"226743",title:"MSc.",name:"Milena",middleName:null,surname:"Freitas",fullName:"Milena Freitas",slug:"milena-freitas"},{id:"226744",title:"MSc.",name:"Raquel",middleName:null,surname:"Ariede",fullName:"Raquel Ariede",slug:"raquel-ariede"},{id:"226745",title:"MSc.",name:"Natália",middleName:null,surname:"Mendes",fullName:"Natália Mendes",slug:"natalia-mendes"},{id:"226746",title:"MSc.",name:"Lieschen",middleName:null,surname:"Lira",fullName:"Lieschen Lira",slug:"lieschen-lira"}]},{id:"58953",title:"Status of the Important Bioresources of Girwa River with Special Reference to Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica) in Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh, India",slug:"status-of-the-important-bioresources-of-girwa-river-with-special-reference-to-ganges-river-dolphin-p",totalDownloads:524,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Hari Singh and Sandeep Kumar Behera",authors:[{id:"208022",title:"Dr.",name:"Hari",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Hari Singh",slug:"hari-singh"},{id:"226724",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandeep Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Behera",fullName:"Sandeep Kumar Behera",slug:"sandeep-kumar-behera"}]},{id:"57327",title:"Closed Aquaculture System: Zero Water Discharge for Shrimp and Prawn Farming in Indonesia",slug:"closed-aquaculture-system-zero-water-discharge-for-shrimp-and-prawn-farming-in-indonesia",totalDownloads:1655,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Gede Suantika, Magdalena Lenny Situmorang, Pingkan Aditiawati,\nDea Indriani Astuti, Fahma Fiqhiyyah Nur Azizah and Harish\nMuhammad",authors:[{id:"216920",title:"Dr.",name:"Gede",middleName:null,surname:"Suantika",fullName:"Gede Suantika",slug:"gede-suantika"},{id:"220079",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena Lenny",middleName:null,surname:"Situmorang",fullName:"Magdalena Lenny Situmorang",slug:"magdalena-lenny-situmorang"},{id:"220081",title:"Dr.",name:"Pingkan",middleName:null,surname:"Aditiawati",fullName:"Pingkan Aditiawati",slug:"pingkan-aditiawati"},{id:"220082",title:"Dr.",name:"Dea Indriani",middleName:null,surname:"Astuti",fullName:"Dea Indriani Astuti",slug:"dea-indriani-astuti"},{id:"220083",title:"MSc.",name:"Fahma Fiqhiyyah Nur",middleName:null,surname:"Azizah",fullName:"Fahma Fiqhiyyah Nur Azizah",slug:"fahma-fiqhiyyah-nur-azizah"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8421",title:"Invertebrates",subtitle:"Ecophysiology and Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"524faf733c0ebf32b356f89b2148e6de",slug:"invertebrates-ecophysiology-and-management",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray, Genaro Diarte-Plata and Ruth Escamilla-Montes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8421.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"70367",title:"Indoor Hibernation of Helix aspersa Juveniles",slug:"indoor-hibernation-of-em-helix-aspersa-em-juveniles",signatures:"George Andrei Draghici, Cristina Deheleana, Razvan Susan, Delia Berceanu-Văduva and Dragoş Nica",authors:[{id:"297109",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:"Andrei",surname:"Draghici",fullName:"George Draghici",slug:"george-draghici"}]},{id:"69545",title:"Ecology, Biology and Genetics of Millepora Hydrocorals on Coral Reefs",slug:"ecology-biology-and-genetics-of-em-millepora-em-hydrocorals-on-coral-reefs",signatures:"Caroline E. Dubé, Chloé A.F. Bourmaud, Alexandre Mercière, Serge Planes and Emilie Boissin",authors:[{id:"280143",title:"Dr.",name:"Caroline",middleName:"Eve",surname:"Dubé",fullName:"Caroline Dubé",slug:"caroline-dube"},{id:"309629",title:"Dr.",name:"Chloé A-F",middleName:null,surname:"Bourmaud",fullName:"Chloé A-F Bourmaud",slug:"chloe-a-f-bourmaud"},{id:"309630",title:"MSc.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Mercière",fullName:"Alexandre Mercière",slug:"alexandre-merciere"},{id:"309631",title:"Dr.",name:"Serge",middleName:null,surname:"Planes",fullName:"Serge Planes",slug:"serge-planes"},{id:"309632",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilie",middleName:null,surname:"Boissin",fullName:"Emilie Boissin",slug:"emilie-boissin"}]},{id:"70368",title:"Chemoprotective Effect of Edible Gastropod, Xancus pyrum and Its Usefulness in the Amelioration of Cisplatin Induced Toxicity",slug:"chemoprotective-effect-of-edible-gastropod-em-xancus-pyrum-em-and-its-usefulness-in-the-amelioration",signatures:"Jayaprakash Bindhu and Das Arunava",authors:[{id:"259819",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Bindhu",middleName:null,surname:"Jayaprakash",fullName:"Bindhu Jayaprakash",slug:"bindhu-jayaprakash"},{id:"299273",title:"Prof.",name:"Arunava",middleName:null,surname:"Das",fullName:"Arunava Das",slug:"arunava-das"}]},{id:"66678",title:"Intermediate Host Snails of Human Schistosomes in the Senegal River Delta: Spatial Distribution According to Physicochemical Parameters",slug:"intermediate-host-snails-of-human-schistosomes-in-the-senegal-river-delta-spatial-distribution-accor",signatures:"Raphael Abdoulaye Ndione, Sidy Bakhoum, Chistopher Haggerty, Nicolas Jouanard, Simon Senghor, Papa Demba Ndao, Gilles Riveau and Cheikh Tidiane Ba",authors:[{id:"284013",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Raphael Abdoulaye",middleName:null,surname:"Ndione",fullName:"Raphael Abdoulaye Ndione",slug:"raphael-abdoulaye-ndione"}]},{id:"68624",title:"Reproductive Biology, Seed Production, and Culture of the Hawaiian Limpet Cellana sandwicensis (Pease, 1861)",slug:"reproductive-biology-seed-production-and-culture-of-the-hawaiian-limpet-em-cellana-sandwicensis-em-p",signatures:"Hua Thai Nhan and Harry Ako",authors:[{id:"286931",title:"Ph.D.",name:"T. Nhan",middleName:null,surname:"Hua",fullName:"T. Nhan Hua",slug:"t.-nhan-hua"},{id:"298839",title:"Prof.",name:"Ako",middleName:null,surname:"Harry",fullName:"Ako Harry",slug:"ako-harry"}]},{id:"65948",title:"Sponge Fishery and Aquaculture in Cuba: Impacts and Challenges",slug:"sponge-fishery-and-aquaculture-in-cuba-impacts-and-challenges",signatures:"Betanzos-Vega Abel, Mazón-Suástegui José Manuel, Formoso-García Mario and Avilés-Quevedo María Araceli",authors:[{id:"245773",title:"Dr.",name:"José Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Mazón-Suástegui",fullName:"José Manuel Mazón-Suástegui",slug:"jose-manuel-mazon-suastegui"},{id:"255063",title:"Dr.",name:"Avilés-Quevedo",middleName:null,surname:"María Araceli",fullName:"Avilés-Quevedo María Araceli",slug:"aviles-quevedo-maria-araceli"},{id:"280776",title:"Prof.",name:"Abel",middleName:null,surname:"Betanzos-Vega",fullName:"Abel Betanzos-Vega",slug:"abel-betanzos-vega"},{id:"280777",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Formoso-García",fullName:"Mario Formoso-García",slug:"mario-formoso-garcia"}]},{id:"69192",title:"Spectral Discrimination of Live and Bleached Corals: A Case Study on Turbinaria peltata (Esper, 1794) Using Field Spectroscopy",slug:"spectral-discrimination-of-live-and-bleached-corals-a-case-study-on-em-turbinaria-peltata-em-esper-1",signatures:"Nandini Ray Chaudhury, Ashwin Gujrati, T.V.R. Murthy and C.H. Satyanarayana",authors:[{id:"255473",title:"Dr.",name:"Nandini",middleName:null,surname:"Ray Chaudhury",fullName:"Nandini Ray Chaudhury",slug:"nandini-ray-chaudhury"},{id:"309754",title:"Mr.",name:"Ashwin",middleName:null,surname:"Gujrati",fullName:"Ashwin Gujrati",slug:"ashwin-gujrati"},{id:"309755",title:"Mr.",name:"Tvr",middleName:null,surname:"Murthy",fullName:"Tvr Murthy",slug:"tvr-murthy"},{id:"309756",title:"Dr.",name:"Chowdula",middleName:null,surname:"Satyanarayana",fullName:"Chowdula Satyanarayana",slug:"chowdula-satyanarayana"}]},{id:"64553",title:"Formation, Persistence, and Recovery of Glass Sponge Reefs: A Case Study",slug:"formation-persistence-and-recovery-of-glass-sponge-reefs-a-case-study",signatures:"Jeffrey B. Marliave, Laura A. Borden, Jessica A. Schultz, Donna M. Gibbs and Glen J. Dennison",authors:[{id:"217091",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Borden",fullName:"Laura Borden",slug:"laura-borden"},{id:"269027",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Marliave",fullName:"Jeffrey Marliave",slug:"jeffrey-marliave"},{id:"279002",title:"MSc.",name:"Jessica",middleName:null,surname:"Schultz",fullName:"Jessica Schultz",slug:"jessica-schultz"},{id:"279004",title:"Mrs.",name:"Donna",middleName:null,surname:"Gibbs",fullName:"Donna Gibbs",slug:"donna-gibbs"},{id:"279005",title:"Mr.",name:"Glen",middleName:null,surname:"Dennison",fullName:"Glen Dennison",slug:"glen-dennison"}]},{id:"66480",title:"Artisanal Harvest of Shellfish in the Northeastern Atlantic: The Example of Limpet and Topshell Fisheries in the Archipelago of Madeira",slug:"artisanal-harvest-of-shellfish-in-the-northeastern-atlantic-the-example-of-limpet-and-topshell-fishe",signatures:"Ricardo Sousa, Rodrigo Riera, Joana Vasconcelos, Lídia Gouveia, Ana Rita Pinto, João Delgado, Adriana Alves, José A. González, Mafalda Freitas and Paulo Henriques",authors:[{id:"200407",title:"MSc.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Henriques",fullName:"Paulo Henriques",slug:"paulo-henriques"},{id:"200915",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa",fullName:"Ricardo Sousa",slug:"ricardo-sousa"},{id:"291944",title:"MSc.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Delgado",fullName:"João Delgado",slug:"joao-delgado"},{id:"291945",title:"Dr.",name:"Joana",middleName:null,surname:"Vasconcelos",fullName:"Joana Vasconcelos",slug:"joana-vasconcelos"},{id:"291946",title:"Prof.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Riera",fullName:"Rodrigo Riera",slug:"rodrigo-riera"},{id:"291951",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Pinto",fullName:"Ana Rita Pinto",slug:"ana-rita-pinto"},{id:"291952",title:"MSc.",name:"Lídia",middleName:null,surname:"Gouveia",fullName:"Lídia Gouveia",slug:"lidia-gouveia"},{id:"291953",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Alves",fullName:"Adriana Alves",slug:"adriana-alves"},{id:"291954",title:"Prof.",name:"José António",middleName:null,surname:"González",fullName:"José António González",slug:"jose-antonio-gonzalez"},{id:"291955",title:"MSc.",name:"Mafalda",middleName:null,surname:"Freitas",fullName:"Mafalda Freitas",slug:"mafalda-freitas"}]},{id:"67929",title:"Assemblage of Gastropods in the Rocky Intertidal Zone of Asry Beach, Kingdom of Bahrain",slug:"assemblage-of-gastropods-in-the-rocky-intertidal-zone-of-asry-beach-kingdom-of-bahrain",signatures:"Belen T. Lumeran",authors:[{id:"299225",title:"Dr.",name:"Belen",middleName:null,surname:"Lumeran",fullName:"Belen Lumeran",slug:"belen-lumeran"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"71437",title:"Enduring Effects of Infant Emotional Security on Preschooler Adaptation to Interparental Conflict",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91261",slug:"enduring-effects-of-infant-emotional-security-on-preschooler-adaptation-to-interparental-conflict",body:'
1. Emotional security theory
Emotional security theory (EST) has illustrated the significance of children’s reactions to interparental conflict as a mediator of the relationships between exposure to interparental conflict and children’s later psychological and physiological well-being [1, 2, 3]. Although empirical support has been well documented for older children [4], less is known about younger children, specifically infants and toddlers, and their responses to interparental conflict. However, a cross-sectional study conducted by Du Rocher Schudlich et al. [5] found that infants aged 6–14 months showed differential responses to interparental conflict; depressive (i.e., avoidance and emotional distress) and destructive conflict (i.e., hostile verbal and nonverbal behaviors) were associated with increased infant negative reactions, whereas constructive conflict (i.e., well-modulated conflict striving toward resolution) was associated with decreased infant negative reactions. This study was the first to highlight the significance of emotional security concerns in infancy. Others have since supported the role of emotional security concerns during this developmental period (e.g., [6, 7]). However, to date, there are no studies that have examined the longitudinal effects of interparental conflict and the stability of emotional security in infants through their preschool years. The dearth of studies is striking, as this developmental period is the one most commonly exposed to interparental conflict, and rates of interparental discord are highest during infant and early childhood years [8]. Guided by EST, the current study addresses the aforementioned gaps in the research literature by assessing the stability of emotional security over infancy through preschool years, determining if infant emotional insecurity mediates between interparental conflict during infancy and preschooler adjustment, and more stringently determining whether infant emotional insecurity continues to mediate between interparental conflict during infancy and preschooler adjustment, while simultaneously considering contemporaneous preschooler emotional insecurity.
EST [9] has demonstrated the significance of exposure to interparental conflict and children’s following physiological and psychological well-being [3, 10]. According to EST, children react to the meaning of the conflict, ergo the threat to the safety and stability of their emotional life and the integrity of their family system [11]. As children grow and develop in response to their environment, an internal working model of conflict, based on previous exposure history, will progress and affect future responses and reactions to interparental conflict, which in turn may have deleterious effects on parent’s conflict [12], thus feeding the negative cycle of insecurity. Children’s emotional security is thus reflected in future emotional responding, effectiveness of coping, and emotion regulation skills [4, 11]. Observations of children’s elevated emotional and behavioral dysregulation as a response to interparental conflict exposure provide the foundation for assessing children’s emotional security [5].
Different types of interparental conflict will have different effects and outcomes on exposed children. EST posits that children are most negatively impacted by conflict perceived as threatening to the family system [9, 13]. Interparental conflict is most damaging to children’s emotional security when it involves aggression [14], is unresolved with a negative emotional aftermath [15], when it is characterized by parental withdrawal [16], and when it is paired with harsh maternal parenting [17]. In contrast, conflict that is resolved and dealt with positively may enhance emotional security by reinforcing children’s sense of stability in the family and providing a constructive model for dealing with difficult emotions [13, 18].
2. Sensitization
Within EST, sensitization developed from repeated or heightened exposure to interparental conflict increases children’s reactivity, including distress, anger, aggressiveness, and involvement in interparental conflict [13]. For children, preserving a sense of security and stability within the family is a salient goal [17]. Thus, habituation to interparental conflict does not occur, as the threat of harm from exposure to interparental conflict increases their reactivity. Furthermore, with repeated exposure to destructive or depressive interparental conflict, the child should progressively amplify the importance of protecting security and stability of their family system. This results in increases in the children’s greater emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and physiological reactivity in the face of interparental conflict [13]. Eventually, the components of the emotional security system, emotional reactivity, regulation of conflict exposure, and internal representations, should evidence stability and continuity over time [13]. Longitudinal studies have found moderate stability in individual differences in children’s reactions to interparental conflict over time [11, 19, 20].
Consistent with sensitization, Davies et al. [21] found greater child reactivity over time was associated with higher levels of destructive interparental conflict. However, the link between threats to emotional security and children’s mental and physical health does not occur immediately, but requires consistency and stability over time as the link gradually progresses, intensifies, and generalizes, into a broader pattern of the children’s reactions and responses [13]. Based on EST, it is expected that individual differences in children’s security responses to interparental conflict have long-term implications for adjustment and adaptation [13].
3. EST and infants
Although much less is known about the effects of interparental conflict on infants, compared to later periods of development, there is evidence that they are also sensitive to specific dimensions of interparental conflict. Cummings et al. [22] examination of parent reports of 10- to 20-month-old infants’ responses to naturally occurring and simulated expressions of anger and affection found that infants differentially responded to affectionate versus angry demonstrations; anger elicited distress and negative emotional reactions, whereas affectionate interactions elicited affectionate behaviors and pleasure. Furthermore, infants’ distress levels were later heightened when exposed to higher levels of destructive marital conflict. Their findings are congruent with sensitization, which suggests that differences in children’s responses to conflict, particularly destructive, lead to different capabilities in the child’s emotional regulation and the child’s response to conflict [23, 24]. As for regulation of exposure to conflict, although infants and toddlers may not directly interject themselves into the conflict, avoidance and withdrawal as well as ameliorating behaviors, such as self-soothing or gaze aversion, were observed [22].
Looking at a slightly younger population, Du Rocher Schudlich et al. [5] examined infants’ responses and reactions to interparental conflict live in a laboratory. Parents were videotaped discussing a disagreement with their infant present. Infants showed heightened discussion attending and negative reactions in response to destructive and depressive conflict. However, infants displayed diminished discussion attending and negative reactions in response to constructive conflict. Together, these studies establish infants’ sensitivity and reactivity to interparental conflict behavior. Similarly, it has been found that preschool-aged children are predisposed to experience fear, self-blame, and threat in response to interparental conflict due in part to the regulatory processes underlying children’s security in the interparental relationship [13]. In infancy through the preschool years, regulatory processes are more easily overwhelmed by exposure to interparental discord, suggesting that insecurity in the interparental relationship may be a significant mediator of pathways between interparental conflict and child adjustment.
These studies highlight the importance of determining how exposure to interparental conflict may affect early childhood and infancy and the longitudinal effects associated with child adjustment. Infancy is an especially important developmental period for studying emotional security. To date, we are aware of only one study examining interparental conflict’s effects on infants’ emotional insecurity longitudinally. Frankel et al. [6] found that elevated interparental conflict during infancy predicted greater flat/withdrawn and negative affect in toddlerhood. Paternal affect was particularly important in their study: preschooler’s negative affect was highest when both interparental conflict and fathers’ distressed responses were high. Thus, effects of conflict may be long-lasting during this developmental period.
4. Current study
The current study attempts to address the gaps in the literature that have been outlined. Currently, there are no studies that have examined the longitudinal effects of interparental conflict and the stability of emotional security on infants through their preschool years. The results of this study have critical implications because infants and preschoolers are the age group most commonly exposed to interparental conflict and this may be a key stage for the development of emotional security.
Guided by EST framework, the current study will address the following aims: (1) Does emotional security observed in infants have longitudinal stability into the preschool years? (2) Does infant emotional insecurity mediate between interparental conflict during infancy and preschooler adjustment? (3) Finally, does infant emotional insecurity continue to mediate associations between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment when simultaneously considering preschooler emotional insecurity? Based on previous literature, we hypothesized that emotional security would be a stable construct over the infancy to preschooler time points. Additionally, infant emotional insecurity would serve as a mediator between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment. Lastly, infant emotional insecurity would continue to serve as a mediator and predict preschooler adjustment even when simultaneously considering preschooler emotional insecurity.
5. Method
5.1 Participants
This study was a part of a larger investigation concerning family relationships and child development (e.g., see also Du Rocher Schudlich et al., [13, 25]). Data were collected during the years 2007–2009. Participants were recruited by contacting families listed in local birth records from a county in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, as well as families recommended by previous participants. Inclusion criteria included the following: (1) primary caregivers who were comfortable speaking and reading in English, (2) families who had an infant between the ages of 6 and 14 months, and (3) families who had been living together since the birth of the child, regardless of interparental marital status. Families were excluded if they did not meet all of the inclusion criteria or their child was diagnosed with a developmental disorder. Families were invited back when their children were between the ages of 3 and 5 years. This was an unplanned longitudinal study that developed out of a graduate student’s thesis and thus our retention rate of 54% is lower than that which is typically seen in planned longitudinal studies.
At time one (T1), participants were 74 nuclear families (mothers’ M age = 29.56 years, SD = 5.54; fathers’ M age = 31.62 years, SD = 5.87) with 33 male and 41 female infants aged 6.20–14.48 months (M age = 10.07 months, SD = 2.10). Sixty-four of the parent couples (85%) were married, (M length of marriage = 4.83 years, SD = 3.15 years) and couples had been living together for an average of 5.78 years (SD = 3.34). All parents reported being the biological parents of the target child in the study. Parents indicated a modal family income of $40,001–$65,000 per year. In this sample, 88% of fathers and 85.3% of mothers were Caucasian, 1.3% of fathers and mothers were Asian American or Pacific Islander, 1.3% of fathers and mothers were Hispanic, 5.4% of fathers and 8% of mothers were biracial, and 3% of parents did not report ethnicity.
Thirty-eight families returned at Time 2 (T2). To test for differences between families who participated at both time points versus those who did not, we conducted statistical comparisons among our primary study variables and family demographics (child sex, parents’ education, parents’ income, parents’ and child race, parents’ age, and interparental status). Out of the 15 variables assessed, only 2 yielded significant differences: parents who participated at both time points had fathers who reported higher incomes and mothers with older ages.
5.2 Procedures and measures
5.2.1 Time 1 and 2 (T1, T2)
For both Time 1 and 2, parents consenting to participate received mailed packets containing consent forms and questionnaires to be completed at home prior to the laboratory visit. Upon arrival at the laboratory, parents engaged in three interactions: a conflict resolution task with their infant absent, a conflict resolution task with their infant or preschooler present, and a triadic play interaction. The order of conflict interactions was randomly counterbalanced across families when possible. The triadic play interaction always occurred last to reduce any emotional distress families may have experienced while engaging in the conflict and challenge tasks. In the current study, we only utilized the conflict tasks.
Both parents completed parent-report versions of The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; [26]) at T2 regarding their child, which is a brief behavioral questionnaire about children 3–16 years of age. Parents are provided with a list of behavioral descriptions and asked to rate the extent to which they are true of their child on a scale from 0 (Not True), 1 (Somewhat True), to 2 (Certainly True). We used three subscales: emotional problems, conduct problems, and prosocial behavior. Mother and father reports were highly correlated and thus their scores were averaged. Cronbach’s α’s were 0.72 for emotional problems, 0.86 for conduct problems, and 0.74 for prosocial behavior.
5.2.2 Conflict
Following similar procedures in previous research (i.e., [27]), parents deliberated to select three topics that were most typically problematic for their relationship and then chose a topic that they were both comfortable discussing. Parents chose a different topic for their second interaction than what they discussed in their first interaction. We instructed parents to not discuss a child-related issue with the child present because previous research has indicated that children are especially sensitive to children-related topics [28]. We asked parents to attempt to reach a resolution and to share their emotions and perspectives on the issues. We asked parents to interact with their baby as they would normally if they were at home discussing the issue. Families were left alone during their interactions, which were videotaped. After 7.5 minutes, we offered parents additional time and those who accepted were given an additional 2.5 minutes. Following procedures developed by the Cummings lab, immediately following each of the interactions, parents independently completed ratings of how strongly they felt each of the following emotions during their interactions: loving feelings, happiness, anger, worry, scared, sadness, helplessness, and hopelessness. The emotions scale ranged from 1 to 9, with 1 = absence of the emotion, 5 = mid-range level of feeling, and 9 = most intense feeling.
We coded interparental interactions using an adapted version of The Marital Daily Records (MDR) protocol [29]. The MDR has good convergent validity with self-report measures of interparental conflict and relations [23]. Our adaptation included coding behaviors on a 1–9 scale based on the Couples’ Interaction Global Coding System, rather than the original 0–2 scale on the MDR [30], allowing us to capture more variability in the behaviors. Global ratings of the entire interaction were applied (see [5, 25] for more coding details). We coded the conflict behaviors on a scale from 1 to 9, with 1 = absence of the expression, 5 = mid-range level, and 9 = most intense expressions. Coded behaviors included conflict, defensiveness, contempt, withdrawal, demand, communication skills, support-validation, problem-solving, and humor. The degree of emotional intensity was also coded on a 1–9 scale for each of four emotions (positivity, anger, sadness, and anxiousness), as well the overall degree (1–9) of conflict resolution for each partner. To minimize potential coding bias or carry-over effects, coders coded only one type of conflict interaction (triadic or dyadic) for each family. Coders received extensive training by the principal investigator, achieving adequate reliabilities on all coding categories (i.e., intra-class correlation coefficients ranged from 0.60 to 0.98, with a mean coefficient score of 0.91).
5.2.3 Emotional security
We recorded infants’ reactions during actual interparental disagreements (see [5] for more details on procedures and coding). We adapted coding procedures from infants’ responses to angry interparental interactions in the home environment, which were previously utilized to code infants’ behavior from a wide developmental spectrum, 10 months to 2.5 years of age [31]. We considered intensity as well as frequency of behaviors and emotions, and scored them from 0 (absence of the behavior) to 4 (strong intensity and frequency of the behavior). Codes included frustration, self-soothing, sadness, physical frustration, and dysregulation. Infant location during the interaction was also coded, with 1 (on floor) and 2 (in a parent’s lap). A group of raters blind to other study and coding information coded infant behaviors. The coders received extensive training by the principal investigator, achieving adequate reliabilities on all coding categories. Intra-class correlation coefficients ranged from 0.84 to 1.00, with a mean coefficient score of 0.95.
To assess preschoolers’ reactions during actual interparental interactions, preschoolers were present during their parents’ interparental disagreement and were videotaped for later coding. Coding procedures were adapted from the coding system utilized for infants [5]. Intensity and frequency of behaviors and emotions were both considered. Codes were scored from 0 (absence of the behavior) to 4 (strong intensity and frequency of the behavior), and included frustration (e.g., scowl, huffing, yelling, or stomping); self-soothing (e.g., sucking thumb, rocking); distress (e.g., whining, tears, pouting, or hanging head); aggression (e.g., throwing objects, hitting, kicking, or biting); dysregulation (e.g., intense, multiple, and potentially contradictory emotions, behaviors, and strategies in attempts to cope with conflict); avoidance (e.g., asking to leave, walking away from parents); and mediation (e.g., offering solutions to conflict, telling parents what to do, or comforting parents). A group of raters blind to other study and coding information coded preschooler behaviors. The coders received extensive training by the principal investigator, achieving adequate reliabilities on all coding categories. Intra-class correlation coefficients ranged from 0.78 to 0.98, with a mean coefficient score of 0.87.
6. Results
6.1 Data reduction and preliminary analyses
We used SPSS v25 and AMOS v25 to analyze our data. Mothers’ and fathers’ conflict scores within T1 and T2 were highly correlated in expected directions and thus we averaged their scores together. Based on previous research, we created a global interparental conflict composite for T1 and T2 by summing the negative behaviors and emotions together and subtracting the positive ones. Based on previous research and supported by a factor analysis, we created a global emotional insecurity composite for T1 and T2 by summing scores for negative infant reactions and subtracting scores from the positive reactions.
We examined whether the average scores on any of the outcomes were associated with child gender and socioeconomic status (SES) independent of interparental conflict. Very few significant associations were found. Girls demonstrated higher levels of mediation at Time 2 than boys, t (32) = −2.09, p = 0.048, and SES was negatively correlated with self-soothing at Time 1, r = −0.28, p = 0.02. Given the minimal significant findings for these variables and in order to preserve power, we did not control for any of them in the rest of the analyses.
Utilizing a person-centered approach to assess Aim 1, the stability of ES over time, we conducted a cluster analysis of the T1 ES variables to determine the infants’ patterns of responding to conflict. We compared the different clusters that emerged and used independent sample t-tests to determine their differential patterns of responding to conflict based on key T1 emotional security variables. Finally, to assess whether this remained stable over time, independent sample t-tests were conducted on key T2 emotional security variables as a function of infants’ T1 differential response patterns.
Hierarchical regressions assessed mediational models for Aim 2 and 3. Zero-order correlations were examined first. Correlations between interparental conflict at Time 1 and 2, emotional insecurity at Time 1 and 2, and preschooler emotional adjustment are presented in Table 1. T1 interparental conflict was significantly correlated with greater T1 emotional security, greater preschooler conduct problems, but less prosocial behavior. T1 emotional insecurity was significantly correlated with greater emotional and conduct problems, but less prosocial behavior. Similarly, T2 emotional insecurity was also correlated with greater emotional and conduct problems. Interestingly, T1 and T2 interparental conflict were not significantly correlated, and thus not surprisingly neither were T1 and T2 emotional insecurity.
Means, standard deviations, and correlations of the primary variables in the analyses.
p < 0.05.
p < 0.01.
p < 0.001.
6.2 Aim 1: assess the stability of ES over time
As a first step to assessing the stability of ES over time, we conducted a cluster analysis of the T1 ES variables to determine the infants’ patterns of responding to conflict. We performed a hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis with squared Euclidian distance and examined both the agglomeration schedule and the dendogram to determine the number of clusters [32]. The hierarchical agglomerative cluster approach allowed us to run the analyses without a predetermined number of clusters while minimizing the computational load [32]. We chose the squared Euclidian distance statistic to calculate the distance between cases because it allowed us to assess both the pattern and elevation of scores in question [32]. The agglomeration schedule was used to determine at what point two clusters were being combined that were too different to be combined into a homogenous group, as noted by the first large increase in coefficient values [32]. Dendograms were used to help determine which clusters were most similar to each other, with more similar clusters appearing together early on the left side of the plot, whereas those that were less similar being spaced further apart on the right side [32]. We reran the analyses utilizing multiple clustering methods, assessing for stability of the cluster solution, which held up over each method. Results presented are based on Ward’s method. Two clusters emerged from the analyses: an emotionally insecure group and emotionally secure group. To determine their differential patterns of responding to conflict, independent sample t-tests were conducted on key T1 emotional security variables. Results were consistent with the cluster analysis in identifying groups that differed in terms of emotional security versus insecurity at time one. Infants in the emotionally insecure group demonstrated significantly higher levels of distress, frustration, physical frustration, and dysregulation, compared to infants in the emotionally secure group. Assessing whether this pattern remained stable over time, independent sample t-tests were conducted on key T2 emotional security variables as a function of infants’ T1 differential response patterns (see Table 2). Infants who were initially classified in the emotionally insecure group demonstrated greater levels of mediation and aggression at T2 when preschoolers than those who had been classified as emotionally secure infants.
Means for emotional security variables at T1 and T2 as a function of differential responding patterns.
p < 0.05.
p < 0.01.
p < 0.001.
6.3 Aim 2: determine if infant emotional insecurity (T1) mediates between T1 interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment (T2)
To examine mediator effects of infant emotional security in relations between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment, we conducted a series of hierarchical regressions and followed procedures outlined by Baron and Kenny [33]. According to their guidelines, three necessary conditions must be met before testing mediator effects: (a) T1 interparental conflict must predict significant variance in preschooler’s adjustment problems, (b) interparental conflict must be significantly related to infant emotional insecurity, and (c) infant emotional insecurity must be significantly related to preschooler adjustment problems. These first criteria were established for conduct problems and prosocial behavior in both the correlations and the hierarchical regressions (see Table 3). Emotional insecurity was a significant predictor of both conduct problems and prosocial behavior after taking into account interparental conflict, β = 0.37, p < 0.05, and β = −0.64, p < 0.001, respectively. Because these conditions were met, the final step for testing mediation was conducted (i.e., testing whether the relation between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment is reduced or eliminated after the mediation effect of emotional insecurity has been taken into account). This step was also met. In the model predicting conduct problems without emotional insecurity entered, β = 0.42, p < 0.05 for interparental conflict, but when emotional insecurity was entered, β = 0.19, p > 0.05. In the model predicting prosocial behavior without emotional insecurity entered, β = −0.32, p < 0.05 for interparental conflict, but when emotional insecurity was entered, β = −0.18, p > 0.05. Moreover, to determine the significance of mediation, the indirect effects were calculated and tested for significance using Sobel’s (1982) test. Sobel’s [34] test indicated the mediation was significant for both conduct problems, z = 2.05 (0.36), p < 0.04, and for prosocial behavior, z = 3.76 (0.24), p < 0.001.
Hierarchical regressions predicting preschooler adjustment from T1 interparental conflict and emotional insecurity.
p < 0.05.
p < 0.01.
p < 0.001.
6.4 Aim 3: determine if infant emotional insecurity (T1) mediates between T1 interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment (T2) while simultaneously considering contemporaneous T2 emotional insecurity
To address Aim 3, path analyses examined the mediational effects of T1 emotional insecurity in the links between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment while simultaneously considering contemporaneous T2 emotional insecurity (Figures 1 and 2). Results for the first path model, considering prosocial behavior as the outcome, indicated an excellent fit with the data, χ2 (2, N = 38) = 0.11, p > 0.05, χ2/df ratio = 0.05. IFI = 1.0 CFI = 1.0, and RMSEA = 0.00. As hypothesized, T1 emotional insecurity remained a significant predictor of preschoolers’ prosocial behavior, even when simultaneously considering contemporaneous preschooler emotional insecurity. In fact, it was only T1 emotional security that was predictive of preschooler prosocial behavior in our model. Confidence intervals of the overall indirect effects of T1 interparental conflict on T2 preschooler prosocial behavior (95% CI: −0.114, −0.009) did not include zero, indicating significant indirect effects of T1 emotional insecurity. Results for the second path model, considering conduct problems as the outcome, indicated an excellent fit with the data, χ2 (2, N = 38) = 0.14, p > 0.05, χ2/df ratio = 0.07. IFI = 1.0 CFI = 1.0, and RMSEA = 0.00. As hypothesized, T1 emotional insecurity remained a significant predictor of preschoolers’ conduct problems, even when simultaneously considering contemporaneous preschooler emotional insecurity. T2 emotional security was also a significant predictor of preschoolers’ conduct problems. Confidence intervals of the overall indirect effects of T1 interparental conflict on T2 preschooler conduct problems (95% CI, 0.002, 0.102) did not include zero, indicating significant indirect effects of T1 emotional insecurity.
Figure 1.
Path analysis examining emotional insecurity at time points 1 and 2 as mediators of associations between interparental conflict and preschoolers’ prosocial behavior. *p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001.
Figure 2.
Path analysis examining emotional insecurity at time points 1 and 2 as mediators of associations between interparental conflict and preschoolers’ conduct problems. *p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001.
6.5 Alternative direct effects models
An alternative model, considering direct effects of interparental conflict on preschooler adjustment was also tested to see if it provided a better explanation for the data. First, an alternative direct effects model was tested for prosocial behavior. Comparing the two nested models, the chi-square difference test revealed the model allowing for direct effects did not fit better than the model with only indirect effects, χ2 (1, N = 38) = 0.04, χ2∆ = 0.07, 1df, p > 0.05. The path from interparental conflict to prosocial behavior was also nonsignificant, β = 0.02, p > 0.05. Next, an alternative direct effects model was tested for conduct problems. Comparing the two nested models, the chi-square difference test revealed the model allowing for direct effects did not fit better than the model with only indirect effects, χ2 (1, N = 38) = 0.04, χ2∆ = 0.07, 1df, p > 0.05. The path from interparental conflict to conduct problems was also nonsignificant, β = 0.02, p > 0.05.
7. Discussion
Addressing gaps in research on associations between infant emotional security and interparental conflict, the current study utilized strong, multimethod assessment procedures to examine the longitudinal associations between interparental conflict and emotional security during the infancy through preschooler developmental period. The current study was able to find support for each of our hypotheses.
A key contribution of our paper was the expansion of our understanding of the earliest beginnings of emotional security, coming from our findings supporting our first hypothesis. This study confirmed that children’s patterns of responding remain consistent longitudinally. When participants were categorized into clusters of emotionally secure and emotionally insecure, differential patterns occurred in responding to conflict. Time 1 emotionally insecure cluster showed higher levels of distress, frustration, physical frustration, and dysregulation compared to the emotionally secure cluster. The insecure group appeared to remain insecure through the preschool period, demonstrating higher levels of mediation and aggression than the secure group as preschoolers. These findings support the idea that emotional security is stable from infancy to preschool age; even when conflict changes in parents, the sense of insecurity holds stable. This is consistent with studies of older children that found similar stability in children’s responses to interparental conflict longitudinally [11, 19, 20]. This finding points to the importance of early emotional security development; interparental conflict has lasting impacts on children’s emotional security as early as infancy, not just older children as once perceived. Furthermore, the implication is that this type of stress on new and developing regulatory systems may push infants past their coping capabilities in early life and will then have lasting impacts as they grow older.
A second key contribution was our finding pertaining to emotional insecurity as a predictor of both conduct problems and prosocial behavior, after taking into account interparental conflict, supporting our second hypothesis. Furthermore, infant emotional security served as a significant mediator in the associations between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment. This shows that emotional security accounts for effects rather than conflict even at this young age of preschoolers. Thus, even at this young age, we can see more than simple direct effects of conflict. Children’s adjustment as preschoolers is being predicted not just by their exposure to conflict but by their psychological experiences and processing of it as infants, which has lingering associations even into preschooler years above and beyond the conflict itself. In particular, lower levels of emotional security were associated with lower levels of prosocial behavior and higher levels of conduct problems as preschoolers. One explanation for this may be that children with lower levels of emotional security may be depleted of their psychological resources as they attempt to cope with their insecurity [13]. Alternatively, emotional insecurity leaves children with more negative emotions and behavior (e.g., aggression and mediation in conflict) and more negative cognition in which they view the world as a less secure and stable place. Thus, children may be overgeneralizing their experiences at home into their other environments and responding in maladaptive ways with their own peers. These preschoolers are at high risk for further psychological problems as they develop. Previous research has prospectively linked emotional insecurity to depression, anxiety, peer problems, and conduct problems in adolescence [11].
Finally, the third primary contribution of our paper is documenting the lasting effects of infant emotional insecurity on child adjustment during this pivotal developmental period. Consistent with our third hypothesis, our findings demonstrated that infant emotional insecurity remained a significant mediator of preschoolers’ prosocial behavior and conduct behavior, even when simultaneously considering contemporaneous preschooler emotional insecurity. Thus, our findings underscore the importance of considering infancy as a sensitive period of emotional development that continues to have lasting effects, even overriding current family circumstances. A growing body of research highlights the devastating effects of adverse childhood events experienced during infancy and the profound enduring effects they can have on cognitive and emotional development, especially when parents are involved (e.g., [35, 36]).
7.1 Clinical implications
Our findings have several important implications for prevention and intervention. First, in terms of prevention, given the potential for stability of emotional insecurity from infancy through the preschool years, it is of heightened importance that parents be educated regarding the impact of their conflict on infants and try to avoid holding difficult and destructive conflict in front of or near their infants. Previous research, unfortunately, has indicated that parents do not seem to shield their children from destructive conflicts, and that their conflicts in front of their children appear to be similar to or worse than when their children are not present [25, 37]. Furthermore, for families experiencing heightened conflict histories or depression, there is a greater likelihood of displaying more destructive conflict in front of children than when alone [25]. Children from these families may be doubly taxed psychologically as they attempt to cope with family depression and conflict. Thus, getting out the message of shielding infants from conflict is particularly imperative as a preventative effort.
In terms of intervention, two issues are pertinent. The first pertains to assessment for preschoolers in need of treatment for conduct of peer-related issues. A careful assessment of both current and past family functioning, including interparental conflict, as well as children’s emotional insecurity is warranted. Although we do not currently have measures to retrospectively measure infant emotional insecurity, we can assess current emotional insecurity in conjunction with interparental conflict history and child exposure levels. Clinical judgment can help determine whether infant emotional security may have been an issue. Assessment of conflict and emotional insecurity is critical as our findings indicate they may play a role in preschooler peer problems and conduct problems. Second, in terms of intervention, if in fact emotional insecurity and interparental conflict are relevant issues in preschooler’s peer and conduct problems, therapists will need to take a family-based approach to address the problem. Parents may benefit from couples counseling and education about how to keep their children removed from the conflict. Education about how to restore children’s security will also be important. Providing a stable, secure, home environment with clear, consistent routines and helping parents provide consistent, sensitive, warm responses to their children, while still maintaining rules, supervision, and developmentally realistic expectations will be important [38]. At the infant level, this may entail extra calm, physical soothing to infants.
7.2 Limitations and future directions
These results support the longitudinal associations between interparental conflict and preschooler outcomes via emotional security; however, the correlational nature of this data prevents conclusions about causality. This study was limited by a small sample size, potentially impairing our power to detect effects. Participants were drawn from a fairly homogenous, middle-class, community sample and thus findings may differ from those among families seeking treatment or those from more diverse demographics; accordingly, readers should use caution in generalizing. Future studies utilizing larger, more diverse samples should replicate these results to gain more confidence in the findings.
These findings present a first step in identifying the nature of longitudinal emotional security during infancy to preschool years. Future studies should explore the underlying sources of negative parenting strategies and tension between parents that contribute to interparental conflict. Additionally, a study with a larger sample would have power to distinguish between types of conflict behaviors and address whether different types of destructive, depressive, or constructive conflict have different associations with emotional security in infancy and in preschoolers, which would also elucidate a clearer point of intervention. Finally, there are a range of related processes not considered here that merit examination in future work, such as infant temperament, parent-infant attachment, interadult attachment, and co-parenting quality and attitudes.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by internal research grants from Western Washington University awarded to Tina D. Du Rocher Schudlich.
\n',keywords:"emotional security, interparental conflict, infants, preschoolers, child adjustment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71437.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71437.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71437",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71437",totalDownloads:149,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"October 30th 2019",dateReviewed:"January 20th 2020",datePrePublished:"March 13th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 13th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Emotional security theory illustrates the significance of children’s reactions to interparental conflict as a mediator of the associations between interparental conflict and children’s well-being. Less is known about infants’ emotional security. The current study assessed the stability of emotional security over infancy through preschool years. We also assessed whether infant emotional insecurity mediated between interparental conflict during infancy and preschooler adjustment. Seventy-four families with infants aged 6–14 months participated at Time 1. Parents engaged in a conflict resolution task with their infants present. Families returned when children were 3–5 years old (Time 2). Families engaged in the same conflict resolution task and parents additionally completed the Strengths and Difficulty Questionnaire to assess preschooler adjustment. Cluster analyses revealed two classes of infants based on conflict responses at Time 1: secure and insecure. The insecure group demonstrated higher levels of distress, frustration, physical frustration, and dysregulation compared to the secure group. These classifications remained relatively stable over Times 1 and 2. Infant emotional security mediated associations between Time 1 interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment, even when considering preschooler emotional security. Our results highlight the lasting legacy of destructive conflict on infants’ still developing security systems.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71437",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71437",signatures:"Olivia Dorn and Tina D. Du Rocher Schudlich",book:{id:"9043",title:"Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Loredana Benedetto and Prof. Massimo Ingrassia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9043.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Emotional security theory",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Sensitization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. EST and infants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Current study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Participants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Procedures and measures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"5.2.1 Time 1 and 2 (T1, T2)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"5.2.2 Conflict",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"5.2.3 Emotional security",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.1 Data reduction and preliminary analyses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.2 Aim 1: assess the stability of ES over time",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.3 Aim 2: determine if infant emotional insecurity (T1) mediates between T1 interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment (T2)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.4 Aim 3: determine if infant emotional insecurity (T1) mediates between T1 interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment (T2) while simultaneously considering contemporaneous T2 emotional insecurity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.5 Alternative direct effects models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"7.1 Clinical implications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"7.2 Limitations and future directions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'El-Sheikh M, Erath SA. Family conflict, autonomic nervous system functioning, and child adaptation: State of the science and future directions. Development and Psychopathology. 2011;23:703-721'},{id:"B2",body:'Koss KJ, George MRW, Bergman KN, Cummings EM, Davies PT, Cicchetti D. Understanding children’s emotional processes and behavioral strategies in the context of marital conflict. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 2011;109:336-352'},{id:"B3",body:'Porter CL, Dyer WJ. Does marital conflict predict infants\' physiological regulation? A short-term prospective study. Journal of Family Psychology. 2017;31:475-484'},{id:"B4",body:'Davies PT, Sturge-Apple ML, Bascoe SM, Cummings EM. The legacy of early insecurity histories in shaping adolescent adaptation to interparental conflict. Child Development. 2013;85:338-354'},{id:"B5",body:'Du Rocher Schudlich TD, White C, Fleischhauer E, Fitzgerald K. Observed infant reactions during live interparental conflict. Journal of Marriage and Family. 2011;73:221-235'},{id:"B6",body:'Frankel LA, Umemura T, Jacobvitz D, Hazen N. Marital conflict and parental responses to infant negative emotions: Relations with toddler emotional regulation. Infant Behavior and Development. 2015;40:73-83'},{id:"B7",body:'Towe-Goodman NR, Stifter CA, Mills-Koonce WR, Granger DA, The Family Life Project Key Investigators. Interparental aggression and infant patterns of adrenocortical and behavioral stress responses. Developmental Psychobiology. 2012;54:685-699. DOI: 10.1002/dev.20618'},{id:"B8",body:'Belsky J, Rovine M. Patterns of marital change across the transition to parenthood: Pregnancy to three years postpartum. Journal of Marriage and Family. 1990;52:5-19'},{id:"B9",body:'Davies PT, Cummings EM. Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin. 1994;116:387-411'},{id:"B10",body:'Davies PT, Hentges RF, Coe JL, Martin MJ, Sturge-Apple ML, Cummings EM. The multiple faces of interparental conflict: Implications for cascades of children’s insecurity and externalizing problems. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2016;125:664-678'},{id:"B11",body:'Cummings EM, Koss K, Davies P. Prospective relations between family conflict and adolescent maladjustment: Security in the family as a mediating process. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 2015;43:503-515'},{id:"B12",body:'Warmuth K, Cummings EM, Davies P. Child behavioral dysregulation as a mediator between destructive marital conflict and children’s symptoms of psychopathology. Journal of Child and Family Studies. 2018;27:2004-2013'},{id:"B13",body:'Cummings EM, Davies PT. Marital Conflict and Children: An Emotional Security Perspective. New York: The Guilford Press; 2010'},{id:"B14",body:'Bergman K, Cummings EM, Davies P. Interparental aggression and adolescent adjustment: The role of emotional insecurity and adrenocortical activity. Journal of Family Violence. 2014;29:763-771'},{id:"B15",body:'Brock RL, Kochanska G. Interparental conflict, children’s security with parents, long-term risk of internalizing problems: A longitudinal study from ages 2 to 10. Development and Psychopathology. 2015;28:45-54'},{id:"B16",body:'Du Rocher Schudlich TD, Cummings EM. Parental Dysphoria and Children\'s internalizing symptoms: marital conflict styles as mediators of risk. Child Development. 2003;74:1663-1681'},{id:"B17",body:'Kopystynska O, Paschall KW, Barnett MA, Curran MA. Patterns of interparental conflict, parenting, and children’s emotional security: A person centered approach. Journal of Family Psychology. 2017;31:922-932'},{id:"B18",body:'McCoy KP, Cummings E, Davies PT. Constructive and destructive marital conflict, emotional security and children’s prosocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2009;50:270-279'},{id:"B19",body:'Cummings EM, Miller-Graff LE. Emotional security theory: An emerging theoretical model for youths’ psychological and physiological responses across multiple developmental contexts. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2015;24:208-213'},{id:"B20",body:'Davies PT, Martin MJ, Cummings EM. Interparental conflict and children’s social problems: Insecurity and friendship affiliation as cascading mediators. Developmental Psychology. 2018;54:83-97'},{id:"B21",body:'Davies PT, Sturge-Apple ML, Winter MA, Cummings EM, Farrell D. Child adaptational development in contexts of interparental conflict over time. Child Development. 2006;77:218-233'},{id:"B22",body:'Cummings EM, Zahn-Waxler C, Radke-Yarrow M. Young children’s responses to expressions of anger and affection by others in the family. Child Development. 1981;52:1274-1282'},{id:"B23",body:'Davies PT, Martin MJ, Cicchetti D. Delineating the sequelae of destructive and constructive interparental conflict for children within an evolutionary framework. Developmental Psychologt. 2012;48:939-955'},{id:"B24",body:'Davies PT, Coe JL, Martin MJ, Sturge-Apple, & Cummings, E. M. The developmental costs and benefits of children’s involvement in interparental conflict. Developmental Psychology. 2015;51:1026-1047'},{id:"B25",body:'Du Rocher Schudlich TD, Norman J, Du Nann B, Wharton A, Block M, Dachenhausen M, et al. Interparental conflicts in dyadic and triadic contexts: Parental depression symptoms and conflict history predict differences. Journal of Child and Family Studies. 2015;24:1047-1059'},{id:"B26",body:'Goodman R, Meltzer H, Bailey V. The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A pilot study on the validity of the self-report version. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1998;7:125-130'},{id:"B27",body:'Du Rocher Schudlich TD, Papp LM, Cummings EM. Relations of husbands’ and wives’ dysphoria to marital conflict resolution strategies. Journal of Family Psychology. 2004;18:171-183'},{id:"B28",body:'Grych JH, Fincham FD. Marital conflict and children\'s adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin. 1990;108:267-290'},{id:"B29",body:'Cummings EM, Goeke-Morey MC, Papp LM, Dukewich TL. Children’s responses to mothers’ and fathers’ emotionality and tactics in marital conflict in the home. Journal of Family Psychology. 2002;16:478-492'},{id:"B30",body:'Julien D, Markman HJ, Lindahl KM, Johnson HM, Van Widenfelt B. Interactional Dimensions Coding System. Denver, CO: University of Denver, Denver Center for Marital and Family Studies; 1987'},{id:"B31",body:'Cummings EM, Zahn-Waxler C, RadkeYarrow M. Developmental changes in children’s reactions to anger in the home. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 1984;25:63-74'},{id:"B32",body:'Yim O, Ramdeen KT. Hierarchical cluster analysis: Comparison of three linkage measures and application to psychological data. The Quantitative Methods for Psychology. 2015;11:8-21'},{id:"B33",body:'Baron RM, Kenny DA. The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1986;51:1173-1182'},{id:"B34",body:'Sobel ME. Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In: Leinhardt S, editor. Sociological Methodology. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association; 1982. pp. 290-312'},{id:"B35",body:'Landers MS, Sullivan RM. The development and neurobiology of infant attachment and fear. Developmental Neuroscience. 2012;34:101-114'},{id:"B36",body:'Opendak M, Sullivan R. Developmental consequences of trauma on brain Circuits. In: Chao MV, editor. The Oxford Handbook of Developmental Neural Plasticity. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2018'},{id:"B37",body:'Papp LM, Cummings EM, Goeke-Morey MC. Marital conflicts in the home when children are present versus absent. Developmental Psychology. 2002;38:774-783'},{id:"B38",body:'Johnson SM. Attachment Theory in Practice: Emotionally Focused Therapy with Individuals, Couples, and Families. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2019'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Olivia Dorn",address:null,affiliation:'
New Mexico State University, USA
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Tina D. Du Rocher Schudlich",address:"tina.schudlich@wwu.edu",affiliation:'
Department of Psychology, Western Washington University, USA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9043",title:"Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Loredana Benedetto and Prof. Massimo Ingrassia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9043.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"157228",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Liborio",email:"alexandreliborio@yahoo.com.br",fullName:"Alexandre Liborio",slug:"alexandre-liborio",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Fortaleza",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Disturbances in Acid-Base Balance in Patients on Hemodialysis",slug:"disturbances-in-acid-base-balance-in-patients-on-hemodialysis",abstract:null,signatures:"Alexandre Braga Libório and Tacyano Tavares Leite",authors:[{id:"157228",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"Liborio",fullName:"Alexandre Liborio",slug:"alexandre-liborio",email:"alexandreliborio@yahoo.com.br"}],book:{title:"Hemodialysis",slug:"hemodialysis",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"44943",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanislaw P. A.",surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-a.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. A. Stawicki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"46690",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Santos",slug:"paulo-santos",fullName:"Paulo Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/46690/images/2679_n.jpg",biography:"Paulo Roberto Santos, MD, PhD, graduated from the School of Medicine of the Fluminense Federal University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. He spent three years on medical residency in the area of nephrology at Servidores Hospital, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In the end of his medical residency, he was invited to coordinate the renal unit of Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Sobral Hospital, located in the city of Sobral, Ceará, northeastern Brazil, where he also began to teach at the local School of Medicine of Ceará Federal University. At this university, he is currently teaching semiology and nephrology, coordinating the disciplines of nephrology and urology, and responsible for medical internship program. His research focus is on psychological aspects of dialysis and indicators of mortality among dialysis patients. Regarding the last line of research, he is especially interested in the controversies about the toxicity of the erythropoiesis-stimulating agents, which are the cornerstone for the control of anaemia among dialysis patients.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal do Ceará",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"49421",title:"Prof.",name:"Eirini",surname:"Grapsa",slug:"eirini-grapsa",fullName:"Eirini Grapsa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"52276",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",surname:"Pantelias",slug:"konstantinos-pantelias",fullName:"Konstantinos Pantelias",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"53197",title:"Prof.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Fujioka",slug:"masaki-fujioka",fullName:"Masaki Fujioka",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53197/images/system/53197.png",biography:"Prof. Masaki Fujioka graduated from the Jichi Medical School-Six Year Medical Program in 1985. In 1998 he earned his Ph.D. degree from Nagasaki University, Graduate School of Medicine, Specialized in Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. \n\nFrom 2005 to 2010 he served as a Senior Assistant Professor of Plastic Surgery at Nagasaki University and from 2003 to 2011 as a research fellow at the Clinical Research Center, National Nagasaki Medical Center. Since 2011 he has been serving as a Clinical Professor of Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Nagasaki University and Director of Department of Surgical Therapeutics, Division of Functional Reconstructive Surgery at the National Hospital Organization Nagasaki Medical Center. Since 2003 he is also a Director of the Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, National Nagasaki Medical Center.\n\nHe is a member of the Japanese Society of Burn Injuries, Japan Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Japan Society of Craniomaxillofacial Surgery, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Japan Society of pressure Ulcer, Japan Society of Wound Surgery, Wound healing Society.\n\nHis research interests include: Clinical research of skin substitute, Clinical treatment of compromised wound healing, Treatment of severe burn injury, Repair of maxillofacial deformity, Microsurgery\n \nIn 1989\the received the First Prize of Investigators Award, Japan Community Medicine Association, in 1996 First Prize of Investigators Award, Japan Community Medicine Association, in 2008 Best Investigator Award, the Japanese Society of Pressure Ulcer, Oura Award, in 2010 Ohtsuka Award, the Japanese Society of Pressure Ulcer, and in 2011 Speaker’s Award: An appreciation for the best oral presentation-Clinics. First International Symposium. Pediatric Wound Care.",institutionString:"National Hospital Organization Nagasaki Medical Center",institution:null},{id:"56043",title:"Dr.",name:"Hernan",surname:"Trimarchi",slug:"hernan-trimarchi",fullName:"Hernan Trimarchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"157170",title:"Dr.",name:"Octavio",surname:"Salgado",slug:"octavio-salgado",fullName:"Octavio Salgado",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zulia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Venezuela"}}},{id:"157927",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Peterson",slug:"laura-peterson",fullName:"Laura Peterson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"157928",title:"Dr.",name:"Hooman",surname:"Khabiri",slug:"hooman-khabiri",fullName:"Hooman Khabiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"166321",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Litzendorf",slug:"maria-litzendorf",fullName:"Maria Litzendorf",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding-funders-list",title:"List of Funders by Country",intro:"
If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
",metaTitle:"List of Funders by Country",metaDescription:"If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-funding-funders-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117095},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1225",title:"Optical Physics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",parent:{title:"Optics and Lasers",slug:"optics-and-lasers"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:62,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:30,numberOfDimensionsCitations:47,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8350",title:"Fiber Optic Sensing",subtitle:"Principle, Measurement and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d35774b28952d3c4c4643b58dec25549",slug:"fiber-optic-sensing-principle-measurement-and-applications",bookSignature:"Shien-Kuei Liaw",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8350.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206109",title:"Dr.",name:"Shien-Kuei",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"shien-kuei-liaw",fullName:"Shien-Kuei Liaw"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7582",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"Novel Results in Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3ad4a3553a3ec59f7992d4f6495ac07",slug:"nonlinear-optics-novel-results-in-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Boris I. Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7582.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6599",title:"Small Angle Scattering and Diffraction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b1efb6a54c3fbdadd875f7bac0f6718",slug:"small-angle-scattering-and-diffraction",bookSignature:"Margareth K. K. D. Franco and Fabiano Yokaichiya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6599.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186337",title:"Dr.",name:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi",middleName:null,surname:"Dias Franco",slug:"margareth-kazuyo-kobayashi-dias-franco",fullName:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi Dias Franco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d982c49fed4423a0ea7367af4f917b82",slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"52294",doi:"10.5772/65118",title:"Photon-Upconverting Materials: Advances and Prospects for Various Emerging Applications",slug:"photon-upconverting-materials-advances-and-prospects-for-various-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:2387,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Manoj Kumar Mahata, Hans Christian Hofsäss and Ulrich Vetter",authors:[{id:"185891",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahata",slug:"manoj-kumar-mahata",fullName:"Manoj Kumar Mahata"},{id:"194423",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Hofsäss",slug:"hans-hofsass",fullName:"Hans Hofsäss"},{id:"194424",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulrich",middleName:null,surname:"Vetter",slug:"ulrich-vetter",fullName:"Ulrich Vetter"}]},{id:"52465",doi:"10.5772/65385",title:"Bioluminescent Fishes and their Eyes",slug:"bioluminescent-fishes-and-their-eyes",totalDownloads:1321,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"José Paitio, Yuichi Oba and Victor Benno Meyer-Rochow",authors:[{id:"185998",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Oba",slug:"yuichi-oba",fullName:"Yuichi Oba"},{id:"186175",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Lima Paitio",slug:"jose-rui-lima-paitio",fullName:"Jose Rui Lima Paitio"},{id:"202747",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor B.",middleName:null,surname:"Meyer-Rochow",slug:"victor-b.-meyer-rochow",fullName:"Victor B. Meyer-Rochow"}]},{id:"52672",doi:"10.5772/65185",title:"Luminescence in Rare Earth Ion‐Doped Oxide Compounds",slug:"luminescence-in-rare-earth-ion-doped-oxide-compounds",totalDownloads:2853,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Carlos Ruvalcaba Cornejo",authors:[{id:"186306",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Ruvalcaba",slug:"carlos-ruvalcaba",fullName:"Carlos Ruvalcaba"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52672",title:"Luminescence in Rare Earth Ion‐Doped Oxide Compounds",slug:"luminescence-in-rare-earth-ion-doped-oxide-compounds",totalDownloads:2853,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Carlos Ruvalcaba Cornejo",authors:[{id:"186306",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Ruvalcaba",slug:"carlos-ruvalcaba",fullName:"Carlos Ruvalcaba"}]},{id:"52133",title:"Excitation‐Intensity (EI) Effect on Photoluminescence of ZnO Materials with Various Morphologies",slug:"excitation-intensity-ei-effect-on-photoluminescence-of-zno-materials-with-various-morphologies",totalDownloads:1364,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Prasada Rao Talakonda",authors:[{id:"185838",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasada Rao",middleName:null,surname:"Talakonda",slug:"prasada-rao-talakonda",fullName:"Prasada Rao Talakonda"}]},{id:"52294",title:"Photon-Upconverting Materials: Advances and Prospects for Various Emerging Applications",slug:"photon-upconverting-materials-advances-and-prospects-for-various-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:2387,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Manoj Kumar Mahata, Hans Christian Hofsäss and Ulrich Vetter",authors:[{id:"185891",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahata",slug:"manoj-kumar-mahata",fullName:"Manoj Kumar Mahata"},{id:"194423",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Hofsäss",slug:"hans-hofsass",fullName:"Hans Hofsäss"},{id:"194424",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulrich",middleName:null,surname:"Vetter",slug:"ulrich-vetter",fullName:"Ulrich Vetter"}]},{id:"52293",title:"Luminescent Glass for Lasers and Solar Concentrators",slug:"luminescent-glass-for-lasers-and-solar-concentrators",totalDownloads:1465,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Meruva Seshadri, Virgilio de Carvalho dos Anjos and Maria Jose\nValenzuela Bell",authors:[{id:"185581",title:"Dr.",name:"Seshadri",middleName:null,surname:"Meruva",slug:"seshadri-meruva",fullName:"Seshadri Meruva"},{id:"193648",title:"Prof.",name:"Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"V",slug:"anjos-v",fullName:"Anjos V"},{id:"193649",title:"Prof.",name:"Bell",middleName:null,surname:"M.J.V",slug:"bell-m.j.v",fullName:"Bell M.J.V"}]},{id:"52173",title:"The Dynamics of Luminescence",slug:"the-dynamics-of-luminescence",totalDownloads:1456,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Luyanda L. Noto, Hendrik C. Swart, Bakang M. Mothudi, Pontsho S.\nMbule and Mokhotjwa S. Dhlamini",authors:[{id:"102985",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokhotswa",middleName:null,surname:"Dhlamini",slug:"mokhotswa-dhlamini",fullName:"Mokhotswa Dhlamini"}]},{id:"52465",title:"Bioluminescent Fishes and their Eyes",slug:"bioluminescent-fishes-and-their-eyes",totalDownloads:1321,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"José Paitio, Yuichi Oba and Victor Benno Meyer-Rochow",authors:[{id:"185998",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Oba",slug:"yuichi-oba",fullName:"Yuichi Oba"},{id:"186175",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Lima Paitio",slug:"jose-rui-lima-paitio",fullName:"Jose Rui Lima Paitio"},{id:"202747",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor B.",middleName:null,surname:"Meyer-Rochow",slug:"victor-b.-meyer-rochow",fullName:"Victor B. Meyer-Rochow"}]},{id:"52843",title:"Luminescence Dating: Applications in Earth Sciences and Archaeology",slug:"luminescence-dating-applications-in-earth-sciences-and-archaeology",totalDownloads:1913,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Ken Munyikwa",authors:[{id:"169465",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Munyikwa",slug:"ken-munyikwa",fullName:"Ken Munyikwa"}]},{id:"52119",title:"Bioluminescence Microscopy: Design and Applications",slug:"bioluminescence-microscopy-design-and-applications",totalDownloads:1131,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Hirobumi Suzuki, May-Maw-Thet, Yoko Hatta-Ohashi, Ryutaro\nAkiyoshi and Taro Hayashi",authors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki"}]},{id:"52697",title:"Luminescent Devices Based on Silicon-Rich Dielectric Materials",slug:"luminescent-devices-based-on-silicon-rich-dielectric-materials",totalDownloads:1178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Santiago A. Cabañas-Tay, Liliana Palacios-Huerta, Mariano Aceves-\nMijares, Antonio Coyopol, Sergio A. Pérez-García, Liliana Licea-\nJiménez, Carlos Domínguez and Alfredo Morales-Sánchez",authors:[{id:"102037",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariano",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves-Mijares",slug:"mariano-aceves-mijares",fullName:"Mariano Aceves-Mijares"},{id:"163153",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Licea Jiménez",slug:"liliana-licea-jimenez",fullName:"Liliana Licea Jiménez"},{id:"163154",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez García",slug:"sergio-alfonso-perez-garcia",fullName:"Sergio Alfonso Pérez García"},{id:"182012",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Sánchez",slug:"alfredo-morales-sanchez",fullName:"Alfredo Morales-Sánchez"},{id:"193642",title:"Dr.",name:"Santiago",middleName:null,surname:"Cabañas Tay",slug:"santiago-cabanas-tay",fullName:"Santiago Cabañas Tay"},{id:"193643",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Palacios",slug:"liliana-palacios",fullName:"Liliana Palacios"},{id:"193644",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Coyopol Solis",slug:"antonio-coyopol-solis",fullName:"Antonio Coyopol Solis"},{id:"193645",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Domínguez Horna",slug:"carlos-dominguez-horna",fullName:"Carlos Domínguez Horna"}]},{id:"51725",title:"The Impact of Luminescence in Technological Scale",slug:"the-impact-of-luminescence-in-technological-scale",totalDownloads:1346,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",authors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"74688",title:"Water Waves and Light: Two Unlikely Partners",slug:"water-waves-and-light-two-unlikely-partners",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95431",book:{title:"Nonlinear Optics - From Solitons to Similaritons"},signatures:"Georgios N. Koutsokostas, Theodoros P. Horikis, Dimitrios J. Frantzeskakis, Nalan Antar and İlkay Bakırtaş"},{id:"73289",title:"Soliton and Rogue-Wave Solutions of Derivative Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation - Part 2",slug:"soliton-and-rogue-wave-solutions-of-derivative-nonlinear-schr-dinger-equation-part-2",totalDownloads:68,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93450",book:{title:"Nonlinear Optics - From Solitons to Similaritons"},signatures:"Zhou Guo-Quan"},{id:"72855",title:"Emergence of Raman Peaks Due to Septic Nonlinearity in Noninstantaneous Kerr Media",slug:"emergence-of-raman-peaks-due-to-septic-nonlinearity-in-noninstantaneous-kerr-media",totalDownloads:55,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93179",book:{title:"Nonlinear Optics - From Solitons to Similaritons"},signatures:"Michel-Rostand Soumo Tchio, Saïdou Abdoulkary and Alidou Mohamadou"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:9},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/157228/alexandre-liborio",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"157228",slug:"alexandre-liborio"},fullPath:"/profiles/157228/alexandre-liborio",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()