Levels of fish domestication. Adapted from [8].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"216",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Stem Cells in Clinic and Research",title:"Stem Cells in Clinic and Research",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Based on our current understanding of cell biology and strong supporting evidence from previous experiences, different types of human stem cell populations are capable of undergoing differentiation or trans-differentiation into functionally and biologically active cells for use in therapeutic purposes. So far, progress regarding the use of both in vitro and in vivo regenerative medicine models already offers hope for the application of different types of stem cells as a powerful new therapeutic option to treat different diseases that were previously considered to be untreatable. Remarkable achievements in cell biology resulting in the isolation and characterization of various stem cells and progenitor cells has increased the expectation for the development of a new approach to the treatment of genetic and developmental human diseases. Due to the fact that currently stem cells and umbilical cord banks are so strictly defined and available, it seems that this mission is investigationally more practical than in the past. \nOn the other hand, studies performed on stem cells, targeting their conversion into functionally mature tissue, are not necessarily seeking to result in the clinical application of the differentiated cells; In fact, still one of the important goals of these studies is to get acquainted with the natural process of development of mature cells from their immature progenitors during the embryonic period onwards, which can produce valuable results as knowledge of the developmental processes during embryogenesis. For example, the cellular and molecular mechanisms leading to mature and adult cells developmental abnormalities are relatively unknown. This lack of understanding stems from the lack of a good model system to study cell development and differentiation. Hence, the knowledge reached through these studies can prove to be a breakthrough in preventing developmental disorders. Meanwhile, many researchers conduct these studies to understand the molecular and cellular basis of cancer development. The fact that cancer is one of the leading causes of death throughout the world, highlights the importance of these researches in the fields of biology and medicine.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-797-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6455-5",doi:"10.5772/740",price:169,priceEur:185,priceUsd:219,slug:"stem-cells-in-clinic-and-research",numberOfPages:818,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5a31b9aa4ace99ed56f02e53a74d068e",bookSignature:"Ali Gholamrezanezhad",publishedDate:"August 23rd 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/216.jpg",numberOfDownloads:127076,numberOfWosCitations:73,numberOfCrossrefCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:90,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:202,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 21st 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 18th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 25th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 24th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 23rd 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"29557",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Gholamrezanezhad",slug:"ali-gholamrezanezhad",fullName:"Ali Gholamrezanezhad",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Ali Gholamrezanezhad is a fellow of the European Board on Nuclear Medicine (FEBNM), with research experiences at Johns Hopkins University and University Klinikum Bonn (Germany). He is also a Senior Investigator (Research Institute for Nuclear Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences), Editorial Board Member of Rare Tumors, Anatolian Journal of Cardiology, Journal of Thoracic Disease, Eastern Journal of Medicine and Reviewer of Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery, Iranian Journal of Nuclear Medicine, Anatolian Journal of Cardiology, Plasma Chemistry and Plasma Processing, etc. Dr. Gholamrezanezhad has published 84 peer reviewed papers with experiences on stem cell imaging, such as:\n\nIn vivo tracking of 111In-Oxine labeled mesenchymal stem cells following infusion in Patients with advanced cirrhosis. Nuclear Medicine and Biology.\nLetter to the Editor: Emerging Approaches for Cardiovascular Stem Cell Imaging. Current Cardiovascular Imaging Reports.\nCytotoxicity of 111In-Oxine on Mesenchymal Stem Cells: A Time Dependent Adverse Effect. Nuclear Medicine Communications.\nIs there any benefit in generating thyrocyte from stem cell? Polish Journal of Endocrinology.\nThe first experience of stem cell labeling in Iran using 111In-Oxine. Iranian J Nucl Med.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Johns Hopkins University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"990",title:"Stem Cell Research",slug:"medicine-cell-biology-stem-cell-research"}],chapters:[{id:"18217",title:"Stem Cells: General Features and Characteristics",doi:"10.5772/23755",slug:"stem-cells-general-features-and-characteristics",totalDownloads:9740,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Hongxiang Hui, Yongming Tang, Min Hu and Xiaoning 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A Story About Cardiac Stem Cells",doi:"10.5772/22178",slug:"are-we-there-yet-a-story-about-cardiac-stem-cells",totalDownloads:2679,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Shizuka Uchida, Piera De Gaspari and Thomas Braun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18225",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18225",authors:[{id:"32665",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Braun",slug:"thomas-braun",fullName:"Thomas Braun"},{id:"33312",title:"Dr.",name:"Shizuka",surname:"Uchida",slug:"shizuka-uchida",fullName:"Shizuka Uchida"},{id:"33313",title:"Dr.",name:"Piera",surname:"De Gaspari",slug:"piera-de-gaspari",fullName:"Piera De Gaspari"}],corrections:null},{id:"18226",title:"Stem Cell Therapy in Myocardial Infarction Clinical Point of View and the Results of the REANIMA Study (REgenerAtion of Myocardium with boNe Marrow Mononuclear Cells in MyocArdial Infarction)",doi:"10.5772/17700",slug:"stem-cell-therapy-in-myocardial-infarction-clinical-point-of-view-and-the-results-of-the-reanima-stu",totalDownloads:2696,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Slobodan Obradovic, Bela Balint and Zoran Trifunovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18226",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18226",authors:[{id:"29171",title:"Prof.",name:"Slobodan",surname:"Obradovic",slug:"slobodan-obradovic",fullName:"Slobodan Obradovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"18227",title:"Randomized Clinical Trials in Stem Cell Therapy for the Heart - Old and New Types of Cells for Cardiovascular Repair",doi:"10.5772/22377",slug:"randomized-clinical-trials-in-stem-cell-therapy-for-the-heart-old-and-new-types-of-cells-for-cardiov",totalDownloads:3327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ricardo Sanz-Ruiz, Adolfo Villa Arranz, Enrique Gutiérrez Ibañes, María Eugenia Fernández Santos, Pedro Luis Sánchez Fernández and Francisco Fernández-Avilés",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18227",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18227",authors:[{id:"47483",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Sanz-Ruiz",slug:"ricardo-sanz-ruiz",fullName:"Ricardo Sanz-Ruiz"},{id:"47701",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",surname:"Villa",slug:"adolfo-villa",fullName:"Adolfo Villa"},{id:"47702",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Gutiérrez",slug:"enrique-gutierrez",fullName:"Enrique Gutiérrez"},{id:"47703",title:"Dr.",name:"María Eugenia",surname:"Fernádez",slug:"maria-eugenia-fernadez",fullName:"María Eugenia Fernádez"},{id:"47704",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro Luis",surname:"Sánchez",slug:"pedro-luis-sanchez",fullName:"Pedro Luis Sánchez"},{id:"47705",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Fernández-Avilés",slug:"francisco-fernandez-aviles",fullName:"Francisco Fernández-Avilés"}],corrections:null},{id:"18228",title:"Autologous Stem Cells for Cardiac Repair: New Insights on Clinical Trial Safety and Best Cell Source",doi:"10.5772/22773",slug:"autologous-stem-cells-for-cardiac-repair-new-insights-on-clinical-trial-safety-and-best-cell-source",totalDownloads:2364,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Nicolas Noiseux, Louis Mathieu Stevens, Jessica Forcillo and Samer Mansour",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18228",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18228",authors:[{id:"49146",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",surname:"Noiseux",slug:"nicolas-noiseux",fullName:"Nicolas Noiseux"},{id:"51323",title:"Dr.",name:"Louis Mathieu",surname:"Stevens",slug:"louis-mathieu-stevens",fullName:"Louis Mathieu Stevens"},{id:"51324",title:"Dr.",name:"Samer",surname:"Mansour",slug:"samer-mansour",fullName:"Samer Mansour"},{id:"85938",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica",surname:"Forcillo",slug:"jessica-forcillo",fullName:"Jessica Forcillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"18229",title:"Stem Cell Transplantation for the Treatment of Peripheral Arterial Disease",doi:"10.5772/20138",slug:"stem-cell-transplantation-for-the-treatment-of-peripheral-arterial-disease",totalDownloads:2573,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Nikolaos Papanas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18229",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18229",authors:[{id:"37582",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Papanas",slug:"nikolaos-papanas",fullName:"Nikolaos Papanas"}],corrections:null},{id:"18230",title:"Myogenic Potential of Murine Embryonic Stem Cells in the Dmdmdx Mouse Model for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy",doi:"10.5772/24598",slug:"myogenic-potential-of-murine-embryonic-stem-cells-in-the-dmdmdx-mouse-model-for-duchenne-muscular-dy",totalDownloads:2229,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Danielle Ayub-Guerrieri, Poliana C. 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One of the first domesticated animals was the goat (
Although the usual interpretation of animal domestication has been related to genetic changes induced by artificial selection [9], developmental effects have been gathering more interest recently due to the increasing number of domesticated species and purposes of captive breeding [1]. These developmental responses are especially important in fishes because they present remarkably high levels of phenotypic plasticity, much more than terrestrial vertebrates [10, 11]. In Sections 2.1 and 3.1 of the current text, we will dive deeper into these matters. But in fact, this plasticity allows fish to adapt their phenotype to rearing conditions, which, taking into account their recent domestication process, makes fish domestication a controversial issue: although there is variation in morphology, physiology and genetics between farmed fish species and their wild conspecifics [12, 13, 14], it is generally much lower than between terrestrial farm animals and their wild counterparts [4, 9, 11, 12]. Nevertheless, it is mostly established that fish farmed under well-managed systems (i.e. that provide conditions that enhance growth and survival while supplying the correct nutrition regimes for the species) can maximise growth to nearly their physiological maximum, suffer lower mortality rates than in the wild and are usually less prone to infectious diseases [10].
The domestication process tends to produce a coherent set of behavioural, morphological and physiological changes that are similar in many species. A typical domesticated phenotype of a species could therefore be summarised as differing from its wild ancestor in having a different colour (probably being brighter or spotted); being brachycephalic, chondrodystrophic and smaller; having a reduced brain size, earlier sexual maturation and increased reproduction; with a faster and more flexible development; and being less fearful, more sociable, and more risk-prone towards predators. This is a recurrent trait complex that suggests that it may represent a general adaptation pattern to captivity and domestication [1, 15]. Throughout this chapter, we will review these changes and if and how they can affect the welfare of farmed fish.
The domestication of farmed fish is therefore not straightforward, as it depends on the definition of domestication, and how literally that definition is applied to each case. To tackle this difficulty, some authors proposed that domestication in fish should be considered as a process, with progressive stages summarised in Table 1 [8].
Domestication level | Description | Examples from FishEthoBase (see Section 4 for a description) |
---|---|---|
1 | Acclimatisation to the culture environment | Malabar trevally ( Yellowback sea bream ( Spotted sea bass ( |
2 | Part of the life cycle is completed in captivity, but several important bottlenecks still exist in others (e.g. reproduction, larval rearing, etc.) | Wreckfish ( Yellowtail amberjack ( Greater amberjack ( |
3 | The entire life cycle is closed in captivity, but with wild inputs | Pangasius ( Southern bluefin tuna ( Burbot ( Atlantic halibut ( Senegalese sole ( Turbot ( |
4 | The entire life cycle is closed in captivity without wild inputs, but no selective breeding programme is used | Atlantic cod ( Cobia ( Meagre ( African catfish ( Russian sturgeon ( Adriatic sturgeon ( |
5 | Selective breeding programme is used focusing on specific goals (growth rate, fillet yield, flesh quality, etc.) | Common carp ( Nile Tilapia ( Gilthead seabream ( European seabass ( Atlantic salmon ( Rainbow trout ( Siberian sturgeon ( |
Throughout this chapter and for streamlining purposes, we will adopt the nomenclature given by the authors of the papers cited (e.g. domesticated, artificially selected, strain, etc.), regardless of the stage they appear to be in the classification proposed in Table 1.
Definitions of welfare generally vary between the function-based and the feelings-based approaches [16]. Function-based approaches look more into the biological, physiological and overall health perspective of the animal [17]. Feelings-based approaches, on the other hand, link welfare with the emotional (or emotional-like) state of the animal [18] and define welfare in a longer term as the balance between positive and negative subjective experiences [19]. While the first approach might may be too narrow (e.g. a man in prison may be in perfect health and still be experiencing terrible welfare) and the second too wide (how to measure it?), a behavioural approach may solve the question of incorporating both physiological and mental indicators. Even more, it operationalizes the concept and allows objective measures of welfare [16]. In that sense, we may define welfare as the state of the individual as it copes with the environment [20]. This definition of welfare has several implications: (i) welfare is a characteristic of an animal, not something that is given to it; (ii) welfare will vary from very bad to very good, i.e. along a welfare continuum; (iii) welfare can be measured independently of ethical considerations; (iv) measures of failure and difficulty to cope with the environment give information about how poor the welfare is; (v) knowledge on the biology and life-history of an animal provide essential information about suitable rearing conditions, but direct measurements of the state of the animal must also be used to assess its welfare; and (vi) coping mechanisms may vary among different species, and there are several consequences of failure to cope. Therefore, any one of a variety of measures can indicate that welfare is bad, and the fact that one measure, such as growth, is normal does not mean that welfare is good [21].
In order to understand the effects of artificial selection on welfare-related traits, we must first address natural selection. Although selection acts on differences in survival and reproductive success between individual organisms, or phenotypes, what changes during evolution is the relative frequency of genes. Therefore, Darwin’s theory in modern terms may be stated as follows:
All organisms have genes coding for proteins and regulating the development of everything in the organism, including the nervous system, muscles and structure of the individual—and so influence its behaviour.
Within a population, most genes are present in two or more forms, or alleles, which code for slightly different forms of the same protein or determine when, where and how much of the protein is expressed. These will cause differences in development and function, and so there will be variation within a population.
Any allele that results in more surviving copies of itself than its alternative will eventually replace the alternative form in the population. Natural selection is the differential survival of alternative alleles through their effects on replication success.
The individual can be regarded as a temporary vehicle or survival machine by which genes survive and replicate [22]. Because selection of genes is mediated through phenotypes, the most successful genes will usually be those that are most effective in enhancing an individual’s survival and reproductive success [23].
The actual basis of selection processes is variation, which is widespread in all biological phenomena. Variations within species are called polymorphisms, and these are (at least partly) independent of ontogeny and sex. This variation is genetically based and heritable [24]. Conversely, phenotypic plasticity can be broadly defined as (i) the ability of one genotype to produce more than one phenotype when exposed to different environments, (ii) the modification of developmental events by the environment or (iii) the ability of an individual organism to alter its phenotype in response to changes in environmental conditions [25]. Domesticated strains (lineages or populations that have been under artificial selection for generations and that, at least empirically, seem to differ from its wild origin) rely on natural polymorphisms to be selected: for example, present-day domesticated goats are the product of 10,000 years of artificial selection on breeders for specific traits in meat, milk and fur, as well as of natural selection for fitness under variable conditions [3]; fast growing Atlantic salmon (
Although the gap between the time domestication has been underway in terrestrial farm animals and in farmed fish is enormous, there has been a considerable effort towards fish domestication in recent times [4]. However, the main component in the domestication process is the generation interval (i.e. the average age of the parent animals at the birth of their offspring—note that this is
Comparison between the generation intervals in terrestrial farm animals (white bars) and fishes (grey bars).
While pig (
In the artificial conditions provided by human farming activities, it is likely that the most successful phenotypes of farmed animals are different from those under natural conditions. However, that does not mean that these selected phenotypes carry differential genotypes, especially due to phenotypic plasticity which is remarkably relevant in fish: different populations of the same species present contrasting yet plastic behavioural responses to environmental and social conditions [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. Nevertheless, artificial selection experiments demonstrate that almost any quantitative trait could be permanently altered, that responses (mostly) occurred as a consequence of changes in the frequencies of genes affecting the traits, and not from mutations, and that many genes must be involved [39, 40].
In livestock species, genetic selection has greatly increased production levels. Usually, the breeding goal is to create a population with high economic production efficiency, i.e. high production combined with relatively low feed intake. Breeding programs have become quite successful because of the high accuracy of breeding value estimation, the moderate to high heritabilities of most production traits and the use of large and fast databases containing production records of many animals and their genetic relationships. Apart from genetic changes, production is also increased by improvement of housing, feed composition, feeding strategies, health status and farm management.
However, negative side-effects of domestication largely occur and are expected to increase when the focus continues to be only on production efficiency. Animals in a population that has been genetically selected for high production efficiency seem to be more at risk for behavioural, physiological, immunological, reproductive and consequently welfare problems [41]. This occurs because behavioural traits, as well as the other typical components of the domestication phenotype (growth, stress, immune function, etc.), are most likely controlled by many genes, i.e. they are polygenic [15]. In addition, a given set of genes may influence different traits, a mechanism known as pleiotropy [42]. In such a case, increasing the frequency of alleles that, for example, up-regulate growth, may at the same time modify other essential welfare-related traits under the influence of the same genes. Finally, the function of one gene may also be influenced by the interaction with other genes, which is known as epistasis [43]. Selection for one or a few traits controlled by genes that have epistatic effects may thus influence a group of other genes, regulating other characters than those selected for. Therefore, both mechanisms (pleiotropy and epistasis) are more than likely to create side-effects on traits that are not desirable [15]. In fact, when animals are selected for production traits mainly, many side-effects have been extensively documented in several species [41]. Some of these side-effects will even affect production itself, such as reduced fertility in fast- growing broilers [41], and are likely to be the target of counter-selection. In other cases, the side-effects may be related to less-obvious traits which may nevertheless have a strong welfare aspect [44] because they shift welfare optima towards unknown directions. These processes have occurred in land animals throughout their domestication. However, the slow and long domestication process on land has allowed both humans and many livestock species to adapt and cope with such effects. Conversely, the low number of generations in the rapidly increasing, diverse and generally very recent fish farming activity may be too short to permit this adaption in aquatic species.
Changes in the phenotypes of selected farmed fish usually correlate with changes in physiological indicators. For example, when comparing seventh-generation farmed Atlantic salmon with wild individuals, the domesticated fish grow much faster (even more so in salt water where the difference is threefold), pituitary and plasma growth hormone levels were positively correlated with growth rate and significantly higher in the domesticated strain [45]. The same occurs with strains of Brook trout (
For many physiological indicators such as those listed below, selected strains of farmed fish fail to show positive results:
From the available data on these indicators, it is not clear whether the current domestication process brings any obvious and effective physiological welfare benefits.
As occurs with terrestrial farm animals, the environment experienced by cultured fishes highly differs from the wild [14, 66, 67]: the physical environment is much simpler, space is restricted, and migration is not possible; food is readily available so long distance tracking of food is unnecessary; there are generally fewer or no predators (apart from human), and they are treated for some diseases. For parent animals, reproduction occurs without the need to compete for mates as it is often the case in the wild. In these aspects, the environment is overall less challenging. In others, however, it is more challenging: fishes are frequently disturbed by human activity, they are usually confined at unnatural densities, which potentially increases the risk of infection and the incidence of social encounters, including aggressive ones, especially when competing for food. The hatchery environment is so different from that experienced in nature that it can potentially generate behavioural differences in three, interlinked ways: (1) differential experience, (2) differential mortality and survival of behavioural phenotypes within a single generation and (3) selection for inherited behavioural traits over several generations [68]. In fact, usual conditions in intensive husbandry favour risk-taking/aggressive fish, as available data suggests that competition for food is major driver for high-risk/high-aggression phenotypes [69]. Hatchery-reared fish are more prone to show higher risk-taking behaviour, which is directly linked with a higher risk of escapes from rearing systems (as in the case of sea cages) [70], and may severely decrease their chances of survival in the wild. Consequently, this leads to a wide range of welfare, environmental and economic consequences. Domesticated strains of guppies (
Despite the consistency of the farming environment, different coping styles (e.g. consistent trait associations such as proactive, active coping or bold, and reactive, passive coping or shy) do emerge in farmed fish [72]. The proactive/reactive continuum has been identified in most farmed species and it should be a factor to consider when designing and evaluating production systems. However, the aquaculture industry selects mostly for growth performance [73] and proactive fish grow faster [74]. Consequently, there is a theoretical infinite selection for proactive and aggressive individuals in fish farming. This creates an obvious welfare problem that can only be solved by a deep understanding of the biology of the species as well as through the design of appropriate and diverse farming environments, which can accommodate different coping styles, even at the expense of lower production outputs [72]. In addition to coping styles, there is another source of intrinsic variability in animals that is phenotypic plasticity, best explained by behavioural reaction norms (BRN, i.e. the set of behavioural phenotypes that a single individual produces in a given set of environments) [75]. The BRN may actually be calculated, and it incorporates information on how an animal behaves on average and how its behaviour changes over a gradient, specifying the precise form of the relationship between response value and environmental condition. The relationships between food provisioning rate and begging intensity, between dispersal behaviour and current velocity, or between anti-predator behaviour and predation risk are all examples of BRNs. This approach treats both inter-individual and intra-individual variance in behaviour as meaningful (rather than as ‘noise’) [76].
The implications of the domestication process on the behavioural perspective of welfare are therefore far from simple. Behavioural changes due to generations in captivity do seem to occur but (1) they are accompanied by physiological and cognitive modifications that are challenging to accommodate in good welfare, and (2) while the behavioural phenotypes of wild fish are adaptive and selected throughout stable evolutionary pressures, captive phenotypes are responding to extremely different settings that are artificially rapid and that can often push welfare needs into collision with traits required for production.
The available evidence, however, is largely based on data from salmonids. These species are nonetheless far from representing the majority of production of finfish in global aquaculture: Atlantic salmon ranks seventh in production worldwide with approximately 2.4 million tonnes in 2015 (less than half of the production of the #1, Grass carp (
Fish are an extraordinary group of animals. Our ‘underwater cousins’, as Jonathan Balcombe describes them in his book
In fact, there are likely to be substantial differences in fish sensory systems compared with a terrestrial animal due to differing ecological and evolutionary pressures [81]. The term
Light behaves differently underwater than at the surface and can be influenced by physical and biological factors. Depth can modulate the wavelength (i.e. the colour), while intensity and scatter can be modified by turbidity and suspended particle type. These can also change rapidly with daytime, season or weather conditions. Furthermore, species have different visual systems depending on their life-history (e.g. predators that rely on visual cues for feeding, fishes that are common preys and must remain vigilant for evasion) or even within life stages (e.g. larvae that live in the depths and move to shallower depth when they grow, species with ocean juveniles and freshwater adults). These environmental changes represent huge selective pressures for the radiation of visual systems in fish. Not surprisingly, there is an enormous variety not only in the type of eyes that can be found in fish [83], but also in the brain structures that process visual information [84].
Chemical senses serve an essential ecological role and are extremely relevant in communication contexts in all groups of fish (cyclostomes, elasmobranchs and teleosts). They enable orientation in the dark or blurry waters, predation, foraging and escape from predators for example [85]. Chemical sensing also serves intra-specific communication, allowing males and females to find suitable partners [86], as well as competitors to assess and announce their status in agonistic contexts, which are solved much quicker and less violently thanks to ‘chemical diplomacy’ [87, 88]. Chemical sensing in fish exists in three modalities: olfaction, solitary chemosensory cells and taste. Olfaction may function at a larger distance for all the roles described above, and olfactory receptors are usually located in the nostrils on the most anterior part of the head. Taste cells are usually limited to very close range detection of foodstuffs and are located in the head and mouth [85]. In most predatory fishes, the taste system is used solely during oral food evaluation [89]. Solitary chemosensory cells are not well described yet but may serve as food, predator or conspecific locators, spread throughout the body of the animal [85].
In all fishes, sound is detected by one or more of the otolith organs. As sound passes through a fish and brings its tissues into motion, the otoliths respond to sound-induced motions of the animal’s body. In many fish species, named hearing specialists, the otoliths may also receive a displacement input from the swimbladder or another gas-filled chamber near the ears. These fishes may respond to both acoustic pressure and particle motion with a particularly efficient coupling between the gas bladder and the otolith organs and tend to have very high sensitivity to sound [80].
In addition, fishes have evolved a diversity of sound-generating organs. These include vibrating the swimbladder and pectoral girdle or rubbing bony elements against each other. Sounds are produced in various behavioural contexts (agonistic interactions, courtship, spawning and in distress). Similarly to chemical communication, acoustic signals may serve in decreasing aggression, assessment of the fighting abilities, species recognition, mate attraction and mate choice [90].
The aquatic environment influences basic perception and adaptation to damage in fishes: for example, they cannot fall because of buoyancy in the water column and this prevents injury due to gravity; noxious chemicals entering the aquatic environment may be diluted and thus pose a lower risk; and major shifts in temperature are less common compared with terrestrial environments. This could mean fishes experience less risk of damage than terrestrial animals, and it may be reflected in their nociceptive system [81]. In fact, although receptors for damaging stimuli have been found in all fish groups, and fishes possess neuroanatomical pathways comparable to those found in other vertebrate groups, there are interesting differences that reveal adaptions to evolutionary pressures: for example, rainbow trout nociceptors are not activated in low temperatures, because they live in cold water [91], but they are more sensitive to mechanical stimuli than mammals, probably because their skin is more fragile, and to heat, probably because they live in temperatures usually not above to 25°C [92]. The Chameleon cichlid (
Interestingly, the same groups of substances that reduce pain in humans (opioids, anti-inflammatory drugs and local anaesthetics) are also effective in reducing behavioural and physiological indicators of discomfort in teleosts, which is indicative of similar sensing mechanisms [81].
There are sensory systems in fish that are completely alien to us. The lateral line for example, which serves as a receptor for hydrodynamic stimuli such as those generated by conspecifics, predators or prey. Although the biological processing of hydrodynamic signals has been well studied, not much is known about how fish can discern these from natural occurring events [94]. As all fishes experience night, darkness or turbid waters, there is strong selection for the use of non-visual senses in all fish species. Anatomical diversity suggests that the lateral line is one of the most important senses for fishes. However, research on the function of the lateral line has lagged due to poor understanding of hydrodynamics at small scales and lack of this sense in humans, making it difficult to imagine a fish’s hydromechanical world [95]. Electrical sensing is ancestral to fishes and is present in most non-teleosts as well as certain teleost species. The electrosensory world of fishes is rich with electric fields from a multitude of sources including the earth’s magnetic field and the bodies of all aquatic organisms including the electrosensing fish itself. The fish’s extremely high sensitivity to these fields enables orientation, navigation, communication, and even detection and localization of other fish, both prey and conspecifics [96, 97, 98]. Figure 2 summarises the sensory world of fish.
The sensory worlds of fish.
Not only the sensory world of fishes is difficult to relate to, but also the physics of movement underwater in a three-dimensional world can be challenging to understand for humans, who exist roughly in a 2D world. Despite this challenge, it is nonetheless a critical next step for the understanding of fish locomotion, and the design of appropriate rearing systems. The 3D nature of fish functional design is clearly demonstrated in the enormous diversity of body shapes and swimming modes in fishes [99].
Other physical properties of water affect fish in a different way than dry land does to farm animals: for example, water is a dense medium, so fish are constrained by hydrodynamic demands and fast swimming can be costly; gases dissolve readily in water, but moving water for oxygen extraction is energetically costly; many other chemicals readily dissolve and disperse in water.
In order to adapt to such a different medium, fishes not only develop the extraordinary sensory systems we have discussed above, but also show many amazing morphological and physiological adaptations, that can strongly determine welfare needs: they may undergo dramatic changes in form and function across life stages, as in the case of flatfishes [100]; unlike mammals but in common with birds, fish red blood cells are nucleated, giving them additional functions including immune responses [68]; fish grow continuously [101], influencing their relation with space and density across time; most species excrete ammonia (which is highly toxic, especially in aquaculture conditions [102]) while land animals excrete urea [103]. Finally, fish have more genes, more gene variability and more gene duplicates than terrestrial animals [104, 105].
To summarise, the extraordinary features of the aquatic environment, the exotic adaptations of fish and their
Welfare in aquaculture has been a motive of academic work in the recent past. Several authors have addressed the topic in reviews and research papers [16, 68, 108, 109, 110], and the COST action
In recent years, the FishEthoBase project (http://fishethobase.net) has been working in order to bridge the gap even further between the scientific community and the fish farming industry. This open-access database on fish ethology and welfare provides a platform where scientific knowledge is scrutinised and summarised in order to answer relevant criteria regarding welfare in aquatic animal farming. The aim is to cover all fishes farmed nowadays as well as other aquatic species, delivering concrete solutions for fish farmers, pointing to knowledge gaps for researchers and providing awareness for the general public and other stakeholders. This is accomplished in two ways: (1) full profiles of farmed species, where over 40 criteria and sub-criteria on ethology, but also ecology, physiology and general biology are reviewed in-depth according to the scientific literature. Based on these findings, a series of recommendations are proposed to address identified welfare issues in aquaculture; (2) short profiles of farmed species, where a sharp evaluation of 10 critical criteria is performed, covering ecological, behavioural and physiological traits transversal to all fish species: home and depth range, migration, reproduction, aggregation, aggression, habitat type, stress, malformations and slaughter. In addition, sustainable feeding and domestication are also addressed. These 10 criteria are answered using a welfare assessment protocol based on standardised risk analysis methods. For each species, this protocol provides (i) a comparison between the wild behaviour and the fish welfare state under conventional farming conditions, (ii) the overall welfare potential and (iii) the certainty of our findings. The sum of high scores of each species in these three measures throughout all 10 criteria results in the FishEthoScore, an index that summarises the general welfare state of the species. As occurs with all indexes, the FishEthoScore incurs the risk of oversimplifying a complex array of data concerning welfare. However, by asking the same questions to (ultimately) all farmed fish species, it offers a unique possibility not only for a comparative approach, but also for a global perspective on which species may be farmed most humanely. This is apparently the first effort to create such a welfare assessment scheme for aquaculture, and it may constitute a decisive step for a near-future welfare certification in the industry.
The concept of the Five Freedoms was coined in 1965 in the Brambell Report [112] concerning husbandry of livestock and revised by the Farm Welfare Council of the UK in 1979 into its present form [113]:
Freedom from hunger and thirst—by ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigour;
Freedom from discomfort—by providing an appropriate environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area;
Freedom from pain, injury or disease—by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment;
Freedom to express normal behaviour—by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animal’s own kind;
Freedom from fear and distress—by ensuring conditions and treatment that avoid mental suffering.
This concept forms the basis of recommendations and legislations worldwide and, despite their age, are extensively employed for academic, educational and veterinary purposes with great practical utility [113]. Also, they paved the way so that animals could be considered by European law as sentient beings in the Lisbon Treaty of 2007 [114].
Research on animal sentience, situated between ethology and psychology, was initiated by ethologists such as Dawkins [115, 116] and cognitive psychologists such as Toates [117], around the early 1980’s. These studies allowed a deeper understanding of animal minds and depicted how animals perceive the world and how environmental stimuli may affect their welfare level. Most importantly, they opened the door to the understanding of animal’s subjective experiences. These experiences may be positive and negative, and the latter include suffering, which is fundamentally a wide range of unpleasant emotional (or emotion-like) states. Negative experiences occur when unpleasant subjective feelings are acute or continue for a long time when an animal is unable to carry out the actions that would normally reduce risks to life and reproduction in those circumstances [115, 118].
The five freedoms concept is nonetheless criticised. Some authors claim that this framework is overly guided by anthropocentric thinking about how animals ought to be handled, neglects the concept of allostasis (stability through change) and generally reflects a more ethical view than a science-based approach [119]. The concept may be misleading on, for example, stress and stress indicators such as cortisol [120], because it is well known that stress hormones are also involved in healthy adaptation [121, 122, 123]. Capacity to change, allostasis and biologically relevant challenges are crucial for good health and welfare, therefore stable conditions and homeostasis should not be considered optimal [119, 124]. As discussed in Section 3, phenotypes that are selected exclusively for production traits often show signs of structural and morphological imbalance. This occurs because symmorphosis (i.e. a match between structural design and functional demand) is disrupted [125]. In many farm animals (e.g. broiler chickens or heavily selected strains of trout), the structural design of internal organs does not match functional demand [48, 126]. This imbalance is responsible for many health problems in farm animals.
The Concept of Animal Welfare based on Allostasis aims to be an alternative to the Five Freedoms. It incorporates recent scientific developments in behavioural physiology and neurobiology and can be summarised as follows [119]:
Stability through change (allostasis) and capacity to change are crucial to good health and good animal welfare. Health in this concept has the same meaning as defined in the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) constitution as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ [127].
Good animal welfare is characterised by a broad predictive physiological and behavioural capacity to anticipate environmental challenges.
Good animal welfare is guaranteed when the regulatory range of allostatic mechanisms matches the environmental demands.
A low allostatic load (not very low or zero) is key for good health and good animal welfare.
Symmorphosis should be respected.
Behaviour and physiology should be interpreted in terms of animal perceptions and not exclusively in terms of human values.
To summarise, the Five Freedoms were primarily derived in relation to the welfare of farm animals, but, with the exception of the fifth freedom, would appear to consider that animals are passive within their environment [128]. Despite its undeniable role in the development of present (and future) welfare standards, this concept would benefit from an update in order to incorporate both ultimate (i.e. adaptive) and proximate (i.e. physiological) mechanisms. Integrating phylogeny and ontogeny in the design and analysis of husbandry practices would result in broader and overall better welfare schemes (Figure 3).
Animal welfare in relation to environmental challenges as shown by the out-dated concept based on homeostasis and the new concept based on allostasis. Adapted from [
The ethical discussion on welfare of animals is controversial. This occurs because often the perspectives of scientists studying welfare science(s) and philosophers debating about ethics lie on very different standpoints. While science uses mostly operational and measurable concepts, such as the ones described throughout this chapter, ethics is focused on experiencing values and critically reflecting on them. Three main ethical theories are followed:
The contract theory states that, despite the naturally selfish nature of man, there is a need to waiver rights in exchange for the benefits of a contract (implicit or explicit) [129];
The utilitarianism theory states that the best action is the one that maximises utility, and therefore actions are to be evaluated majorly for their consequences [129];
The deontologist theory states that the ethical value of an action is dependent on the motivation behind it and not on the consequences. It criticises the utilitarianism theory stating that the right of the individual can never be sacrificed for the common good [130].
The following allegory provides a good metaphor for the misunderstanding between philosophers and scientists:
‘Two dog owners met one day to walk their dogs together. One owner had grown up in a small family that valued health, safety, and orderly, disciplined behaviour. The dog of this owner received regular veterinary care, two meals a day of low-fat dog food, and was walked on a leash. The other owner had grown up in a large community that valued conviviality, sharing of resources and close contact with the natural world. This dog (the owner’s third - the first two had been killed by cars) had burrs in its coat, was fed generously but sporadically, and had never worn a collar in its life. Each owner, judging quality of life from very different viewpoints, felt sorry for the other’s dog’ [131].
The challenge lies in the different concepts, assumptions and vocabulary that scientists and philosophers use, which function as two distinct cultures with little mutual understanding or communication. Since the early days of the animal welfare debate, the two sides have struggled to communicate with each other, even though both were (and are) working with the common goal of understanding and improving an appropriate relationship between humans and other species of animals [132]. In fact, scientific research on animal welfare began because of ethical concerns over the quality of life of animals, and the public looks to animal welfare research for guidance regarding these concerns. The conception of animal welfare used by scientists must therefore relate to these ethical concerns in order to make sure that the orientation of the research and the interpretation of the findings are to address them successfully [131]. In order to bridge the gap and seek common ground between ethics and welfare science, it is important to recognise three classes of problems that may arise when the adaptations present in an animal do not fully correspond to the challenges posed by its current environment. These problems summarise the ethical concerns about the quality of life of animals [131]:
If animals present adaptations that no longer serve a significant function in the new environment, then unpleasant subjective experiences may arise, yet these may not be accompanied by significant disruption of biological functioning. For example, species such as sea bream farmed in an open water sea cage may experience a strong, not full-filled need to seek shelter or forage on the sea bottom;
If the environment poses challenges for which the animal has no corresponding adaptation, then functional problems may arise, even if not accompanied by significant effects on emotional-like states. Thus, a fish being fed with feed with incorrect lipid content will accumulate unhealthy body fat without appearing to notice or mind the problem;
Where animals have adaptations corresponding to the kinds of environmental challenges they face, problems may still arise if the adaptations prove inadequate. For example, tilapia farmed in too cold water or trout farmed in too warm water will not be able to adequately regulate temperature, leading to functional failure as well as to a negative mental experience.
Animal welfare science has grown more compatible with the approaches used by some ethicists. Some scientists have recognised the interplay of normative and empirical elements in the assessment of animal welfare, and many are attempting to understand ethically relevant subjective experiences of animals. This convergence of the scientific and philosophical approaches may lead to a more integrated field of study and to a greater awareness that neither empirical information nor ethical reflection can, by themselves, answer questions about our proper relationship with animals of other species [132].
Considering that the domestication process in fishes is still in its early stages, determining whether and how this process affects welfare is not a straightforward task. Our understanding of fish biology is millennia behind that of terrestrial mammals, and the life-history of fish can be highly complex, with many species presenting stages that completely differ in every aspect from the final adult form. Furthermore, the sensory worlds of fish are very different from our own, and only recently have we begun to scratch the surface of the minds of fish, which hinders the establishment of empathy with our underwater relatives. To complicate things even more, fish farming is not focused on a few species, as in the case of land animals, but rather on hundreds of species that the industry invested in rearing for human consumption. Finally, the key concepts guiding welfare in farm animals are currently out-dated and seem to be insufficient to tackle a complex and diverse animal group such as fishes. The present review shows that domestication is not necessarily related to better welfare of fish especially because the traits the industry is selecting throughout the domestication process are generally focused on production (e.g. faster growth, larger mass), without taking into consideration pleiotropic or epistatic effects on other systems and on the organism. This knowledge gap should be bridged with research, either through species-specific approaches such as the COST action
This work was funded by Open Philanthropy Project (San Francisco, USA), Swiss Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office (Bern, Switzerland), Stiftung Dreiklang (Basel, Switzerland), Haldimann-Stiftung (Aarau, Switzerland) and other private donations.
Microorganisms exist in nature primarily attached to biotic and abiotic surfaces. This is possible due to the development of biofilm. Biofilms are the group of microorganisms living within a self-produced matrix of polymeric substances which get attached to several surfaces [1]. Biofilms are different from the planktonic form of bacteria. Planktonic forms are the free-living forms of bacteria. Bacteria try to switch this planktonic form to biofilm due to a number of advantages which includes protection against environmental stresses such as extreme pH, oxygen, osmotic shock, heat, freezing, UV radiation, predators, etc [2]. Biofilm contains a group of microorganisms irreversibly attached to and grow on a surface. The substances produced by these microbes are known as extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) result in the alteration in the phenotype of the organism with respect to growth rate and gene transcription [3].
Biofilms are found to be present on liquid surfaces as floating mat and in a submerged state as well [4]. Biofilms appear either beneficial or detrimental. Biofilms are considered beneficial as these degrade hazardous substances which are present in the soil, but are detrimental to food and slaughterhouse equipment and are also found responsible for the pathogenesis of a number of diseases [5]. Biofilm has been used for the remediation of heavy metals for a long time. EPS as being poly-anionic in nature, forms complexes with positively charged metals (cations) result in metal immobilization within the exopolymeric network. Extracellular enzymatic activities in EPS assist the detoxification of heavy metals by transforming and subsequently participating in exopolymeric mass [6]. Microorganisms in biofilm help in the production and degradation of organic matter, remediation of environmental pollutants, nitrogen cycle, sulfur, and many metals. Some of the literature revealed that microbial biofilms are involved in sewage purification also [7].
Biofilms can grow on surfaces of many medical implants such as sutures, catheters, dental implants, etc [8]. Biofilm formation is an important virulence mechanism in the pathogenesis of many medically important organisms such as
Biofilms are communities of bacteria embedded in the EPS matrix. EPS is composed mainly of a complex mixture of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids i.e. extracellular DNA (e-DNA) and polysaccharides [15]. EPS helps the biofilm to withstand mechanical stress. Biofilms are viscoelastic in nature and EPS provides physical support against mechanical and chemical stresses [16].
Depending on the interaction between surface and constituent cells, biofilms can be categorized as monolayer or multilayer [17]. Flagellum and pilus present on the surface of cells increase the attachment of bacteria to the surface which accelerates the formation of biofilm monolayer. In another type, the microbial adhesion is synthesized with the simultaneous transition to the permanent attachment [17]. When microorganisms are able to adhere to a surface and also to each other, they often develop multilayer biofilm. It has been noted in many cases that the bacterial surface characteristics lead to repulsion [17].
The structure of biofilm consists of matrix of EPS which comprises e-DNA, polysaccharides, and proteins [18]. Channels in this biofilm allow water, air, and nutrients transport to all parts of the biofilm [19].
Exopolysaccharides: These are the high molecular-weight sugar polymers that are secreted outside the matrix act as a scaffold for proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids to adhere to the surface [20]. Mannose, galactose, and glucose are the most abundant carbohydrates in EPS. Most of the exopolysaccharides are not biofilm specific but their production increases as an environmental stress response.
Extracellular Proteins: This is another major class of EPS. These are found attached to the surface and polysaccharides to help with biofilm formation and stabilization. E.g. Amyloids play a supportive role in biofilm formation. Fap amyloids in
e-DNA: It comes from both lyzed cells and also actively secreted [23]. It plays an important role in biofilm formation critical for attachment. It interacts with receptors present on the substratum surface to facilitate adhesion [24]. It also coordinates with the cell movement in twitching motility mediated
Components of EPS matrix.
Biofilms are three-dimensional communities of microorganisms that adhere to a surface and form a matrix of EPS. Both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria develop biofilm but the most common species are
In the first and second stages, bacteria reversibly adhere to the surface which is further replaced by irreversible interaction.
Stages of biofilm formation.
QS in bacteria is the regulation of gene expression with respect to the fluctuations in the cell-population density. In QS, bacteria produce chemical signal molecules called AI which increase in concentration as a function of cell density [36]. Bacterial populations coordinate their gene expression by producing and responding to a variety of intra and inter-cellular signals called AIs [37]. Microorganisms communicate by producing and responding to small diffusible molecules AIs that acts as signals. When a single bacterium releases AIs into the environment, the concentration is too low to be detected but when mass bacteria releases AIs, the concentration reaches a threshold level which allows the bacteria to sense a critical cell mass, and in response to this it activates or represses target genes. Many classes of AIs have been described to date and N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs) are most studied AIs of gram-negative bacteria. A class of AIs termed AI-2 with unknown structure in most cases and the peptides of gram-positive bacteria are most studied [38].
In gram-negative bacteria, the QS circuit involves at least two regulatory proteins called LuxR and LuxI. These proteins bind with the protein receptor bound to the bacterial cell membrane/wall. The signaling molecules bind with the receptor proteins then enter the cell. The LuxI protein is responsible for the biosynthesis of AHL, which is utilized as signaling molecules. The AHL concentration increases with the increase in cell population density. The LuxR protein is responsible for binding to cognate AHL AIs that have achieved a threshold concentration; these complexes also activate target gene transcription. The following Figure 3 shows protein involved in QS and signaling pathway in gram-negative bacteria.
Proteins & two-component signaling pathway in gram-negative bacteria.
Using
Expression of a number of virulence factors is regulated by QS in
Quorum sensing in
QS systems are found to be involved in the pathogenicity and biofilm formation of a number of gram-positive bacteria and these systems use different signal molecules from those of gram-negative bacteria which produce AHLs as AIs. In gram-positive bacteria, no AHL production has been observed in biofilm. Small post-translationally processed peptide signal molecules are used by the gram-positive bacteria QS system. These peptide signals interact with the sensor element of a histidine kinase two-component signal transduction system. Development of bacterial competence in
Signaling pathway in gram-positive bacteria.
Surface proteins involved in attachment during the early stages of
The agr locus of
Quorum sensing in
Biofilms play a major role in the pathogenesis of many diseases [47]. A large number of nosocomial infections result due to the colonization of bacteria on the surface. Almost 95% of urinary tract infections are associated with urinary catheters which include
Both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria are found to be pathogenic in nature.
Biofilms are made up of bacteria that consist of monospecies or multispecies. Bacterial biofilms are found to be present on a number of surfaces and for this purpose, bacteria secrete and produce EPS matrix which makes adherence easier. Biofilm formation has become a ubiquitous phenomenon found on both living and non-living surfaces. In this biofilm, bacteria interact by producing various toxins, virulence factors that are pathogenic in nature. Both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria show different QS systems. QS leads the bacteria to evade the immune response and increase cell density. QS is found to be responsible for the virulence shown by the bacteria. Many bacteria show virulence characteristics such as
Extracellular polymeric substances
Auto-inducers
N-acyl homoserine lactones
Multidrug resistant
Quorum sensing
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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. 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Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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