Summary of stress pathways, transcription factors, and biological outcomes of phytochemicals.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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In 1989, she graduated in Geological Sciences at the University of Naples 'Federico II”. In 1993, she earned a PhD degree\nin Sedimentary Geology at the University of Naples 'Federico II”,\nDepartment of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Geological Sciences. She\ncompleted a 2-year postdoctoral fellowship at the University of\nNaples 'Federico II”, a CNR-CEE fellowship, and several contracts\nat the Research Institute 'Geomare Sud”, CNR, Naples, Italy. Since 1998, she has\nbeen a full-time researcher at the Italian CNR. Dr. Aiello has 25 years’ experience in\nthe field of sedimentary geology, marine geology, and geophysics, participating in\ndifferent research projects for the Italian National Research Council (CARG, Vector,\nCentri Regionali di Competenza). 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The term hormesis, based on toxicology, is described as a biphasic dose response in which environmental factors show a stimulant effect at low doses and a toxic effect at higher doses [1]. A comprehensive current definition of “hormesis” is "chemical and environmental factors having a beneficial effect to cells in an organism at low doses, whereas they are damaging at high doses" [2]. Hemodynamic is the ability of live systems to provide protection against stress, and to maintain adaptation, survival, and continuity of health. Hemodynamic impairment, increased molecular heterogeneity, altered cellular function, and decreased adaptive stress responses are some factors that determine health status and lifespan [3, 4]. The development of adaptive stress response with mild and periodic stress is hormetically related to the strengthening of the hemodynamic structure, the reduction of disease risks, and healthy aging. Hormesis in aging implies that mild stress produces biologically beneficial effects by inducing protective mechanisms in the cells and the organism [5]. Stress response can be defined as the response of cells, tissues, and organisms to physical, chemical, or biological factor(s) affecting adaptation and lifespan by initiating a series of biological events. In terms of hormetic level, stressors at a mild level activate various signaling pathways, maintaining intrinsic changes leading to a high level of stress-adaptive response. Stress response in mammalian cells can be classified into seven basic pathways at the intracellular and molecular levels: (1) heat shock response; (2) unfolded protein response; (3) autophagic response; (4) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) repair response; (5) antioxidant response; (6) sirtuin response; and (7) nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) inflammatory response. The conditions and factors identified as hormetic activate the pathway of one or more stress responses by mild molecular impairment and strengthen the hemodynamic structure. Hormetins can be grouped under three categories: (1) physical hormetins (exercise, thermal shock, and irrigation); (2) physiological hormetins (mental interrogation and focusing); (3) biological and nutritional hormetins (infections, micronutrients, phytochemicals, and energy restriction) [4, 6, 7].
\nDietary phytochemicals are potential nutritional hormetins with mild stress-inducing effects. In the Greek language “phyto” means plant, so phytochemical means “plant chemical.” Phytochemicals are non-nutrient biologically active compounds produced to protect plants against microbial infections that occur because of environmental factors damaging the plant. Therefore, phytochemicals, which are secondary plant metabolites found primarily to protect their structures and properties in vegetables, fruits, grains, and various plants, may have positive effects on human health when taken in the diet. Phytochemicals are generally classified according to their chemical structure. The main groups with bioactive properties from these groups are phenolic compounds [8, 9]. Ferulic acid, resveratrol, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), luteolin, quercetin, and curcumin as phenolic compounds are dose-dependently responsible for the stimulation of kinases and transcription factors and produce a heat shock response, unfolded protein response, autophagic response, DNA repair response, antioxidant response, and sirtuin response [6, 10, 11, 12, 13]. In this chapter, the stress response of dietary phytochemicals will be systematically examined in a hormetic manner for delay of age-related diseases, healthy aging, and longevity based on current data.
\nWhen dietary phytochemicals are invoked in relation to neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, aging, and longevity, especially in the heat shock response, antioxidant response, NF-κB inflammatory response, and autophagic response were emphasized regarding their hormetic adaptive stress response pathways. The characteristics and importance of these stress response pathways are summarized in what follows.
\nThe major effectors involved in heat shock response are heat shock proteins (HSPs), which are cytoprotective proteins that facilitate cellular protein folding, prevent protein aggregation, and provide protein degradation activation. They also affect the cell survival by interacting with various molecules in the regulation of apoptosis and mitochondrial activities. HSPs are divided into five main groups: the Hsp100 family, Hsp90 family, Hsp70 family, Hsp60 family, and the small Hsp family. Hsp70 regulates protein homeostasis, thereby, it can provide protection against cancer, neurodegeneration, and infections [14, 15]. Hsp90 regulates the stability and intracellular sorting of client proteins found in many oncogenic processes. Thus, Hsp90 inhibition may prevent cancer progression [16]. Hsp27 can protect against neurodegenerative diseases by controlling apoptosis, cytoskeleton regulation, oxidative stress, and protein folding [17]. In general, HSPs provide the survival of cancer cells by overexpression in cancer cells. Thus, the inhibition of Hsp27, Hsp70, and Hsp90 can be targeted in the treatment of cancers in which HSPs are known to be over-expressed [18]. The nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/antioxidant response element (ARE) is the main effective pathway in the formation of antioxidant stress responses. Under basal conditions, Nrf-2 is present in the cell cytoplasm bound to Keap1 protein. However, when combined with oxidative stress and chemo-blocking factors, Nrf2 is released from Keap-1 into the nucleus; it activates the ARE and induces the expression of the antioxidant enzymes including glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase, hemoxygenase (HO)-1, and the phase II detoxification enzymes, including glutathione S-transferase (GST). Extracellular signaling protein kinases are responsible for the release of Nrf2 from Keap-1 by phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), protein kinase C (PKC), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JKN). Thus, Nrf2 associated with the cell defense mechanism, may have protective effects against oxidative stress-induced tissue degeneration, premature aging, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, acute and chronic lung diseases, and autoimmune and inflammatory diseases [19, 20, 21, 22]. Among the factors that induce Nrf2 in the formation of antioxidant stress responses are isothiocyanates and Michael acceptors. Michael acceptors are susceptible to flavonoids, chalkones, terpenoids, curcumin, cinnamic acid derivatives, and thiophenes, and interact with these phytochemicals to modulate the Nrf-2 pathway [23, 24]. The effector NF-κB protein complex action regulates the expression of genes involved in innate and adaptive immunity, inflammation, cellular stress response, cell survival, and proliferation. Therefore, this pathway can be effective in pathogenesis of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, septic shock, viral infections, tumorigenesis, and neurodegenerative diseases. Various dietary phytochemicals such as curcumin and resveratrol can suppress NF-κB activation and protect against immunological and inflammatory diseases, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases [12]. In an autophagic response, hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1 and the activated mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) are important. mTOR is involved in cell proliferation and protein synthesis via insulin and insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 signaling. It can also cause the suppression of autophagy, and reduced autophagy is associated with decreased longevity. Thus, the increase in autophagy is associated with an increase in inflammatory response, cellular senescence, decreased proteotoxic protein aggregation, and the removal of intracellular pathogens, cumulatively resulting in an increased innate immune response that leads to longevity [25]. HIF-1 regulates genes related to angiogenesis, iron and glucose metabolism, cell proliferation and cell survival. Various dietary phytochemicals, with HIF-1 inhibition, have protective effects against neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, cardiovascular diseases [12, 26]. In this section, hormetic effects of phenolic compounds predominantly expressed as hormetin including ferulic acid, curcumin, resveratrol, EGCG, luteolin, quercetin, and sulforaphane will be discussed in relation to these stress response pathways. The stress pathways, transcription factors, and biological outcomes of these phytochemicals have been summarized in \nTable 1\n.
\nPhytochemicals | \nStress pathways | \nTranscription factors | \nBiological outcomes | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Antioxidant response pathway | \nNrf-2 | \nHO-1↑ | \n[31, 32] | \n
Ferulic acid | \nNFκB inflammatory pathway | \nNFκB | \nNO↓, iNOS↓ | \n[33] | \n
\n | Heat shock response pathway | \nHSF-1 | \nHsp70↑ | \n[35] | \n
\n | Autophagic response pathway | \n— | \nmTOR inhibition | \n[36] | \n
\n | Antioxidant response pathway | \nNrf2 | \nGlutathione, GR, GST, HO-1, NQO1 | \n[43, 44] | \n
Curcumin | \nNFκB inflammatory pathway | \nNFκB | \nSOD-2↑, Hsp60↑ | \n[42, 45] | \n
\n | Heat shock response pathway | \nHSF-1 | \nOverexpressed Hsp27↓, Hsp70↓, Hsp90↓ Hsp27↑, Hsp70↑ | \n[39, 40] [41, 42] | \n
\n | Sirtuin response pathway | \n— | \nSIRT3↑ | \n[42] | \n
\n | Antioxidant response pathway | \nNrf2 | \nGlutathione↑, HO-1↑ | \n[49, 50] | \n
Resveratrol | \nNFκB inflammatory pathway | \nNFκB | \niNOS↓, IL-6↓, TNF-α↓ | \n[54, 55] | \n
\n | Heat shock response pathway | \nHSF-1 | \nHsp25↑, Hsp70↑ | \n[47, 48] | \n
\n | Autophagic response pathway | \n— | \nmTOR inhibition | \n[52, 53] | \n
\n | Sirtuin response pathway | \n— | \nSIRT1↑ | \n[47, 48] | \n
\n | Antioxidant response pathway | \nNrf2 | \nGST↑, NQO1↑, HO-1↑ | \n[59, 60, 62, 64] | \n
EGCG | \nNFκB inflammatory pathway | \nNFκB | \nIL-12p40↓, IL-6↓ | \n[65, 66, 67] | \n
\n | Heat shock response pathway | \nHSF-1 | \nOverexpressed Hsp90↓ | \n[58] | \n
\n | Autophagic response pathway | \n— | \nHIF-1α, mTOR inhibition | \n[68, 69] | \n
\n | Antioxidant response pathway | \nNrf2 | \nHO-1↑, CYP1A1↑, NQO1↑, GST-P1↑, GCLC↑, GCLM↑ | \n[76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 83] | \n
Luteolin | \nNFκB inflammatory pathway | \nNFκB | \nTNF-α↓, NO↓ | \n[73, 74, 75, 81] | \n
\n | Autophagic response pathway | \n— | \nHIF-1α inhibition | \n[82] | \n
\n | Sirtuin response pathway | \n— | \nSIRT1↑ | \n[81] | \n
\n | Antioxidant response pathway | \nNrf2 | \nGSH↑, GPx↑, GR↑, GST↑, GCLC↑, GCLM↑, HO-1↑ | \n[89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95] | \n
Quercetin | \nNFκB inflammatory pathway | \nNFκB | \nCOX-2↓ | \n[90, 94] | \n
\n | Heat shock response pathway | \nHSF-1 | \nOverexpressed Hsp27↓, Hsp70↓ | \n[85, 86, 87] | \n
\n | Autophagic response pathway | \n— | \nHIF-1, mTOR inhibition | \n[88, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101] | \n
\n | Antioxidant response pathway | \nNrf2 | \nHO-1↑, SOD-1↑,NQO1↑ | \n[104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111] | \n
Sulforaphane | \nNFκB inflammatory pathway | \nNFκB | \nTNF- α↓, IL-6↓ | \n[109] | \n
\n | Autophagic response pathway | \n— | \nHIF-1α inhibition | \n[114] | \n
Summary of stress pathways, transcription factors, and biological outcomes of phytochemicals.
↑: increased; ↓: decreased.
Ferulic acid (4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid) is a cinnamic acid derivative phenolic compound. It is also the preliminary metabolite for curcumin and lignins. Grain bran, whole grains, artichoke, eggplant, banana, cabbage, and coffee are rich in ferulic acid. Ferulic acid has a positive effect on diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson disease, and diabetes through various pathways. Among the mechanisms of action of ferulic acid are the antioxidant response, heat shock response, and NF-κB inflammatory response, especially in the adaptive stress response pathways [27, 28, 29]. Ferulic acid showed a protective effect against heat stress-induced intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction in IEC-6 intestinal epithelial cells in a dose-dependent manner in male Sprague-Dawley rats in vitro and in vivo [30]. In a study conducted on the human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y, ferulic acid increased dose-dependent HO-1 expression through Nrf2 [31]. In a study on PC12 cells, ferulic acid increased HO-1 expression through ERK1/2-Nrf2 signaling pathway and protected against lead acetate-induced neurite outgrowth inhibition [32]. On the other hand, 1-feruloyl glycerol and 1-feruloyl diglycerol predominate in water-soluble forms of ferulic acid in rat primordial astrocytes, suppressing nitric oxide (NO) synthesis and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression by suppressing the NF-κB pathway. Accordingly, these ferulic acid forms may provide a protective effect against neurodegenerative diseases [33]. The tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α induces endothelial dysfunction by reducing NO bioavailability. Ferulic acid increased tyrosine-dependent NO production and suppressed the NF-κB pathway in TNF-α-stimulated inflammatory human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) [34]. Another study showed that ferulic acid demonstrated a cardioprotective effect by increasing Hsp70 through the NO-ERK1/2 pathway in mice cardiomyocytes and suppressing the NF-κB pathway [35]. In another study, HeLa and mouse primary hepatocyte cells activated basal autophagy with an mTOR inhibition almost equivalent to that of rapamycin [36]. As a result, ferulic acid can exert a protective effect against neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer inflammatory diseases by acting on stress pathways and thus can positively affect longevity.
\nCurcumin (1,7-bis (4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1,6-heptadiene-3,5-dione), also known as diferuloylmethane, is a yellow phenolic compound, found in Curcuma longa (turmeric) a plant of the ginger family. Curcumin is the compound responsible for the chemical and biological properties of this spice, as well as its color and taste. Numerous studies have shown that curcumin is associated with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antimicrobial, and anticancer effects, mitigating chronic diseases and increasing longevity [37, 38]. HSPs, HSF1, and histone deacetylase (HDAC) 6 are upregulated in cancer. Expression of Hsp 27, Hsp70, Hsp90, HSF1, and HDAC-6, which are overexpressed in K-562 and HL-60 leukemia cells, was reduced when curcumin was administered [39]. Also, curcumin appeared to reverse the inhibition on Hsp70 induced by the gp120 V3 loop peptide and increased the expression of Hsp70 in primary rat cortical neuronal apoptosis [40]. In addition, curcumin can protect against endosulfan toxicity by decreasing endosulfan-induced apoptosis through increased Hsp 27 expression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) [41]. In hyperglycemic HepG2 human hepatoma cells, curcumin increased the expression of NF-κB and Hsp70, sirtuin (SIRT)-3, glutathione peroxidase (GPx)-1, and superoxide dismutase (SOD)-2 in a dose-dependent manner [42]. On the other hand, curcumin may act as an antioxidant in the stress-response pathway. Primary cell cultures of cerebellar granule neurons of rats increased the expression of HO-1, glutathione, glutathione reductase (GR), GST, and SOD through Nrf-2 depending on the dose and duration and thereby protected against hemin-induced toxicity [43]. In mice liver cells with T-cell lymphoma, the expression of GST, GR, and NAD(P)H:quinine oxidoreductase (NQO1) enzymes was increased by activation of curcumin Nrf-2 [44]. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated BV2 mouse microglia cells also inhibited microglial activation by inhibiting the curcumin Hsp60/TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathways [45]. As a result, curcumin can show protective effects against cancer, neurodegeneration, and inflammation by acting on stress-response pathways.
\nResveratrol (3,5,4′-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene) is a phenolic compound found in some plants such as grapes, berries, peanuts, and Japanese knotweed, with purported medical uses. Several studies have shown that resveratrol affects chronic diseases and longevity through anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties [46]. Resveratrol dose-dependently increased expression of Hsp70 and SIRT-1 in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells induced by neurotoxicity with high-dose homocysteine [47]. It has been reported that resveratrol induced Hsp25 and Hsp70 proteins in G93A-SOD1 mutant mice cells and can prevent motor neuron losses [48]. Resveratrol dose-dependently increased glutathione expression through the Nrf2 pathway in normal human keratocytes [49]. In the human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y, resveratrol dose-dependently increased HO-1 expression and HO-1-dependent autophagic flux and prevented rotatone-induced apoptosis [50]. It has been determined that resveratrol dose-dependently reduced the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), leptin, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-8 expression in hypoxia-induced human adipocytes and prevented adipokine-induced inflammation and angiogenesis [51]. In addition, resveratrol induced autophagy by directly inhibiting mTOR in HeLa cells [52]. Prostate cancer cells induced autophagy through inhibition of the Akt/mTOR pathway in PC3 and DU145 cells [53]. In murine RAW 264.7 macrophages and microglial BV-2 cells, resveratrol also inhibited microglial activation by suppressing the NF-κB pathway [54]. In another study, resveratrol showed anti-inflammatory effect by suppressing the NF-κB pathway in RAW 264.7 murine macrophages in a dose-dependent manner [55]. These studies suggest that resveratrol has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic effects and can strengthen hemodynamic structure, which in turn can positively affect the aging process and longevity.
\nThe major catechin EGCG, which is found in green tea at a level of 48–55%, has protective effects against chronic diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases, metabolic syndrome, and cancer by its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects [56, 57]. EGCG, with Hsp90 inhibition, showed a protective effect against cancer in a novel human prostate cancer progression model [58]. In primary vascular endothelial cells, GST and NQO1 enzymes were increased dose-dependently by Nrf2 [59]. In another study, EGCG increased the level of HO-1 expression by Nrf-2 activation in endothelial cells, resulting in the passage of caveolin-1 from the plasma membrane to the cytosol, accumulating in the caveolae-regulating signaling pathways associated with vascular disease pathology [60]. Accordingly, EGCG may reduce endothelial inflammation and protect against atherosclerosis [61]. EGCG also showed a protective effect against oxidative stress-induced cerebral ischemia through Nrf2/ARE activation [62]. EGCG suppressed the Nrf-2 pathway in a lethal dose with biphasic dose-response effect in mice hepatocytes [63]. EGCG has been shown to inhibit oxidative stress damage induced by HO-1 through Nrf2 in HUVECs with ambient fine particulate matter (≤2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter PM2.5) [64]. EGCG dose-dependently suppresses endothelial inflammation through NF-κB inhibition in high glucose-induced HUVECs [65]. It can also suppress NF-κB activation in cardiac fibroblasts and can show a protective effect against cardiac fibrosis [66]. EGCG inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation with NF-κB suppression in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) isolated from ICR mice [67]. EGCG also showed a protective effect against human papillomavirus-16 oncoprotein-induced lung cancer and IGF-1 stimulated lung cancer angiogenesis through HIF-1α inhibition [68, 69]. In addition, primary bovine aortic endothelial cells stimulate autophagy in cells, leading to degradation of lipid droplets. In this way, EGCG may be effective in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases [70]. EGCG regulates ultraviolet B (UVB)-mediated autophagy through the mTOR signaling pathway and significantly alleviates the toxic effects of UVB irradiation in macular retinal pigment epithelial cells. Thus, it may also have a protective effect against macular degeneration [71]. As a result, EGCG can be effective in the prevention of neurodegeneration, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory diseases, and macular degeneration through stress pathways.
\nLuteolin (3′,4′,5,7-tetrahydroxy flavone) is a phenolic compound found in broccoli, pepper, thyme, celery, lettuce, oregano, artichoke, and carrots; it has antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects [72]. Luteolin destabilized the Hsp90 client protein c-Jun and Akt and inhibited LPS-induced production of TNF-α and NO dose-dependently in macrophages [73]. In addition, luteolin prevented TNF-α-induced endolytic monocyte adhesion in mice by suppressing vascular inflammation and the IKBα/NF-κB pathway in HUVECs [74]. In psoriatic skin, luteolin inhibited keratinocyte activation by decreasing NF-κB, which increased dose-dependently [75]. Luteolin and luteolin-7-O-glucoside modulated Nrf2/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) mediated the HO-1 signaling cascade in RAW 264.7 cells [76]. In wild-type mouse traumatic brain injury models, luteolin showed neuroprotective action by Nrf2/ARE pathway activation [77]. Luteolin inhibited tBHP-induced oxidative stress by increasing ERK2/Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway activation and HO-1, glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic (GCLC), and glutamate cysteine ligase modifier (GCLM) subunit transcription in rat primary hepatocytes [78]. In addition, in HepG2, Hepa1c1c7, and RL-34 HepG2 hepatocytes, it dose-dependently inhibited the expression of phase I enzyme cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1), and phase II enzymes NQO1 and GST-P1 through an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and Nrf2 pathways [79]. In HepG2 human hepatocytes, luteolin also dose-dependently activated the PI3K/Nrf2/ARE system, increased HO-1 expression, and reduced the expression of lipopolysaccharide-induced NO, iNOS, and cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) in hepatocytes [80]. Luteolin also reduced acute mercuric chloride-induced hepatotoxicity by anti-inflammatory and antioxidant responses by regulating the SIRT1/Nrf2/TNF-α pathways [81]. The induction of VEGF by oxidative stress has an important role in the pathogenesis of premature retinopathy. Luteolin has shown a protective effect against retinal neovascularization by reducing hypoxia-induced VEGF expression through decreasing HIF-1α expression in human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMECs) [82]. Luteolin reduced 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal-induced cell death of neuronal-like catecholaminergic PC12 cells by regulating unfolded protein response and the MAPK, Nrf2/ARE pathways [83]. As a result, luteolin also affects neurodegeneration, endothelial function, and liver function through stress-response pathways as do other hormetic phytochemicals.
\nQuercetin (3,3′,4′,5,7-pentahydroxyflavone) is found in many vegetables and fruits. It has anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antioxidant effects on cardiovascular diseases, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and can reduce aging and positively increase the life span [84]. Quercetin inhibited the growth of A549 and H460 cancer cells with Hsp70 inhibition in lung cancer cells and increased sensitivity to chemotherapy [85]. Quercetin inhibited the t-AUCB-induced autophagy by inhibiting Hsp 27 and Atg 72 in glioblastoma cells [86]. In addition, quercetin inhibited Hsp70 in U937 human monoblastic leukemia cell line [87]. Quercetin inhibited hypoxia-induced AMPK by dramatically inducing apoptosis in hypoxia and reducing the activity of HIF-1 in HCT116 cancer cells [88]. Quercetin dose-dependently increased glutathione, glutamylcysteine synthetase (GSH), GPx, GR, and GST expression in liver HepG2 cells through p38/MAPK and Nrf-2 activation [89]. Quercetin protected against toxicity and inflammation by increasing Nrf-2 expression and decreasing NF-kB and cyclooxygenase (Cox)-2 expression in a time-dependent manner in mycotoxin ochratoxin A-induced liver HepG2 cells [90]. Furthermore, dose-dependently, through p62 and Nrf2-ARE activation, quercetin increased HO-1, GCLC, and GCLM subunit expression and showed a protective effect against hepatotoxicity [91]. Quercetin, depending on the dose, inhibited the production of LPS-induced NO production in BV2 microglial cells, suppressed the NF-κB pathway, and activated the Nrf2-dependent HO-1 pathway [92, 93]. Quercetin showed a protective effect against indomethacin-induced gastrointestinal oxidative stress and inflammation through Nrf-2 activation and NF-kB inhibition in human intestinal Caco-2 cells [94]. In malignant mesothelioma MSTO-211H and H2452 cells, quercetin also inhibited cell growth and showed cytoprotective effect with Nrf-2 activation [95]. In a study on porcine renal proximal tubule cell line LLC-PK1 cells and C57BL/6j mice, quercetin inhibited renal ischemia/reperfusion injury by increasing AMP phosphorylase, inhibiting mTOR phosphorylation, and activating autophagy [96]. A combination of quercetin, resveratrol, and catechin was administered to human metastatic cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-435; quercetin was shown to be the most effective compound for Akt/mTOR inhibition and can prevent breast cancer growth and metastasis [97]. Quercetin inhibited mTOR by expressing SESTIN 2, p53, and activating AMPK in a dose-dependent manner and induced apoptosis via increased intracellular ROS in HCT116 colon cancer cells [98]. The mTOR complex has an important role in cell growth, protein synthesis, and autophagy, with the inhibition of quercetin mTOR/PI3K/Akt in cancer and other diseases where excessive mTOR complex activity is observed [99]. In addition, quercetin, by affecting autophagy with the inhibition of proteasome and mTOR activity, can be both protective and therapeutic against cancer with the death of human breast cancer cell lines MCF7 and MDA-MB-453, the cervical adenocarcinoma cell line HeLa, the ovarian cancer cell line OVCAR3, and the human B-lymphoblastoid cell line IM-9 [100]. Quercetin inhibited tumor growth and angiogenesis by inhibiting VEGF regulated by AKT/mTOR in HUVECs [101]. As a result, quercetin may exert a protective effect against cancer, especially by acting on stress-response pathways.
\nSulforaphane (SulR-1-isothiocyanato-4-methylsulfinyl butane) is an isothiocyanate found extensively in cruciferous vegetables. Studies have shown that sulforaphane has a protective effect against cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and kidney diseases, and is mostly influenced by an Nrf-2-mediated antioxidant response [102, 103]. Sulforaphane may prevent diabetic auric damage and cardiomyopathy by increasing Nrf2 activation in mice [104, 105]. Sulforaphane showed protective effect against ethanol-induced oxidative stresses and apoptosis in neural crest cells by generating an antioxidant response with Nrf2 activation [106]. Sulforaphane activates the Nrf2/ARE pathway and inhibits 3-nitropropionic acid-induced toxicity in striatal cells by inhibiting MAPKs and NF-κB pathways [107]. In MSTO-211H cells administered with sulforaphane, Nrf2-mediated HO-1 expression was regulated by the PI3K/Akt pathway [108]. Sulforaphane inhibited muscle inflammation by inhibiting Nrf-2 and NF-kB in dystrophin-deficient mdx mice [109]. Sulforaphane showed a protective effect against acute alcohol-induced liver steatosis by activation of Nrf2 and synthesis of antioxidant proteins in HepG2 E47 liver cells [110]. Sulforaphane increased Nrf2 expression in TRAMP C1 prostate cancer cells and affected epigenetic regulation [111]. Sulforaphane induced autophagy through ERK activation in immortalized mouse CN1.4 cortical and human SHSY5Y neuronal cells [112]. Huntington’s disease, a neurodegenerative disease, involves damage to the ubiquitin proteasome system. In a mouse study, sulfate inhibited proteasomal and autophagic activation and cytotoxicity resulting from proteasomal impairment [113]. Sulforaphane inhibited HIF-1α expression in HCT116 human colon cancer cells and AGS human gastric cancer cells, but inhibited hypoxia-induced VEGF expression only in HCT116 cells [114]. Sulforaphane affects the stress-response pathways and can show protective effects, especially against neurodegeneration and cancer.
\nDietary phytochemicals can exert a protective effect against cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory and immune diseases by acting on multiple stress-response pathways. Therefore, healthy aging and longevity can be achieved by preventing the deterioration of hemodynamics. In addition, it is necessary to emphasize that the hormetic stress pathways of each dietary phytochemical is a very wide ranging subject. Therefore, the mechanisms of action of important phytochemicals and stress response pathways in this chapter have been summarized in the light of data obtained in recent years; this may lead to a broader outlook on this subject and to new studies.
\nAhR | aryl hydrocarbon receptor |
ARE | antioxidant response element |
BMMs | bone marrow-derived macrophages |
Cox-2 | cyclooxygenase-2 |
cPLA2 | cytosolic phospholipase A2 |
DNA | deoxyribonucleic acid |
EGCG | epigallocatechin gallate |
ERK | extracellular signal-regulated kinase |
GCLC | glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic |
GCLM | glutamate cysteine ligase modifier |
GPx | glutathione peroxidase |
GST | glutathione-S-transferase |
HDAC | histone deacetylase |
HO-1 | hemeoxygenase-1 |
HRMECs | human retinal microvascular endothelial cells |
HSP | heat shock protein |
HIF-1:hypoxia-inducible factor-1 | |
HUVECs | human umbilical vein endothelial |
IGF-1 | insulin-like growth factor |
iNOS | inducible nitric oxide synthase |
JKN | c-Jun N-terminal kinase |
LPS | lipopolysaccharide |
MAPK | mitogen-activated protein kinase |
mTOR | mammalian target of rapamycin |
NFκB | nuclear factor kappa B |
NO | nitric oxide |
Nrf2 | nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 |
NQO1 | NAD(P)H:quinine oxidoreductase |
PBMCs | human peripheral blood mononuclear cells |
PKC | protein kinase C |
SOD | superoxide dismutase |
TNF-α | tumor necrosis factor-α |
UVB | ultraviolet B |
VEGF | vascular endothelial growth factor |
Globally, poor solid waste management remains an issue of concern in an environment due to inadequate policies, legislation, and public enlightenment on waste disposal [1]. The policies of the government on the environment are merely by mouth with poor implementation. The enlightenment programs remain poor with lack of needed coverage, intensity, and continuity so as to change the attitude toward the management of the waste disposal to the environment. However, the poor activities of government agencies for a safe environment may be attributed to improper funds, inadequate facilities and human resources, low technology know how, and taxation system [2]. Integrated solid waste management, 3R (i.e., reduce, reuse, and recycle) principles have contributed to minimization of waste in the environment. Successful means of solid waste management required an integration of technical, economic, and sociocultural involvement. The generation and disposal of plastic waste in environment have been undesirable activities that posed serious threat to humans’ existence due to large quantities, low biodegradability, and its significant effect on economic growth [3]. In Japan, the waste quantities increased from 46 million tons in 2001 to 65 million tons in 2010 and are expected to have 0.7 kg/capita/day production in 2050 [4] and range from 0.44 to 0.66 kg/capita/day production in Nigeria [5]. The increase in solid waste generation in which plastics are included, in the urban area, is dependent on the increase in migration from rural to urban area, rate of consumption and standard of living, lifestyle, population density, and climatic changes [5, 6] (see Table 1).
\nS/N | \nWaste material | \nPercentage (%) | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Japan (%) | \nNigeria (%) | \n||
1 | \nPaper and cardboard | \n34 | \n4 | \n
2 | \nOrganics | \n32 | \n78 | \n
3 | \nPlastics | \n17 | \n9 | \n
4 | \nMetals | \n6 | \n4 | \n
5 | \nGlass | \n5 | \n3 | \n
6 | \nInorganic | \n4 | \n1 | \n
7 | \nSpecial waste | \n2 | \n1 | \n
\n | Total | \n100 | \n100 | \n
In the USA, about 30 million tons of plastic wastes were produced in 2009 and only about 7% was recycled. Plastic wastes end up in landfills, beaches, rivers, and oceans, thereby causing environmental problems [7]. In the UK, about 5 billion of plastic wastes are generated every year [8]. In some developed countries like Japan, plastic waste is found to be the third major municipal and industrial waste [4] but second in developing countries like Nigeria [9, 10]. Based on production and utilization of plastics in Japan, about 90% of the plastics are thermoplastics (a type of plastic that undergoes a reversible chemical reaction for its curing and melting at high temperature) used for containers and packaging materials (films, sheets, bottles), daily necessities, household appliances, and automobiles as presented in Table 2 and Figure 1 [10, 11]. About 60–70% of thermoplastics are polyolefins, while PET, PS, and PVC make other compositions [12]. In Europe and developing countries, the incineration and landfill techniques used for management of plastics waste covered about 74%, despite advanced effect. Plastics are less expensive, weight saving, durable articles which can readily be molded into a variety of products and found useful in a wide range of applications [13], but its production and usage caused several environmental problems through disposal [14, 15]. Moreover, durability of thermoplastics is a consequence for disposal and accumulation in landfills.
\n\n | Plastics | \nJapan (%) | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nPolyethylene | \n24.1 | \n
2 | \nPolypropylene | \n23.1 | \n
3 | \nPolyvinyl chloride | \n15.2 | \n
4 | \nPolystyrene | \n7.0 | \n
5 | \nPET | \n4.0 | \n
6 | \nABS | \n3.5 | \n
7 | \nOthers | \n13.3 | \n
Recycling and generation of thermoplastics [11].
Existing, recycled, and new entrants of plastic wastes [10].
Plastic recycling refers to a process of achieving useful products from waste plastics after its reprocessing or re-melting. Recycling is one of the most important actions currently available that provides a solution on environmental and ecological threats posed by reduce oil usage, carbon dioxide emissions, and the quantities of waste requiring disposal [14, 16]. Despite plastic recycling remaining to be the best means of minimizing plastic waste, its quality is influenced by polymer cross-contamination, additives, non-polymer impurities, and degradation [17]. Recycling of thermoplastics posed many benefits such as provision of raw materials for manufacturing industry, reduced environmental threat to humans since it is non-biodegradable, minimized incineration and landfill issues, less energy consumption for sustenance, and it serving as a source of income and providing job opportunity [18]. However, economic factors that influenced the viability of thermoplastic recycling include the price, cost of recycling compared with forms of required disposal, suitability for specific applications, lack of information about the availability of recycled plastics, and quantity and quality of supply recycled thermoplastics compared with virgin thermoplastics [17, 18]. Thermoplastic recycling follows the pattern of Figure 2.
\nThermoplastic recycling process chart.
Waste polymer recycling can be carried out by four approaches in accordance with ISO 15270, namely:
Primary recycling refers to the recycling of the scrap material of controlled history. This process remaining to be the most popular as it ensures simplicity, low cost, and applicability to clean uncontaminated single-type waste. It involves melting with use of solvents and remolding of clean materials [19].
Mechanical recycling: waste plastic is recycled or reprocessed by mechanical process using melt extrusion, injection, blowing, vacuum, and inflation molding method after sorting [2, 20, 21]. This method utilizes a 100% utilization and conversion of waste plastic to produce the same or other valuable products but with reduced qualities which can be enhanced by the application of additives. It may or may not be necessarily separated depending on desired products and quality. It is applicable to reprocessing plastics that require pretreatment or decontamination.
Chemical or feedstock recycling: waste plastics serve as raw materials and convert into monomer or other products such as fuel oils and cooking gas through decomposition and depolymerization of feedstock with the use of thermal energy or catalyst [22, 23]. This method seems to be economical but reduced the yield of new products [24] and less than the yield of the mechanical recycling of thermoplastics due to no loss of materials and accumulation caused by pipeline blockage as a result of shutdown of the machine, thereby lowering melting points during solidification stages. Pipeline blockages or clogs may be difficult to remove. This method involves decomposition of waste polymers to lower-molecular-weight species for reuse with applications of solvents like benzene, chlorobenzene, trichloroethylene, toluene, and xylene called dissolution/reprecipitation (DR) or solubilization before pyrolysis (applied high temperature and pressure in the absence of oxygen) [25]. This provides an insight to the solution of clogged pipeline issues but at increased processing cost and time with high-energy consumption compared to mechanical recycling.
Energy recovery: This is an effective means to reduce the quantity of organic materials by incineration, with difficult environment pollution control from the waste plastics [24, 26]. It involves cement kiln and waste power generation.
This chapter focuses on modifications of thermoplastic materials (HDPE, LDPE, PVC, PET, and PP) and mechanical recycling for enhanced properties, performance, and quality of the products for sustainable applications.
\nThe choice of recycling of waste thermoplastics depends on processing equipment such as injection, single-screw extruder and film blowing machine, and processing conditions (temperature, time, content of materials, and rheological behavior) and product uses [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. The application of additives or modifiers like compatibilizer (nonreactive and reactive), fillers or fibers (inorganic and organic) have been attributed to ease processing and improvement in compatibility [28, 31]. More so, the recycling of waste thermoplastics is cheaper than virgin types, but its inferior properties [20, 21], contaminations, and poor suitability [33] remain an issue of concern for effective applications. Blending technology remains a proffer solution due to low cost to produce, lower technical risk, and eco-friendly materials when compared to developing new polymers [28]. Sorting or separation before recycling through manual [34] application of principle of density and solubilization with the use of solvents (hexane, benzene, xylene, and toluene) provides solution to contamination [2] but not cost effect and risk. Techniques for modifications of thermoplastics may be due to the use of different waste or virgin thermoplastics and natural materials, thereby producing composites with enhanced properties and durability [35]. This can be influenced by processing, crystallization, and phase morphology as reported by Lin et al. [32]. The use of different waste or virgin thermoplastics seems to be uneconomical due to cost of blended and non-compatibility of the thermoplastics which may require a new compatibilizer. The use of natural materials for modification of virgin and waste thermoplastics remains a potential technique for thermoplastic recyclates. Therefore, the major reasons for modification of plastic resins in the industries include to meet specific processing and performance specification of a plastic product that is not satisfied by a single component, to upgrade the properties of postconsumer plastic wastes, for scientific research, for interest and development, and for financial optimization [31, 32]. However, degradation of thermoplastic materials by chemical processes is a function of reaction between the components and the environment. The reduction in photodegradation of thermoplastics by ultraviolet absorber as an antioxidant shows a retardation effect of oxidation [36]. Therefore, the aging process of thermoplastics can be influenced by the synergistic action of factors like electromagnetic radiation and thermal energy on the oxidation, favoring the initiation of degradation by excision of chain and radicals of thermoplastics [36].
\nThe incorporation of the carbon nanotube, zeolite, LDPE, PP, natural fillers, and fibers with treatment into the waste polymer for reuse has resulted to an improvement of the composite strength and enhancement of compatibility of blended components of composites as presented in Table 3. The improvement has been reported to be a function of compatibilizer types, size and particle shape, branching, and dimensions of polymeric chains as reported by [37]. In the case of natural fibers or fillers, it seems fibers or fillers containing compatibilizer which may or may not have been identified. Moreover, the melting flow rate of recycling of postconsumer or waste HDPE remains inconsistent with stabilization, and the consistency can be achieved with a mixture of phosphite and phenolic. This might be uneconomical. The enhancement in mechanical properties and performance of the HDPE matrix and composite product by additives (sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), and acetic anhydride) have also been attributed to increased interfacial adhesion coupled with its improved water absorption [21], biodegradability, biocompatibility, antimicrobial activity, and non-toxicity with the use of chitosan compounds [38]. The density of recycled virgin and waste HDPE is within the range of 0.02–0.96 g/cm3 [36, 39]. Increase in density can be ascribed to chemocrystallization, annealing effects and changes in lamellar orientation, fiber loading, moisture absorption, and aging of HDPE products [35]. Annealing effect involves changes in spherulite size of HDPE material after heat effect, and aged surface shows loss of gloss observed as a result of environmental effect through oxidative stress and disappearance of crystalline molecule of the HDPE materials produced by a surface contraction. The surface contractions initiate micro-cracks and lead to embrittlement of ductile HDPE polymers [35].
\nMaterials | \nModification | \nTensile strength (MPa) | \nTensile modulus (MPa) | \nFlexural strength (MPa) | \nFlexural modulus (MPa) | \nHardness | \nImpact strength (J/m2) | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Virgin HDPE | \n— | \n21 | \n189 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n6.8 | \n[33] | \n
Virgin HDPE | \nUsing LDPE | \n22.5 | \n860 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n135 | \n[28] | \n
Virgin HDPE | \n3% Carbon nanotube and 2 cycles | \n36 | \n1700 | \n\n | \n | \n | 5 | \n[40] | \n
Waste HDPE | \nNatural zeolite, clinoptilolite (K2,Na2,Ca)Al6Si3O72. 23H2O of 1–2% with particle size <40 μm | \n21.8 | \n218 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n25 | \n[37] | \n
Waste HDPE | \n— | \n24.619 | \n836.25 | \n27.114 | \n1390.7 | \n21 | \n859.3 | \n[20] | \n
Combretum dolichopetalum fiber | \n32.427 | \n939.6 | \n18.2 | \n1568.1 | \n28 | \n496.0462 | \n||
Acetic anhydride-treated Combretum dolichopetalum fiber | \n38.5153 | \n1220 | \n8.5111 | \n19944.24 | \n33 | \n787.3806 | \n||
NaOH-treated Combretum dolichopetalum fiber | \n34.9041 | \n984.99 | \n32.067 | \n2277.15 | \n39 | \n469.5912 | \n||
Waste HDPE | \n— | \n27.628 | \n792.59 | \n34.519 | \n1390.7 | \n24 | \n962.8 | \n[21] | \n
Cissus populnea fiber | \n30.4827 | \n839.022 | \n36.1904 | \n1425.89 | \n30 | \n155.795 | \n||
Cissus populnea fiber treated with NaOH | \n29.6903 | \n793.05 | \n39.3962 | \n1568.44 | \n35 | \n398.62 | \n||
Cissus populnea fiber treated with SLS | \n31.8013 | \n823.245 | \n39.568 | \n1455.68 | \n38 | \n394.683 | \n
Mechanical properties of modified virgin and waste HDPE materials.
The high quantity of waste LDPE and its average mechanical properties coupled with influence of aging of the product have not motivated utilization in many packaging applications such as bags, film, and pallet covers, but modifications may improve the mechanical properties. Also, the qualities of LDPE composites have been linked with poor interfacial adhesion between both phases of individual constituents which explain weak mechanical properties. This interfacial adhesion has a direct relation to compatibility. The processing conditions of machine also influenced the compatibility of the polymers. Some modifications of LDPE are presented in Table 4. The use of virgin and waste or recycled PP to modify LDPE using twin and single-screw extruder has been reported by Sylvie and Jean-jacques [12]. In the report, PP increases some mechanical properties such as tensile strength and modulus with reduced impact strength of the LDPE for single extruding machine, although the twin extruding machine gave better mechanical properties due to improvement in homogeneity of the polymer. The use of compatibilizer such as EPDM, graft copolymer (PE-g-poly (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene), and ethylene-propylene copolymer enhanced the interaction between the polymers and resilience, thereby improving the mechanical properties of the LDPE/PP composites. The use of compatibilizer in virgin and recycled polyolefins influenced the quality of the composites based on technology and recycled waste of LDPE by the addition of EPDM compatibilizer [41]. The presence of ethylene-propylene diene monomer (EPDM) revealed the variation in properties such as wide-angle x-ray diffraction (WAXD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and mechanical properties of virgin and recycled LDPE/PP [36]. The destruction of thermal and mechanical properties of virgin LDPE and PP as well as blended LDPE/PP was found to be greater than those from recycled polyolefins because of the absence of antiaging in the virgin products. The impact EPDM modifier have been reported on stability of LDPE/PP products based on natural and influenced ageing conditions with improved mechanical (tensile and impact strength) properties of the LDPE/PP with increase in modifier content. The impact EPDM modifier significantly improved the compatibility of recycled LDPE and PP and reduces the recrystallization of PP in the blends during aging and decreases the formation of the imperfect β polymorph crystal which depends on the presence of additives resulting in chain mobility retardation, presence of shear stress changing the chain structures, and fast cooling conditions at foil production as reported by Borovanska et al. [36]. Moreover, the significant improvement in rheological property such as viscosity, crystallinity index, and tensile properties of the recycled LDPE can be achieved by linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) blend with a ratio of 4:1 and applicably good for film products at 60% blended LLDPE [15]. The modification of recycled LDPE by PP using injection molding machine was also reported that the tensile properties increases with reduction in impact strength as increase in PP content as well as reduced processing temperature [42].
\nThermoplastics | \nModification | \nTensile strength (MPa) | \nTensile modulus (MPa) | \nHardness | \nImpact strength (J/m2) | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Virgin LDPE | \nStarch grafted with maleic anhydride | \n16.34 | \n520.16 | \n— | \n— | \n[45] | \n
Virgin LDPE | \nVirgin PP | \n25.1 | \n\n | \n | 5.5–6.5 | \n[36] | \n
Waste LDPE | \nNatural zeolite, clinoptilolite (K2,Na2,Ca)Al6Si3O72. 23H2O of 1–2% with particle size <40 μm | \n19.5–22.9 | \n195.73–232.14 | \n\n | 18–26 | \n[37] | \n
Waste LDPE | \nWaste 10% PP | \n8.7–12.1 | \n241–336.1 | \n\n | 23–37.2 | \n[41] | \n
Waste LDPE | \nWaste 10% PP + EPDM | \n7.6–8.5 | \n211.1–236.1 | \n\n | 46.4–53 | \n[36] | \n
Waste LDPE | \n— | \n30.33 | \n240.7 | \n2.3 | \n583 | \n[47] | \n
Waste LDPE | \nHusk filler | \n31.58 | \n565.7 | \n13.15 | \n600 | \n[48] | \n
Okpa filler | \n35.14 | \n861.2 | \n17.53 | \n583 | \n[47] | \n|
Virgin LDPE | \n10% PP using single-screw extruder | \n9.4 | \n205 | \n\n | 15.2 | \n[12] | \n
Waste LDPE | \n10% PP | \n10.0 | \n248 | \n\n | 12.3 | \n[12] | \n
Virgin LDPE | \n10% PP using twin screw extruder | \n9.6 | \n226 | \n\n | 8.5 | \n|
Waste LDPE | \n10% PP using twin screw extruder | \n10.3 | \n256 | \n\n | 12.6 | \n|
Waste LDPE | \n10% PP + 5% graft copolymer using twin screw extruder | \n11.8 | \n280 | \n\n | 12.5 | \n|
Waste LDPE | \n10% PP + 5% EPDM using twin screw extruder | \n10.1 | \n245 | \n\n | 16.5 | \n
Mechanical properties of unmodified and modified virgin and waste LDPE.
The effect of wood flour of Pinus radiata as fillers at a constant loading of 45 wt.% of recycled post-consumed plastic waste reported to be influenced by virgin PP [43]. In the report, the addition of virgin PP improved tensile and flexural moduli and flexural strength of wood plastic/LDPE composites (WPC). The highest mechanical properties of recycled LDPE composites have been reported for wood polymer composites with virgin PP (5%) and lower mechanical properties with higher virgin PP content of 55 and 71.5% compared to PE. The moisture absorption of WPC with virgin PP blend reported to be higher than without PP with adverse effect on the mechanical properties when immersed in water. More so, the use of virgin PP delay degradation and lower the thermal stability of WPC. This is also stay in agreement with report of Zhao et al. [44]. The decrease in tensile strength with increasing starch content in starch/LDPE composites attributed to incompatibility of the hydrophobic LDPE and hydrophilic starch and the increase in stiffness attributed to better dispersion of starch in LDPE matrix [45]. This incompatibility demands the use of compatibilizers such as styrene/ethylene-co-butylene/styrene grafted with maleic anhydride (SEBS-g-MA) and anhydride grafted polypropylene (PP-g-MA), Mixture Irganox 1098/Irganox 1078-Irgafos 168/Chimassorb 944 [44, 46].
\nThe novel application of natural materials (filler or fibers) is to enhance undesirable properties and poor biodegradation of LDPE matrix. The use of rice husk, bambara, and mahogany fillers with improved tensile strength and modulus, flexural strength and modulus, and hardness with reduction in impact strength has been reported [47, 48, 49]. The increase in mechanical, thermal, and biodegradation behaviors of the composites was attributed to improved interfacial adhesion and compatibility. The reduction in impact strength is a result of fiber dispersion, uneven distribution, and micropore formation in the composites. It can be deduced that natural fillers or fibers contain a compatibilizer which has not been identified. There is also limited report on the modifications of fillers and fibers for enhancement of mechanical, physical (water absorption, density, etc.), thermal, and electrical properties (conductivity, dielectric properties, etc.) of LDPE matrix. Chemical recycling (pyrolysis) had been a major technology for waste or postconsumer LDPE to save the environment, but not cost-effective; emissions of some constituents and required additives or modifiers (catalysts) for considerable yields of the products in many applications [24, 30]. Incorporation of natural zeolite, clinoptilolite ((K2,Na2,Ca)Al6Si3072), improved the strength of the filled composites, rheological behavior, thermal, compatibility of the individual polymeric components, morphology, and texture of the moldings from recycled polyolefins which strongly depends on the type of zeolite, size and shape, branching, dimensions, and types of polymeric chains [37].
\nChemical materials have been used as catalysts in the pyrolysis of plastics to obtain liquid products with higher yield and selectivity. Hence, numerous experiments were performed to find out the best catalyst to produce the most desirable products, taking the economic factor into consideration. Pyrolysis of plastic waste to fuel involves many limitations that prohibit the industrial plastic recycling process including the difficulty in modifying it from batch process to continuous process. In industrial process, plastic waste is fed into the reactor directly through hopper for melting in pyrolysis reactor with high melting point (300°C and above, depending on the types of plastic). Therefore, any temperature lower than its meting point may result to solidification of the plastics in the process pipelines, hence causing blockage of the pipelines.
\nThe increase in commercial vehicles and road usage with construction resulted to increase in demand of bitumen for pavement and road construction. Yet, the durability of the bitumen depends on appropriate binder for enhancement of performance of bitumen. The use of little quantity of virgin thermoplastics provides a reasonable performance with bitumen but is uneconomical compared with only bitumen. The utilization of waste PVC for effective performance as bitumen binder in pavement and road construction products seems to be interesting because of its low cost and because it is one of the abundant thermoplastics that causes environmental threat [50]. The applications of PVC have been reported to hinder and be not suitable for many applications because of incompatibility as a result of many factors [51]. PVC possesses high melting points which hindered the mixing, and it is impractical to make any further attempts to incorporate it in some applications like bitumen road construction. Recycled LDPE/PVC blends have been modified using EPDM as effective toughening, compatibilizer, and dispersant agent in applications. Recyclability of PVC waste can be achieved mechanically without modifications or use of new plasticizer since the separation of other mixed plastics is possible through triboelectrostatic technology [50, 52]. The technology of triboelectrostatics depends on the ability of polymer to the electron loses or gains because electrons gains and charges negatively may be as a result of higher affinity of polymers, whereas loss of electrons and positively charge may be attributed to polymer with the lower affinity. Because of high electronegativity of chloride ions, it can mix with many polymers such as PET, PP, PS, and PE with enhanced properties as reported by Hamad et al. [50]. The use of wood fillers or fibers as natural modifiers have been reported to improve mechanical properties of recycled PCV rather the recyclability [53], and slightly reduction in mechanical (tensile, flexural, hardness and impact) and structural properties (i.e., decrease in molecular weight due to molecular chain scission caused by shear stress involved in reprocessing) [54]. The reduction in properties exists because of incompatibility or poor intermolecular interaction which can be modified by surface techniques.
\nPolyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a transparent semicrystalline, long-chain thermoplastic polyester which can be produced by a polymerization of terephthalic acid with ethylene glycol and remains the most used thermoplastics in many applications [55, 56]. It is characterized as easy to handle, durable, strong, thermally with low glass transition temperature, and chemically stable with low gas permeability [57]. It exhibits brittle behavior, good mechanical properties, and dimensional stability as well as good gas and chemical resistance which resulted to its wide applications [58]. Waste PET may be in bottles, foils, and cords from tire [57, 58]. Globally, the rate of generation of waste PET is about 20 million tonnes that amounted to about 15% which is alarming due to population growth, urbanization, standard of living, and cost of production, but the recycling rate of waste PET found to be 29.3% lower [56]. The issue with the reuse of waste PET may be associated with size, content, mixing process, type of mixer, temperature, time profile during mixing process, and contaminations or additives like stabilizers and pigments [58, 59]. In bitumen asphalt modification for the road construction, the mixing process may be wet or dry process. The wet process involves blending of thermoplastics and bitumen in a mixer and then mixing of thermoplastic modified bitumen to aggregates, while the latter involves incorporation of thermoplastics to very hot aggregates prior to mixing with bitumen [56]. Waste PET recycling employs dry process, and it can be modified to achieve better feasibility in terms of adhesion between the aggregates and binder, stability, and even mixing and minimizes the pore formation and moisture absorption. Appropriate recycling process conditions of waste PET make significant environmental and economy impacts through conservation of natural resources, environmental pollution, energy, and enhancement of engineering and physical properties of construction materials [58]. An increase in recycled PET content caused a decrease in melt flow index or rheological properties of the aggregate [29]. Recycled PET exhibits pseudo-plastic behavior, and it has been used to improve the rheological properties of asphalt as well as increased the viscosity and stiffness and enhanced the softening of stone mastic asphalt (SMA) [58].
\nIncorporation of recycled PET with appropriate content and size increased the compressive, tensile, and flexural strength/s and ductility of concrete, creates lightweight aggregate of development of building materials, or decreases the bulk density of the composites, thereby helping polymer concrete in saving energy and minimizing the problem of solid waste posed by PET as well as other thermoplastics provided the impurities were removed prior to reprocessing [58].
\nSynthetic thermoplastics such as HDPE and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) blend nano silicon (IV) oxide (SiO2), and polylactic acid (PLA) can modify PET waste to improve its performance using the extrusion process based on a different mixing ratio. The use of virgin HDPE has been reported to improve rheological and mechanical properties when compared to waste PET using a less than 5% virgin HDPE [60]. The mechanical properties of composites of recycled PET improved with increase in incorporated nano silicate (SiO2) content blended with ABS [61]. Modification of PET waste by the addition of small amounts of virgin PLA using melt mixing technology also shows reduction in viscosity of the composites with higher thermal sensitivity and mechanical properties compared to recycled PET [50, 62]. It should be noted that the performance of recycling of waste PET was hindered due to the presence of impurities, decomposition, and degradation of polymer chains as reported by Imamura et al. [57]. The modifications by compatibilizer like ethylene glycidyl methacrylate (EGMA) modified PE copolymer significantly improved the miscibility of recycled PET with PP, PE, and PS molecules, respectively, unlike linear low density polyethylene copolymer (LDPE) [57]. The use of natural materials to modify the properties of recycled PET such as fibers or fillers is not available in literature. The efficacy and performance of recycled PET applications required optimum conditions of modified process, PET size and content, and additive or modifier content.
\nDue to favorable qualities of PP like density, versatility, photodegradation, and cheapness in cost of production, it is replacing many materials used for artifacts such as packaging products and automobile bumpers. The increasing rate of use of polypropylene coupled with inherent incompatibility of polyester and polyolefins seeks for improvement in the performance of PP in many applications [63]. The improvement in PP performance has been achieved through modification techniques by incorporation of grafted maleic anhydride (PP-g-MAH), clay-based nano-fillers, inorganic nanoscale particles, and poly(trimethylene terephthalate) (PTT) blends using organically modified montmorillonite (Cloisite nanoclays) as compatibilizers for the purpose of improving compatibility, mechanical, crystallization, and melting behavior of PP composites [64, 65, 66]. PTT is an aromatic polyester with combined properties of PET and poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT). The factors that influence the properties of the PP composites are mix or blend ratio, crystallization temperature, compatibility process time, and size [63]. There is loss of mechanical properties for composites of LDPE and HDPE modified with PP which is due to incompatibility of recycled PP/LDPE and PP/HDPE composites [39]. The modification of recycled PP with HDPE reveals a partial compatibility which caused an improvement in tensile strength and elongation with the use of EPDM compatibilizer [67]. The modification of recycled LDPE/PP with 1% montmorillonite nanoclay exhibits appreciable improvement in strength, physical properties, and stability of bitumen [68].
\nThe microstructural behavior in this content is limited to Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy as discussed in subSection 3.1.
\nFTIR analysis of recycled thermoplastics exhibits no extra peaks for the blends, neither any shifts nor changes in the absorption bands of the carbonyl, hydroxyl, and carboxylic groups of HDPE, LDPE, PET, PVC, and PP resins which indicates the absence of any specific interaction, entanglement, or chemical reaction between the polymers and modifiers as reported by Mamoor et al. (Figure 3) [29]. In the case of modification of recycled thermoplastics using untreated natural fiber, there exists a shift or change in the absorption peaks of the carbonyl, hydroxyl, and carboxylic groups of the fiber-reinforced recycled thermoplastics, thereby influencing the physical and mechanical properties of the matrix and interfacial between the fiber and HDPE as reported by researchers [21, 69]. This resulted in improved quality of the thermoplastic products. The shift, change, appearance, and disappearance of absorption peaks correspond to reaction of the functional groups. This functional group dictates chemical reaction between the polymers and modifier, resulted to change in absorption peak correlate change in strength and modulus of the thermoplastics.
\nFTIR of recycled thermoplastics (a) HDPE [29], (b) LDPE [30], (c) PCV [29], (d) PET [29], and (e) PP [29].
The scanning electron microscopy depicts the morphology of virgin and recycled thermoplastics at fracture surfaces when stressed and characterized the ductile, toughness, stiffness, and brittle nature of HDPE, LDPE, PCV, PET, and PP without modification [32], but improvement in compatibility using EPDM compatibilizer has been reported [2, 70]. The improvement in rheological morphology does not indicate an improvement in compatibility as well as mechanical properties [71]. Modification of recycled HDPE with treated natural fiber using NaOH, SLS, acetic anhydride, CaCO3 filler, and zeolites as well as synthetic fibers is characterized with improvement in polymer dispersion, even distribution of fibers, interfacial adhesion, fiber tearing, micro-crack formation, modifier content and size, nature of the modifier, and reduction in void formation [20, 43, 72, 73, 74, 75]. This indicated the enhanced compatibility which corroborates the improvement in physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of the modified recycled thermoplastics and dictates its applications.
\nThe application of the HDPE composites is a function of the favorable properties coupled with cost implication of the production, and it may be affected by additional modified agents such as fiber or filler, NaOH, acetic anhydride, zeolite, and sodium lauryl sulfate. The use of recycled HDPE composites has been reported for many applications such as packaging (food storage containers and bottles for milk jugs) [13, 28, 38], banners, swimming pool installation, corrosion protection for steel pipelines, folding chairs and tables, electrical and plumbing boxes, plastic surgery (skeletal and facial reconstruction) [27], modified asphalt for pavement and road construction [29, 59, 75], housewares, industrial wrapping and gas pipes [30], and storage sheds, enhancing the economic, health, and social values as well as minimizing environmental issues that might be posed by HDPE disposal [38]. Applications of recycled HDPE in the encapsulation of radioactive, hazardous, and mixed wastes have been reported by Lageraaen and Kalb [76].
\nIncorporation of recycled LDPE at concentrations ranging from 2 to 5% by mass of bitumen possesses consistent desirable properties for bitumen asphalt applications [51, 69]. Utilization of LDPE for production of liquid milk packaging [16], bread packaging and sandwich bags, housewares, toys, buckets, wire and cable jacketing, and carpet [13, 38, 68] and use of recycled thermoplastics for encapsulation of hazardous, radioactive, and mixed waste disposal save the environment from economic, environmental, and health issues [76].
\nPolyvinyl chloride waste has been used in plumbing pipes and fittings, but its utilization as a binder in bitumen applications has been found unsuccessful due to high melting points which hindered the mixing as a result of poor compatibility [51]. PVC sheets have been reported to be employed for making food trays, cling film and blister packages [13], household appliances, packaging, construction, medicine such as human rehabilitation, electronics, automotive and aerospace components [29], and building floor applications [52].
\nRecycled PET could be used for making waterproof [13] water and soft drink bottles, thermally stabilized films (e.g., capacitors, graphics, film base and recording tapes, etc.), electrical components, and textile products [58] if properly modified. The use of recycled waste PET as a modifier in bitumen road and pavement construction is hindered by mixing ratio and processing conditions due to high melting point [51]. It is widely used in making automobile part, electronics, food packaging, house ware, lighting product, power tools, sports tools, x-ray sheets, and photographic applications [55, 59].
\nRecycled polypropylene can be used for packaging articles, automobile bumper, foams, bottle tops, carpets, and household components [13] and in making straws and sweet wrappings, PP powder, and PP mulch at concentrations ranging from 2 to 5% by mass of bitumen consistently desirable for bitumen asphalt applications [51]. The recycled PP is also applicable in 3D printing filament [77]. An application of recycled PP is dependent on good compatibility with modified materials with synergistic effects.
\nGlobally, disposal of postconsumer or waste thermoplastics into the environment is alarming and posed a serious economic, environmental, health, and social burden. Employing appropriate technology, especially mechanical recycling with modifications of thermoplastics, can save the world from threat that might be posed by thermoplastic wastes. Appropriate additives such as natural fibers and fillers with eco-friendly, less expensive, available, and degradable potentials should encourage saving the world from this serious menace. The use of recycling technique with appropriate modification will not only exhibit conservation of the waste thermoplastics but altered the physical, rheological, mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties of the recycled thermoplastics for effective applications. An effective and sustainable application of recycled thermoplastics depends on optimization of process conditions, parameter, modifying agents and techniques, equipment, and time. Hence, the quality and performance of the recycled aggregates or composites are enhanced.
\nThere is no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. An Author, one must:
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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