\r\n\tThe objective of the proposed book is to give a multi-perspective view on role of autophagy in injury, infection and cancer diseases. The book chapters aim to elucidate autophagy pathways in sustaining the host defense mechanisms, adaptive homeostasis as well as in remodeling and regeneration events that are essential for recuperation of the affected tissues. A specific subject for discussion will be up-regulation and/or impairment of autophagy and crinophagy in phagocytes/granulocytes and adult stem cells.
\r\n
\r\n\tRationale: \r\n\tThe cell/tissue responses to acute stress, trauma/injury or pathogens are mediated by expression and release of plethora of paracrine and endocrine effectors including DAMPs, PAMPs and inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, defensins, and reactive intermediate species. These effectors drive the integrative interactome constituted by hubs of the acute phase response modules, the inflammatory response modules, the module of the adaptive homeostatic response in the damaged parenchymal cells, vascular cells, immunocompetent cells and emerging stem cells. Among these defense mechanisms is autophagy – the lysosomal pathway for processing of compromised cell constituents and/or bacterial and viral pathogens. In this light, explication of the role of autophagy in cellular pathology may arouse R&D of new modalities for management of devastating diseases such as injury, acute infections or cancer.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3daed6048bc8ff8368c4279558f109d7",bookSignature:"Dr. Nikolai Gorbunov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7997.jpg",keywords:"Autophagy-related Genes, Autophagy-related Proteins, Organelle Network, Signaling Mechanisms and Modulators, Cell Damage, Tissue Damage, PAMP and DAMP, Inflammasome, Autophagy Evasion, Cancer Stem Cells, Cancer Target Therapy, Disease",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 14th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 13th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 1st 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",middleName:null,surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180960/images/system/180960.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gorbunov obtained his Ph.D. degree in Biology from the Russian Academy Sciences. Then, he was a recipient of the NRC NAS (http://sites.nationalacademies.org/pga/rap/) and the Department of Energy fellowship awards to pursue postdoctoral training in translational science at the University of Pittsburgh and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (https://www.emsl.pnl.gov/emslweb Washington, USA). His translational research area has encompassed molecular pathology of trauma and countermeasures against acute radiation injury that was explored at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (http://wrair-www.army.mil) and the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences. His research interests are the disease-specific mechanisms driving alterations and defense responses in organelles, cells and tissues constituting biological barriers. 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Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
Optical fiber sensors (OFS) appeared just after the invention of the practical optical fiber by Corning Glass Works in 1970, now Corning Incorporated, that produced the first fiber with losses below 20 dB/km. At the beginning of this era, optical devices such as laser, photodetectors and the optical fibers were very expensive, afforded only by telecom companies to circumvent the old saturated copper telephone network. With the great diffusion of the optical fiber technology during the 1980’s and on, optoelectronic devices became less expensive, what favored their use in OFS.
OFS can be applied in many branches of the industry but we will concentrate here the electrical power industry. In this area, the operators need to measure and monitor some important physical parameters that include:
Strain (µє)
Vibration of structures and machines
Electric current (from A to kA)
Voltage (from mV to MV)
Impedance (µΩ)
Leakage current of insulators (µA to mA)
Temperature
Pressure
Gas concentration
Distance between stationary and rotating or moving parts
In the electrical power industry (EPI) we have two facts that can cause collapse of an electronic sensor: presence of high voltage and presence of high electromagnetic interference. Therefore, depending on where we want to measure a parameter it can be very difficult or even impossible to use a conventional sensor. The best option to circumvent this is through the use of an OFS, because the fiber is made of dielectric material sand, therefore, it is possible to place them very close or even over a high potential conductor and they do not necessarily need electrical power at the sensor location.
Another problem with conventional sensors is that they all need electric energy to work. However, providing electric energy at the sensor location is sometimes difficult if the device needs to be far away from any appropriated power supply. It happens in long high voltage transmission lines, at high voltage potentials, along pipe-lines or in deep ocean, for instance. Since OFS are passive sensors they do not need electric energy to work.
Therefore we can mention some, very specific characteristics of OFS that are well exploited when applied to the EPI:
High immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
Electrical insulation
Absence of metallic parts
Local electrical power not required
Lightweight and compactness
Easy maintenance
Chemically inert even against corrosion
Work over long distances
Several sensors can be multiplexed on the same fiber
There are many options to develop an OFS. The easiest way is by making the measurement to modulate the light amplitude that is the power, and ending up with an amplitude modulated sensor. These sensors were very common at the beginning of OFS era but they gradually were substituted by wavelength based sensors. These are more stable and self-calibrated as the wavelength does not depend on losses due connectors, modal drifts, macro bends, or LED and LASER ageing/drifts.
In this Chapter we will concentrate on a very special type of OFS: the Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors.
2. Theory and models of FBG
Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) technology is one of the most popular choices for optical fiber sensors for strain or temperature measurements due to their simple manufacture, as we will see later on, and due to the relatively strong reflected signal. They are formed by a periodic modulations of the index of refraction of the fiber core along the longitudinal direction and can be produced by various techniques. The term fiber Bragg grating was borrowed from the Bragg law and applied to the periodical structures inscribed inside the core of conventional telecom fiber. Therefore, before entering the theory of fiber Bragg grating itself, it is worth to go back one century behind in order to review the Bragg law.
Sir William Lawrence Bragg, was born in 1890, a British physicist and X-ray crystallographer, was the discoverer, in 1912, of the Bragg law of X-ray diffraction. This principle is used until today for the study and determination of crystal structure, particularly in thin film research. Sir Bragg, together with his father, won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1915 for an important step in the development of X-ray crystallography.
Bragg diffraction occurs for an electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is the same order of magnitude of the atomic spacing, when incident upon a crystalline material. In this case the radiation is scattered in a specular fashion by the atoms of the material and experiences constructive interference in accordance to Bragg\'s law. For a crystalline solid with lattice planes separated by a distance d the waves are scattered and interfere constructively if the path length of each wave is equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength. Figure 1 shows the idea. Bragg\'s law describes the condition for constructive interference from several crystallographic planes of the crystalline lattice separated by a distance d:
2dsinθ=nλE1
\n\t\t\t
Where θ is the incident angle, n is an integer and λ is the wavelength. A diffraction pattern is obtained by measuring the intensity of the scattered radiation as a function of the angle θ. Whenever the scattered waves satisfy the Bragg condition it is observed a strong intensity in the diffraction pattern, known as Bragg peak.
Figure 1.
An incident radiation is reflected by the lattice structure of a crystal and will interfere constructively if the Bragg law is obeyed.
The first observations of index of refraction changes were noticed in germane silicate fibers and were reported by Kenneth Hill and co-workers in 1978 [1]. They described a permanent grating written in the core of the fiber by an argon ion laser line at 488 nm launched into the fiber by a microscope objective. This particular grating had a very weak index modulation, resulting in a narrow-band reflection filter at the writing wavelength. In reality, this phenomenon happened by chance, when they injected a high power blue light into de fiber, unexpectedly, after a few minutes, the transmitted light decayed. It was Friday but they were so puzzled with this phenomenon that Hill returned to his laboratory on Saturday to make a new experiment. He wanted to know where the light was going to and he had a clue. He used a thin microscope slide as a beam splitter in order to monitor a possible reflection from the fiber and there was the missing light [2]. The explanation is that at the end of the fiber about 4% of the light was reflected by Fresnel reflection which, in its way backwards, interfered with the ongoing light producing an interference pattern. This pattern contained peaks and valleys of a stationary wave which imprinted permanently the pattern into the core of the fiber as an index of refraction modulation. Initially, the reflected light intensity is low, but after some time, it grows in intensity until almost all the light launched into the fiber is back-reflected. The growth in back-reflected light was explained in terms of a new effect called “photosensitivity”.
After the inscription of the grating into de fiber’s core, due the periodic modulation of the index of refraction, light guided along the core of the fiber will be weakly reflected by each grating plane by Fresnel effect. The reflected light from each grating plane will join together with the other reflections in the backward direction. This addition may be constructive or destructive, depending whether the wavelength of the incoming light meets the Bragg condition of Eq. (1).
Now, according to Eq. (1), since θ=90º and d is the distance between peaks of the interference pattern, λ=2d for n=1 is the approximate wavelength of the reflection peak. That is, the fiber now acts as a dichroic mirror, reflecting part of the incoming spectrum. Equation (1), developed for vacuum, has to be adapted for silica, since the distances traveled by light are affected by the index of refraction of the fiber:
λB=2neffΛE2
\n\t\t\t
Therefore the Bragg wavelength (λB) of an FBG is a function of the effective refractive index of the fiber (ηeff) and the periodicity of the grating (Λ).
The photosensitivity phenomenon in optical fibers remained unexplored for several years after its discovery, mainly due the fact that the resulted Bragg wavelength was always a function of the wavelength of the light source used and very far away from the interested region of the spectrum, namely, the third telecommunication window. However, a renewed interest appeared years later with the demonstration of the side writing technique by Gerry Meltz and Bill Morey of United Technology Research Center [3] and later on with the possibility of tuning the Bragg wavelength into the C Band of the telecom spectrum.
Equation (2), also known as the Bragg reflection wavelength, is the peak wavelength of the narrowband spectral component reflected by the FBG. The FWHM (full-width-half-maximum) or bandwidth of this reflection depends on several parameters, particularly the grating length. Typically, the FWHM is 0.05 to 0.3 nm in most sensor applications. Figure 2 shows a typical Bragg reflection peak. The lateral lobes sometimes pose problems in automatic identification of the center wavelength and in telecom applications, such as wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), these side-lobes need to be suppressed in order to reduced the separation between the optical carriers, according to ITU-T-G.694.1 (International Telecommunications Union). The side-lobes can be suppressed during the FBG fabrication by a technique known as apodization.
Figure 2.
A typical Bragg reflection wave shape with its parameters defined.
From Eq. (2) we see that the Bragg wavelength only depends on the distance between gratings (Λ) and the effective index of refraction (neff).
Essentially, any external agent that is capable of changing Λ will displace the reflected spectrum centered at Bragg wavelength. A longitudinal deformation, due to an external force, for instance, may change both Λ and neff, the latter by the photo-elastic effect and the former by increasing the pitch of the grating. Equally, a variation in temperature can also change both parameters, via thermal dilation and thermo-optic effect respectively.
Therefore FBG is essentially a sensor of temperature and strain but, by designing the proper interface, many other measurements can be made to impose perturbation on the grating resulting in a shift in the Bragg wavelength which can then be used as a parameter transducer. Therefore, by using an FBG as a sensor we can obtain measurements of strain, temperature, pressure, vibration, displacement, etc.
Besides the influence of temperature and strain on the Bragg grating periodicity, one can also use neff, the fiber effective refractive index (RI) as a parameter transducer. The effective refractive index is an average of the RI of the core (nco) and the RI of the cladding (nclad) of the fiber. This parameter depends on how much the evanescent field of the core penetrates into the cladding. Since the fiber cladding diameter (125 µm) is much larger than the evanescent field, the effective RI is undisturbed by external influences. However by a corrosion of the fiber cladding by acid etching, one can reach the evanescent field which lies about 1.5 µm from the core interface. Now, the effective RI depends also on the surrounding RI, that is, the air, a gas or a liquid outside the fiber and we just created a device that can measure the RI of substances.
Since the strain or temperature measurements are encoded into wavelength shifts, these sensors are also self-calibrated because wavelength is an absolute parameter. Thus these sensors do not drift on the total light levels, losses in the connecting fibers and couplers or light source power. Additionally, the wavelength encoded nature of the output also allows the use of wavelength division multiplexing technique (WDM) by assigning each sensor to a different wavelength range of the available light source spectrum.
Using such a device and by injecting a spectrally broadband source of light into the fiber, a narrowband spectral component at the Bragg wavelength will be reflected by the grating. This spectral component will be missed in the transmitted signal, but the remainder of this light may be used to illuminate other FBGs in the same fiber, each one tuned to a different Bragg wavelength. The final result of such an arrangement is that we will have all Bragg peak reflections of each FBG back at the beginning of the fiber, each one in its specific wavelength range.
In order to calculate the sensitivity of the Bragg wavelength with temperature and strain we start from Eq. (2) and notice that the sensitivity with temperature is the partial derivative with respect of temperature:
ΔλBΔT=2neff∂Λ∂T+2Λ∂neff∂TE3
\n\t\t\t
Substituting twice (2) in (3) we get:
ΔλBΔT=1Λ∂Λ∂TλB+1neff∂neff∂TλBE4
or rearranging,
ΔλBλB=1Λ∂Λ∂TΔT+1neff∂neff∂TΔTE5
The first term is the thermal expansion of silica (α) and the second term is the thermo-optic coefficient (η) representing the temperature dependence of the refractive index (dn/dT). Substituting we have:
ΔλBλB=α+ηΔTE6
\n\t\t\t
The sensitivity with strain is the partial derivative of (2) with respect to displacement:
ΔλBΔL=2neff∂Λ∂L+2Λ∂neff∂LE7
\n\t\t\t
Substituting twice (2) in (5), we have:
ΔλBλB=1Λ∂Λ∂LΔL+1neff∂neff∂LΔLE8
\n\t\t\t
The first term in Eq. (6) is the strain of the grating period due to the extension of the fiber. Suppose we have a length L of a fiber with an inscribed FBG in it. If we apply a stress on the fiber of ΔL then we will have an relative strain ΔL/L. At the same time if the FBG has a length LFBG it will experience a strain ΔLFBG/LFBG but since the FBG is in the fiber, then ΔLFBG/LFBG=ΔL/L. Since the Bragg displacement with extension equals the displacement of the grating period with the same extension and, therefore, the first term in Eq. (6) is the unit.
The second term in Eq. (6) is the photo-elastic coefficient (ρe), the variation of the index of refraction with strain. In some solids, depending on the Poisson ratio of the material, this effect is negative, that is, when one expands a transparent medium, as an optical fiber for instance, the index of refraction decreases due to the decrease of density of the material. Then, when an extension is applied to the fiber, the two terms in Eq. (6) produce opposite effects, one by increasing the distance between gratings and thus augmenting the Bragg wavelength and the other by decreasing the effective RI and thus decreasing the Bragg wavelength. The combined effect of both phenomena is the classical form of the Bragg wavelength displacement with strain:
ΔλBλB=1-ρeεzE9
\n\t\t\t
where εz is the longitudinal strain of the grating. Combining (4) and (7) together we finally end up with the sensitivity of the Bragg wavelength with temperature and strain:
ΔλBλB=1-ρeεz+α+ηΔTE10
\n\t\t\t
The parameters in (8) have the following values for a silica fiber with a germanium doped core:
ρe=0.22,
α=0.55 x 10-6/ºC,
and
η=8.6 x 10-6/ºC.
Thus the sensitivity of the grating to temperature and strain at the wavelength range of 1550 nm, after substituting the constants in (8) are:
ΔλBΔT=14.18pm/°CE11
and:
ΔλBΔε=1.2pm/μεE12
\n\t\t\t
These theoretical values, though, are not absolute as each FBG of the same fabrication batch will present slightly different sensitivities, as we will see later in the following sections.
3. Temperature compensation
Equation (8) shows that the Bragg displacement is a function of both strain and temperature. By observing only ΔλB one cannot tell if the displacement was due to strain, temperature or both. If one wants to measure only temperature, the FBG must be protected against strain which can be simply done by loosely inserting the FBG into a small-bore rigid tubing. However, if one wants to measure strain, it is very difficult to stop variation of local temperature to reach the FBG; instead, we have to compensate this variation. In order to do this we have to measure the local temperature, by a thermistor, for instance, and apply Eq. (4) to calculate the effect of temperature alone in the Bragg wavelength displacement. Then, the displacement of the Bragg wavelength due to strain alone is the total displacement observed minus the displacement due to temperature alone.
This approach is only valid if it was possible to electrically measure the temperature, which is not always the case since the local of interest could be a high voltage environment or a place with a high EMI.
The more elegant way is by the use of another FBG on the same fiber, protected against strain and at the same temperature as its neighbor. The two FBGs will be in the same fiber-optic and will provide two different Bragg reflections, one dependent on strain and temperature and the other dependent only on temperature, for compensation.
But since this FBG is strain free, the first term of (14) will not exist and Kε2 equals zero. Equations (11) and (14) can be written in matrix form:
ΔλB1ΔλB2=Kε1KT1Kε2KT2×ΔεΔTE19
\n\t\t\t
Equation (17) is called the wavelength shift matrix because its solution gives us the wavelength displacements of both FBGs as a function of temperature and strain. However, we need to find the sensing matrix that gives us the strain and temperature as a function of the wavelength displacement of each FBG. So, we multiply both sides of Eq. (17) by the inverse of the 2x2 matrix and get to:
ΔεΔT=Kε1KT1Kε2KT2-1×ΔλB1ΔλB2E20
\n\t\t\t
Inverting the 2x2 matrix we have the sensing matrix:
ΔεΔT=1Kε1KT2-Kε2KT1KT2-KT1-Kε2Kε1×ΔλB1ΔλB2E21
\n\t\t\t
In (19) we notice that if
Kε1KT2≈Kε2KT1E22
\n\t\t\t
then we would not have a possible solution for Eq. (19) because equations (11) and (14) would be two almost parallel lines. This would happen, for instance, if the two FBGs had the same coefficients and Bragg wavelength reflection and would, therefore displace equally. Notice that Eq. (12) and Eq. (15), as well as Eq. (13) and Eq. (16), respectively, differ only by the Bragg wavelength. So, to avoid the redundancy in Eq. (19) we can use FBGs with Bragg reflections wide apart.
Now we can solve Eq. (19) for strain and temperature:
Δε=1Kε1KT2-Kε2KT1KT2ΔλB1-KT1ΔλB2E23
\n\t\t\t
ΔT=1Kε1KT2-Kε2KT1Kε1ΔλB2-Kε2ΔλB1E24
\n\t\t\t
Equation (21) gives the real strain of FBG 1 as measured by ∆λB1, compensated against temperature variation measured by ∆λB2. Equation (22) gives the temperature of the sensors. It can be used for further compensation, as for instance the thermal dilation of the metallic parts of the setup.
4. Calibration of FBG with temperature and uncertainty assessment
As it will be seen below, Eq. (9) is not an exact model for the FBG behavior under temperature variation and therefore each FBG has to be independently calibrated in order to be possible to tell the temperature by the Bragg wavelength. In this section we demonstrate the procedure to calibrate an FBG chain made of five FBGs. In this study five FBGs were submitted to temperature variations between 20°C and 85°C in order to verify and quantify the parameters of Eq. (4) [4].
In order to measure temperature, we can use as many FBG as necessary, in different Bragg wavelengths; the only precaution is that each FBG\'s spectrum should not overlap with its neighbor during its displacement when the temperature varies. To obtain the largest range for five FBGs we distributed them along the available range of most FBGs interrogators, that is, 1530 nm-1570 nm.
The setup used to calibrate the FBGs is shown in Figure 3. The dotted square represents the optical system comprised of a commercial Bragg Meter (Spectral Eye 400 from FOS&S) that consists of an ASE (Amplified Spontaneous Emission) broadband source used to illuminate the FBGs via Port 1 of the optical circulator. The reflection spectrum of the FBGs returns through Port 2 and is directed via Port 3 to an embedded OSA where the reflected spectrum is detected and measured. All controls and data can be accessed by a computer connected to the USB port of the interrogator.
Figure 4 shows superimposed spectra of five FBGs recorded in a temperature variation from 20°C to 85°C.
Figure 3.
Schematic diagram of the measurement technique [4].
Figure 4.
Superimposed spectra of five FBGs recorded in a temperature variation from 20oC to 85oC[4].
The procedure to calibrate the sensors followed the sequence: they were immersed simultaneously into a controlled temperature bath and the Bragg wavelengths were monitored and recorded along with the temperature given by a NIST-traceable thermometer (TD 990, Thermolink, 0.1°C resolution and ±1°C accuracy). Five sets of measurements were performed for each sensor in the range of 20°C to 85°C. Table I shows Bragg shift for each temperature and for each FBG.
From the data in Table 1 it is possible to calculate the sensitivity of each sensor, as predicted by (4) and the accuracy of the measurement chain. The graph in Figure 5 was built from the data in Table 1.
Table 2 shows a summary of the calibration parameters: the theoretical and experimental sensitivities, the correlation coefficients of the curve fittings, the root mean square errors (RMSE) and maximum residual errors.
T (°C)
Average Bragg wavelength peak (nm)
FBG1
FBG2
FBG3
FBG4
FBG5
25
1536,001
1540,928
1545,833
1550,819
1555,723
30
1536,067
1540,995
1545,903
1550,888
1555,793
35
1536,128
1541,059
1545,971
1550,959
1555,865
40
1536,183
1541,116
1546,03
1551,015
1555,922
45
1536,245
1541,177
1546,092
1551,083
1555,987
50
1536,310
1541,247
1546,163
1551,147
1556,055
55
1536,368
1541,308
1546,224
1551,213
1556,119
60
1536,427
1541,368
1546,284
1551,273
1556,178
65
1536,497
1541,440
1546,358
1551,345
1556,253
70
1536,557
1541,501
1546,420
1551,408
1556,317
75
1536,618
1541,566
1546,484
1551,469
1556,383
80
1536,680
1541,627
1546,549
1551,539
1556,447
Table 1
Average Bragg center wavelength of each FBG under temperature variation [4]
Figure 5.
Wavelength shift versus temperature for each FBG [4].
Figure 6 shows the error analysis for FBG1; the maximum positive error was approximately 0.004°C at 30°C. The temperature error measurements for other sensors were within the range of ±0.007°C.
Figure 6.
Error analysis for FBG 1 [4].
All correlation coefficients are very close to unity and errors much smaller than 1°C. These errors are a combination of the uncertainty of the interrogation system, (±1 pm) and of the thermometer used. Using the FBG’s average sensitivity of 13 pm/°C (see Table 2), 1 pm in error means a temperature uncertainty of about 0.08°C which is much smaller that the error produced by the thermometer.
Figure 7.
Temperature calibration responses of FBG 1 [4].
Notice in Table 2 that the theoretical sensitivities predicted by Equation (3) are different from those obtained in the calibration experiment. Also, Eq. (1) shows λB as a function of neff, the average index of refraction between the pristine fiber core and that of the Ultra-Violet (UV)-irradiated core. The FBG fabrication processes is not automatic and the radiation time for each FBG inscription is not the same as the laser is turned off by the operator when Bragg reflection appears above the desired level. The UV modifies the index of refraction of the fiber core and also modifies the values of η in each FBG differently. These results in the slightly dispersed sensitivities found above. This effect is confirmed by [5] that demonstrated a technique for changing the temperature responsivity of FBGs through increased UV exposure over the FBG.
From the data in Table 2 it is possible to calculate the relationship between wavelength and temperature for each FBG. to-one fitting accuracy to the third decimal place in temperature and a correlation coefficient R2=0.99996, demonstrating a very good linearity and accuracy of FBG sensors for temperature measurements.
5. Photosensitivity in optical fibers
Photosensitivity in glass, as mentioned in Session 2, was discovered at the Communications Research Center in Canada, in 1978 by Hill and co-workers [1]. It was a new nonlinear effect in optical fibers and was called at that time of fiber photosensitivity.
A decade later after this discovery, Meltz and co-workers [3] have proposed a model for fiber photosensitivity. What motivated their model was that at first, fiber photosensitivity was detected only in fibers containing germanium as a dopant.
The model is based on the fact that when germanium-doped silica fibers are fabricated by MCVD technique, germania (GeO2) and silica (SiO2) in form of gases combine in high temperatures to produce the fiber. During the process though, there is a statistical probability that products like Ge-Ge, O-Ge-O, Ge20 and Ge-Si might be formed, which are defects in the fiber lattice and are called in the literature as “wrong bonds”. The fiber presents strong absorption peak at 245 nm, which is associated with these defects. When these defects are irradiated with UV light some absorptions bands appear and the index of refraction increases in these points.
The origins of photosensitivity and the change of the RI as a consequence have yet to be fully understood as no single model can explain the experimental results shown in the literature. So, it becomes apparent that photosensitivity is a function of several mechanisms such as photochemical, photomechanical, thermochemical, etc. [6].
One of the models that show consistencies with experimental results seems to be the compaction model based on the Lorentz-Lorenz law which states that the RI increases with material compression. This idea was pursued
These equations were fed into the software of the FBG interrogation system which returns the temperature of each sensor in a field application. Finally, it is possible to plot the calibrating temperature against measured temperature, as shown in Figure 7, presenting a one-by [7] that used UV Laser irradiation to produce thermally reversible, linear compaction in amorphous SiO2. An accumulated, incident dose of 2000 J/cm2 would produce an irreversible compaction and photoetching. The above results are in accordance with the fabrication of Type I and Type IIA FBG. Also, Laser compaction results were found to be consistent with those obtained using hydrostatic pressure. Therefore it was observed an approximately linear RI versus ΔV/V agreeing with the predictions of the Lorentz-Lorenz law.
Also, in accordance with this model of densification associated with the writing of Bragg gratings, Riant and co-workers [8] observed a transition mechanism between Type I and Type II gratings.
Notice that, when a transparent material is compressed we observe two effects that interfere with the RI. One is the increase of RI due to the increase of density of the material. The other is the photoelastic effect, which is negative for many optical media, and produces an opposite effect. However the compression produces an effect much stronger than the photoelastic effect and we normally observe an increase of RI in the irradiated parts of the FBG.
With the knowledge that the UV irradiation produces an increase on the RI we can now go further and observe physically the FBG. Figure 8 shows the core’s RI along the length of the fiber (z axis) with most frequent values of the parameters. The effective RI of the core is the average index of refraction of the irradiated portion of the core and is approximately 1.45. Due to the UV radiation the variation of the RI is about Δn=10-4. The grating period (Λ) is the same as the interference pattern, about 500 nm and the FBG length LFBG is around 10 mm.
Figure 8.
The Refraction Index variation of the fiber core along the length of the fiber (z axis) with most frequent values of the parameters.
The interference pattern, however, does not vary as a square wave but rather as an approximate sinusoidal waveform, which will inscribe an RI variation on the fiber of the same form, as shown in Fig. 9. In the figure, neff is the RI of the pristine fiber core, <neff> is the average RI in the FBG region, ΔnDC is the average amount of RI increased by the UV dose and ΔnAC is half of the total RI variation in the FBG.
The mathematical model of the RI in the FBG area as a function of the UV radiation dose (d) in Joules and the distance z along the fiber’s axis is [9]:
neffz,d=neff+ΔnDCd+ΔnACdsin2πΛzE25
\n\t\t\t
Figure 9.
Variation of the Refraction Index of the fiber`s core along the length of the fiber (z axis) resultant of a sinusoidal diffraction pattern [9].
Notice that both ΔnDC and ΔnAC increase with UV dose and, since the UV radiation is never zero along the diffraction region, all FBG length experiences an increase of RI.
Now we can rewrite Eq. (2) using the average RI in the FBG area:
λB=2neffΛE26
\n\t\t\t
For an FBG inscription using the setup of Figure 11, it is necessary first to calculate the angle φ for the desired Bragg wavelength. Then, the operator monitors the reflection spectrum until the reflectivity reaches the desired value. But since <neff>increases during the irradiation, so does λB, according to Eq. (24). Figure 10 shows the progression of an FBG reflection spectrum as UV dose increases.
Figure 10.
Progression of an FBG reflection spectrum as UV dose increases [9].
The dotted line in Figure 10 shows the path of the Bragg wavelength as UV dose increases, or same to say, the variation of <neff>, according to Eq. (24).
Therefore, two relationships can be obtained from Figure 10:
Reflectivity=f(numberofshotsorirradiationtime)E27
\n\t\t\t
λB=g(numberofshotsorirradiationtime),E28
\n\t\t\t
where f(*) And g(*) are arbitrary functions to be determined by curve fitting.
Both reflectivity and Bragg wavelength increase with the number of laser shots because each shot represents a certain amount of UV energy and the energy is integrated producing the stress inside the fiber core. These equations will be important when an FBG is designed.
As UV dose increases, so does reflectivity, but up to a threshold above which the reflectivity starts do lower again. This is due to the competing effects between the increase of RI due to the increase of density of the material and the photoelastic effect, which is negative for many optical media. Above the threshold limit, the photoelastic effect is stronger than the increase of density, probably because this last effect saturates while the photoelastic effect does not. The threshold is about 500 mJ/cm2 and this value is considered to be the limit separating Type I gratings to Type IIA. While during the formation of Type I FBG, λB experiences a red shift (see Figure 10), during the erasure of the FBG in type IIA formation, the Bragg wavelength experiences a blue-shift. Above this limit, the FBG starts to be erased until it completely disappears.
Bragg grating in germanosilacate fibers exhibits a temperature decay dependency. Type I FBGs are found to present reasonable short term stability up to 300°C, whereas Type IIA gratings exhibit very good stability up to 500°C [6].
Therefore, after fabricating a Type I FBG it is recommended to submit them to an annealing process up to a temperature that exceeds the service temperatures of the application in order to produce an accelerated ageing.
Conventional telecommunication fibers normally present around 3.5% concentration of germania doping. These fibers will weakly respond to UV radiation (Δn10-5) and will grow low reflectivity FBGs. Only fiber with 5% plus GeO concentration present photosensitivity enough to be useful for FBG fabrication, but are more expensive than conventional telecommunication fibers. Those fibers with up to 30% of dopant concentration are produced by several fiber makers such as Nufern, Fibercore and IPTH.
Another dopant used is GeO co-doped with boron; these fibers present an enhanced sensitivity however causing an increase in losses. Therefore, boron co-doped fibers are not good for long sensing distance, they are limited to some few meters only in contrast with pure GeO doped fibers that can be used to remotely monitor parameters which are several kilometers away from the interrogation system.
Another way of enhancing the fiber sensitivity is by hydrogen diffusion into the fiber core. The mechanism causing an increased sensitivity is thought to be due the reaction of H2 with GeO. In highly doped fibers there is a significant concentration of Ge-O-Ge bonds. H2 reacts with these bonds resulting in the formation of Ge-OH, which absorbs UV radiation and therefore increasing the internal stress into the core of the fiber [10].
The hydrogen diffusion is accomplished by leaving the fiber into a tight enclosure with hydrogen at high pressure. Pressures from 20 atm to 750 atm can be used but most commonly 150 atm. Apart from increasing the fiber photosensitivity, hydrogen loading allows the fabrication of FBG in any germane silicate and germanium free fibers.
When a hydrogen loaded fiber is taken out of the high pressure vessel it is as soft as cotton string. However, by heating the fiber after the exposition, the hydrogen diffuses out in a few minutes.
Hydrogen loading can be also accomplished by a technique known as flame brushing. This technique consists in burning for 20 minutes the fiber by a hydrogen-oxygen flame reaching temperatures of 1700oC. At high temperature, the excess of hydrogen in the mixture diffuses into the fiber. The advantage of frame brushing is that it is possible to sensitize conventional telecommunications fibers. The disadvantage, however, is that the flame burns the fiber acrylate buffer in an area larger than that of the FBG itself which demands a posterior fiber recoating.
6. Fabrications techniques
As mentioned above the interest in FBG started with the possibility of inscribing the grating sideways as demonstrated by Meltz [3] and with the possibility of tuning to a desired wavelength along the telecom band. From then on, many FBG applications appeared first in telecom such as add/drop, dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) mux/demux, filters, lasers, and so on. Later, with the telecommunications devices and equipments decreasing prices, FGBs started to be used as sensors in a commercial basis.
The first technique used to inscribe a FBG in the fiber was the interferometer and it is used in many different configurations (Figure 11 shows a basic interferometer). A laser beam is divided in two by a beam splitter or a prism. Each part is reflected in mirrors to meet again to form a interference pattern over the fiber to be inscribed. Cylindrical lenses concentrate the beams in the inscribing area of the fiber, about 5 mm by 200 µm in order to increase the density of the UV dose.
Figure 11.
A basic interferometer.
The period of the interference pattern (Λ) depends on the wavelength of the light used for writing (λLaser) and also on the half-angle between the two interfering beams (φ) as shown in Eq. (27).
Λ=λLaser2sinφE29
\n\t\t\t
There are some disadvantages when using such arrangement as, for instance, the difficult to align the beams, the necessity to achieve a very good spatial coherence on the laser and problems associated with air flow which slightly modifies the RI of the air distorting the wave front of the beams. This effect could lead to an FBG of poor quality. The advantage is that one can adjust the mirrors in order to vary the grating period to virtually any value around the telecommunication band.
Nowadays we rely on the phase-mask technique which is a diffractive optical element that spatially modulates the UV beam with period Λpm. The phase masks are formed in a fused silica substrate by a holographic technique or electron beam lithography.
When a laser beam is incident to the phase mask a diffraction occurs and the beam is divided into several diffraction orders. The zero order is suppressed to less than 3%, but the +1 and -1 orders prevail with most of the remaining power. These two orders start from the same point on the other side of the phase mask but are divergent. At the near field an interference pattern is produced as the two orders cross each other, with a period
Λ=Λpm2E30
\n\t\t\t
The optical fiber is placed in contact or in close proximity to the phase mask, inside the near field where the interference pattern is produced as shown in Figure 12. An increased power density can be achieved by the use of a cylindrical lens parallel to the fiber, before the phase mask.
Figure 12.
A laser beam inscribing gratings in a optical fiber through a phase mask.
The advantage of the phase mask is that its setup is much simpler because there is no need for the laser to have a good coherence and there are no mirrors to align. However, as the phase mask is such a fragile optical element, the close proximity of the fiber to the phase mask surface can scratch it. If the distance between the phase mask is increased by a few millimeters the fiber will be illuminated by a narrower interference and the FBG will be accordingly narrower. Another disadvantage of the phase mask technique is that the periodicity of the FBG inscribed is fixed by the one of the phase masks, according to Equation (28).
An alternative setup is shown in Figure 13 in which the phase mask is far away from the fiber and the two mirrors redirect the +1 and -1 refracted orders back to the fiber.
The advantage of such setup is that one can adjust the Bragg wavelength by the angles of the mirrors.
Figure 13.
Most common setup used with a phase mask.
7. FBG fabrication parameters
When specifying an FBG the following parameters must be known:
Central Brag wavelength, λB
FBG width, FWHM
Reflectivity
Bragg wavelength(λB) depends essentially on the phase mask periodicity or on the laser wavelength, and on the intersection half-angle in the case when an interferometer setup is used (Figure 11). However, the UV dose also modifies the Bragg wavelength, according to Eq. (25).
FWHM depends on the FBG length and on the UV dose, according to the following Equation [6]:
FWHM=λBsΔn2neff2+1N2E31
\n\t\t\t
where, Δn is the amplitude of the induced RI in the fiber, Δn=2 x ΔnAC (see Figure 9), λB is the final Bragg wavelength, s is 1 for strong reflection grating with reflectivity close to 100%, or 0.5 for weak gratings, N is the number of grating planes, N=LFBG/Λ.
Reflectivity, as it has been seen in later sessions, is a function of the UV dose in J/m2, the amount of Germania doping in the fiber and the hydrogenation processes. Equation (26) can be useful for predicting the reflectivity and this parameter can also be adjusted by varying the FBG length. This is accomplished by adjusting the laser beam width. One can produce lengths as small as 2.5 mm obtaining, thus very low reflectivity and lengths as large as 15 mm obtaining a reflectivity around 100%.
Therefore, when projecting an FBG inscription, one has to carry out an inverse engineering to preview how much λB will displace during the inscription to the desired reflectivity and decrease this value to the desired Bragg wavelength in order to adjust the mirrors accordingly.
As none of the above parameters are not precisely known, the best way to know the exact time of irradiation is by experimental tests.
8. Interrogation techniques for FBG sensors
The main challenge when it comes to FBG sensing is the method to demodulate its wavelength changes. The use of FBG sensors is connected to the development of techniques to interrogate these sensors and detect Bragg wavelengths shifts as a function of the parameter being measured.
The easiest way to interrogate an FBG is by the use of an optical spectrum analyzer (OSA) which performs a direct measurement of the reflection spectrum of the FBG. The other method is based on the conversion of wavelength variations into optical power intensities.
The technique using an optical spectrometer is very simple. The interrogation system consists of a broadband optical source which illuminates the FBGs. Their reflected peaks, which are represented by each Bragg wavelength λB, are directed to the OSA and monitored by a computer, as shown in Figure 3.
Although being a simple demodulation technique, it presents some disadvantages: first, the commercial OSAs are heavy and expensive equipment, besides being inappropriate for field applications. Moreover, most of the spectrum analyzers are limited to static measurements, so they don’t have sufficient resolution concerning the response time when a number sensors are being interrogated. A conventional OSA will present an accuracy of about ±50 pm, which would produce errors of about ±4°C and ±60 µε, according to equations (9) and (10). For most applications these errors are unacceptable if compared to conventional resistive temperature detectors (RTD) and strain gauges. To detect small variations in wavelength the development of new techniques must also ensure essential characteristics such as static and dynamic measurements, real-time measurements, accuracy, resolution, and low cost, all necessary conditions for field applications. In conclusion this technique is only useful for laboratory applications and tests.
The setup shown in Figure 3 is also commercially available by a few companies as standalone equipment and appropriated to go to the field. In this case they feature resolutions as good as ±2 pm and can be programmed to monitor specific parameters as pressure, strain, temperature, etc. However, due to the high cost, they will be applicable to solve monitoring needs of industries only if the project included as many sensors as possible to be monitored by one single unit to have the total price divided by the number of sensors.
The other demodulation technique uses a Fabry-Perot (FP) tunable filter. Although the interferometric FP filter method is a consolidated technology, showing high resolution and accuracy, it still presents a moderate cost. The tunable optical filter scheme is based on a Fabry-Perot extrinsic cavity, which is adjusted by mirrors and by varying the internal cavity of a PZT crystal by means of an external power supply, enabling the filter adjustment and selection of the desired wavelength. This relationship between the changes in the filter wavelength as a function of an applied voltage is linear. Defects in the geometry of the lens during the filter manufacturing process can cause instability in the measurement system, so that the optical spectrum of the filter is not entirely symmetrical.
The demodulation setup using a FP filter is shown in Figure 14. A broadband light source was used to illuminate the FBG sensor via an optical circulator. The reflected spectrum of the sensor passes through the FP tunable filter with a 0.89 nm bandwidth.
This demodulation technique is based on the same principle of an FM radio signal demodulated by an edge filter. The signal waveband is made to vary at the wedge of a filter that will transmit a variable power proportional to the variation of the signal frequency. In our case, proportional to Bragg shift. In reality, the transmitted signal through the filter is proportional to the convolution between the signal power and the filter response.
Figure 14.
The interrogation setup using a Fabry-Perot filter (adapted from [11]).
The optimum position of the center wavelength of the FP filter is chosen by an algorithm described by [11]. The dashed area on the spectra drawing (inset in Figure 14) is the intersection between the spectrum of the reflected signal and the band pass of the FP filter. The integral of this area represents the total light power that reaches the photodetector.
Figure 15.
Spectral curves for the Fabry-Perot filter, FFP(λ), and the FBG, FFBG(λ).
The spectral curves for the FP filter, FFP(λ), and for the FBG, FFBG(λ), are shown in Figure 15, where the sensor is at quiescent state. The vertical axes show the relative transmittance of the FP filter and the relative reflectance of the FBG sensor, respectively. The numerical convolution FFP(λ)*FFBG(λ) represents the available power to the photodetector as a function of the wavelength shift. The convolution curve is shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16.
The convolution between FFP(λ)*FFBG(λ).
Instead of an FB filter, it is possible to use another FBG, in this case used as a dichroic mirror, differently from the FP filter which acts by light transmission. A broadband light source injects light into port 1 of the optical circulator 1. The light circulates to port 2, illuminating the FBG sensor. The reflection spectrum of the FBG sensor is deviated to port 3, and enters through port 1 of circulator 2. Circulator 2 deviates the signal to the twin FBG filter, through port 2. Only the superimposed wavelengths (inset graphic) reflect back to circulator 2, which deviates the light to the photodetector through port 3.
This demodulation scheme is very simple, and reduces the cost of the setup implementation; however, the twin FBG must be manufactured at an exact wavelength to provide an optimized operation procedure.
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1. Introduction
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Entomophagy is prevalent in many regions, and ~1500–2000 species of insects and other invertebrates are consumed by 3000 ethnic groups across 113 countries in Asia, Australia and Central and South America [1]. Africa, where more than 500 species are consumed daily, is a hotspot of edible insect biodiversity [2, 3]. In Thailand, entomophagy has spread to the south from the north-east as people migrate towards city centres. It has become so popular that >150 species are sold in the markets of Bangkok [4]. The most common edible insects are moths, cicadas, beetles, mealworms, flies, grasshoppers and ants [5]. Although human insectivory is an ancient practice and 80% of the world’s population consumes insects, it is relatively uncommon in contemporary Western culture. In many regions that have traditionally eaten insects, the practice is declining due to globalisation, and their consumption has decreased over the last decade as agriculture and living standards change, and the availability of wild-caught insects has decreased [6, 7, 8].
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This chapter reviews and provides an accessible synthesis of the literature surrounding the potential of insects to alleviate food security while promoting food sovereignty and integrating social acceptability. These are immediate and current problems of food security and nutrition that must be solved to meet the Sustainable Development Goals [3, 9].
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2. Food insecurity
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Food insecurity is created when food is unavailable, unaffordable, unevenly distributed or unsafe to eat. Inefficiencies in the current food production system generate inconsistencies between the demand and supply of food resources, which is exacerbated by the diminution of pastures and increasing demand for food. Thirty percent of land is already used for agriculture, but 70% of this is used for macro-livestock production, an industry which consumes 77 million tonnes of plant protein only to produce 58 million tonnes of animal protein per year. This animal protein is not evenly distributed across the globe, as the average person in a ‘developed’ country consumes 40 g more protein a day than the average person in a ‘developing’ country [10]. The demand for affordable and sustainable protein is high, while animal protein is becoming more expensive and less accessible in some regions, especially in Africa [11].
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To ensure food access and to alleviate poverty, there is a particular need for investment into Africa’s agricultural potential as this continent will soon account for 50% of the world’s population growth. Currently, Africa has 25% of all undernourished people worldwide, and the income gap between rural and urban areas drives rapid urbanisation; this is decreasing the agricultural workforce [12, 13]. With substantial food insecurity and rising food prices, one in six people dies from malnutrition and hunger, and more than 1 billion people are undernourished, triggering 1/3 of the child disease burden [10, 14]. Effects are worse in the populations that already have high rates of malnutrition, such as Zambia, where chronic undernutrition is 45% and causes 52% of deaths in the population under the age of 5. Over 800 million people are thought to have a food energy deficit average of >80 kcal/day/person [3, 15].
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The prospect of global food shortage grows as the world’s population is estimated to increase to 9 billion by 2050. The conventional meat production system will not be able to respond sufficiently to the increase in demand. Per capita, meat consumption is expected to increase by 9% in high-income countries by 2030, and the increase in world crop prices will increase the price of meat by 18–21% [16]. Systems with a low carbon footprint must be promoted according to the economic and cultural restraints of the region by modifying animal feed from soy meal to locally sourced feed [17]. Any expansion of agricultural land must be mitigated to reduce losses in natural ecosystems. Therefore, our increasing population will need to be fed from the same area of land available now [18].
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Climate change is also a growing threat to global food security as this is reducing the area of land available to agriculture [10], and future cereal yields are predicted to decrease, especially in low-latitude areas. The poorest countries will suffer the worst consequences of climate change, which will increase both malnutrition and poverty. To prevent future undernutrition and to decrease current levels, food access and socioeconomic conditions must improve globally [14]. With this climate change-driven prediction of reduced agricultural yields in most countries given current crop practices and varieties, it is therefore necessary to increase the diversity and sustainability of crop supply so that food insecurity is not exacerbated [15].
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\n
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3. Nutritional potential of edible insects
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In general, insects have a higher quality of nutrition than macro-livestock in terms of protein, lipids, carbohydrates and vitamins [10]. Insects have high crude protein levels of 40–75%, contain all essential amino acids, are rich in fatty acids and have a high proportion of dietary fibre, and it has been further suggested that there are health benefits from eating chitin through enhancement of gut flora and antibiotic properties, though it is not known how insect fibre specifically affects human health [19].
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In a study of the calorific value of 94 insect species, 50% were higher than soybeans, 87% higher than maize, 63% higher than beef and 70% higher than fish [10]. The composition of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in mealworms is comparable to that of fish, and other insects with ideal fatty acid ratios are house crickets, short-tailed crickets, Bombay locusts and scarab beetles [20]. Some insect species have micronutrients not found in some conventional animal proteins, such as riboflavin in termites and high concentrations of thiamine in silk moth larvae (224.7% daily human requirement) and palm weevils (201.3%) compared to chicken (5.4%). Mealworms have a higher content of protein (all essential amino acids), calcium, vitamin C, thiamine, vitamin A and riboflavin per kg than beef. Although the nutritional content of many insects is well-described in the literature, there is a variation depending on diet, sex, life stage, origin and environmental factors, and the realised nutritional content also depends on preparation and cooking [21, 22, 23].
\n
Insect consumption has the potential to reduce hunger on a global scale as they are nutrient dense as well as calorie dense. A calorie deficit of 1500 kcal/day could be addressed by rearing 1 kg/day of crickets in 10 m2 while also providing the recommended daily amount of lysine, methionine, cysteine, tryptophan, zinc and vitamin B12. Not only do insects provide calories and nutrients, but they are also cost-effective, easily grown and can be environmentally sustainable when incorporated into a circular production system using organic side streams.
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4. The rise of insect farming
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Until the end of the twentieth century, the most common way to collect insects worldwide was by wild harvest (circa 90%), and the tradition of collecting and eating insects from the wild is seen in many cultures. Though seasonality limits consistent availability, traditional regulation patterns can mitigate this and maintain locally sustainable sources [24, 25]. Wild catch is declining in many areas with many factors contributing to this including land conversion, overexploitation and urbanisation [7]. With insects acknowledged to be key to the delivery of many ecosystem services, their conservation in natural ecosystems is now paramount [26, 27]. In response, the farming of edible insects is now rising from being only a minor component of the market and should be promoted to improve quality and supply as well as to limit the environmental impacts of wild harvesting [11, 28].
\n
No matter the scale of insect farming, the economic benefits boost food security in terms of availability and accessibility and at the same time improve dietary quality and contribute to both gender equity and livelihoods. At the community scale, more than 20,000 small farmers in Thailand profitably produce crickets; in Laos, the majority of insect vendors are illiterate females who may earn c$5/day; in Uganda and Kenya, the Flying Food Project supports expansion of small-scale farms into local and greater value chain markets [20, 29, 30]. By integrating mini-livestock farming into current agricultural systems, the access to edible insects could be improved and simultaneously provide co-benefits such as female employment and a high-grade compost contribution to the enhancement of soil fertility [28]. Harvesting insects as a by-product of another industry also has substantial potential but needs more widespread implementation and cultural assimilation. For example, domesticated silkworms for the textile industry can be eaten in the pupa stage, and palm weevils reared on felled palm trees could be moved into more formal production [15]. Insect farming is now moving into western markets and developing technologically refined production systems. The French company Ynsect has raised $175 M for expansion, and the USA edible insect market is predicted to increase by 43% in the coming 5 years [31, 32]. There are different costs and benefits at all scales (Figure 1), though all may have an important place in future food security.
\n
Figure 1.
Trade-offs in the scale of production needed to maximise food sovereignty relative to the technology and initial funding needed. X axis: 0 = none needed, 1 = high setup costs needed. Y axis: 0 = no food sovereignty, 1 = complete food sovereignty.
\n
\n
\n
5. The environmental advantage of insect farming
\n
In general, insects have a lower consumption of energy and resources than conventional animal livestock. Insects are poikilothermic, so they expend less energy, are more efficient in transforming phytomass into zoomass and have higher fecundity and growth rates and a higher rate of matter assimilation. On average, an insect only needs 2 g of food per gramme of weight gained, whereas a cow needs 8 g of food. Not only is the efficiency of insect production higher because of the feed conversion ratio (Table 1) but also because the edible portion of insects is higher as crickets can be eaten whole, but we only eat 40% of a cow, 58% of a chicken and 55% of a pig [8, 10, 33].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
Cricket
\n
Poultry
\n
Pork
\n
Beef
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Feed conversion ratio (kg feed: kg live weight)
\n
1.7
\n
2.5
\n
5
\n
10
\n
\n
\n
Edible portion (%)
\n
80
\n
55
\n
55
\n
40
\n
\n
\n
Feed (kg: kg edible weight)
\n
2.1
\n
4.5
\n
9.1
\n
25
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Efficiencies of production of conventional meat and crickets [17].
\n
Edible insects are an environmentally attractive alternative to conventional livestock because they require less feed and water; they produce lower levels of greenhouse gases and can be raised in small spaces. Worldwide, livestock contributes to 18% of greenhouse gas emissions, which, in light of global warming and climate change, favours the less resource-intensive insect production which emits fewer greenhouse gases by a factor of 100 [3, 28].
\n
Insects can be a renewable food source in the future as many edible species can consume agricultural and food waste or culinary by-products, but there remain important research gaps in understanding the effects of variable feedstocks as most case studies use high-grade feed [10, 15, 28]. Such organic side streams could be used to reduce the environmental impact of insect farming while simultaneously creating a novel, circular waste-processing income. Throughout the world, 1/3 of all food is wasted, and household food waste is 70% of the post-farm total. If food waste was its own country, it would be the third largest emitter of greenhouse gases after the USA and China [30]. Food waste is expected to increase in the future with a continually growing and increasingly urbanised global population adopting ‘modern’ lifestyles.
\n
It is challenging and wasteful to commercialise traditional composting of multiple waste streams on a large scale, but waste can be fed directly to insects to convert low-value biomass into higher-value insect mass. By valorising waste as feed, it may mitigate the impact of the food industry. Some fly (Diptera) species are known to be able to convert agricultural manure into body mass and reduce the waste dry matter by 58%. For food waste the conversion is as high as 95% leaving the remainder as a high-grade soil improver [30, 33].
\n
\n
\n
6. Acceptability of eating insects as animal protein
\n
The feasibility of promoting edible insect farming as sustainable protein depends on social acceptance, as the benefits cannot be realised if people do not choose to eat insects. The understanding of current perceptions, which often depend on class, location, gender and age, is essential to any market development. In some locations, newly urbanised citizens view insects as pests or as poor person’s food [7]. Although in this particular case, acceptance does depend on the insect itself, as there is an inferiority complex associated with wild harvesting of insects. In the Western world, insects are largely unfamiliar and mostly viewed as holiday novelty or ‘yuk’; thus, awareness of local taboos, cultural preferences and the population’s exposure to insects as food are crucial for the successful promotion of insect farming for food [3, 15, 34].
\n
In many urban and developed populations, a central issue is food neophobia, but after taking the first step in trying an insect, continued exposure correlates with increased acceptance. Processed insect products such as cookies, snack bars or powders further normalise the protein source [34, 35]. Conventional meat has a special status in society, both culturally and structurally in meals, so a sustainable culinary culture must be promoted in order to associate insect protein with pleasurable food [17].
\n
There are also risk considerations with the dissemination of novel foods and novel production pathways. Possible effects of prolonged insect consumption are nutrient malabsorption, growth alteration, allergy risk and contamination, and more research is needed into the digestion and absorption of insects in the human body [36]. Intensive insect farming runs risks of microbial infestation, parasites and pesticides. Preventative approaches, such as probiotics, transgenerational immune priming or heat treatment, and measured responses such as those advocated by Integrated Crop Management (ICM) will develop with the industry [20, 37]. There are other limitations in the lack of protocols in storage and decontamination, and although international regulation is underway, these ancient foods are currently classified the EU as novel foods [38].
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusion
\n
The issue of food security is multi-faceted, and each country’s solution will be different. Tackling food security requires responses that are both innovative and culturally appropriate. Farming insect livestock has the potential to alleviate food insecurity while promoting food sovereignty, especially if it is integrated with social acceptability in mind. Engagement of all stakeholders on the production and consumption sides and continued support for and from them will be vital for the success of its implementation. Commercial farming is growing across Europe and the North American continent, though a question yet to be answered at a wider scale is how edible insect farming can be increased and deployed in a way that benefits all parties, including especially the most vulnerable. We have overviewed the field and hope that this synthesis of much important work along with the exemplar production model of Figure 2 can provide encouragement and compact information to those seeking to evaluate the future of farmed insect production.
\n
Figure 2.
Idealised schematic of the inputs and outputs of a sustainable production model for insect farming.
\n
There is currently too little research available on the integration of insect farming with existing agricultural systems, and future solutions require the coordination of international, national and legal frameworks. With this in place, the future food revolution will be more able to directly benefit the poor and be environmentally sustainable [39].
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors wish to thank Harry McDade who contributed to the discussions on this topic. Thanks also go to the many who have written so passionately on this topic and to the inspiring Arnold van Huis; may these efforts eventually bear fruit, or larvae. Particular thoughts go to Dr. Marianne Schockley of the University of Georgia, Athens, GA, who advocated so ably and enthusiastically for Entomophagy in the USA.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
\n
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n
\n',keywords:"climate change, sustainability, entomophagy, insectivory, acceptance",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68137.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68137.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68137",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68137",totalDownloads:680,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"April 5th 2019",dateReviewed:"June 17th 2019",datePrePublished:"August 14th 2019",datePublished:"January 29th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Insect protein production through ‘mini-livestock farming’ has enormous potential to reduce the level of undernutrition in critical areas across the world. Sustainable insect farming could contribute substantially to increased food security, most especially in areas susceptible to environmental stochasticity. Entomophagy has long been acknowledged as an underutilised strategy to address issues of food security. This chapter reviews and provides a synthesis of the literature surrounding the potential of insect farming to alleviate food security while promoting food sovereignty and integrating social acceptability. These are immediate and current problems of food security and nutrition that must be solved to meet the UNDP Sustainable Development Goals.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68137",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68137",signatures:"Flora Dickie, Monami Miyamoto and C. Matilda (Tilly) Collins",book:{id:"8005",title:"Edible Insects",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Edible Insects",slug:"edible-insects",publishedDate:"January 29th 2020",bookSignature:"Heimo Mikkola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8005.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144330",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimo",middleName:"Juhani",surname:"Mikkola",slug:"heimo-mikkola",fullName:"Heimo Mikkola"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"301019",title:"Dr.",name:"C M",middleName:"(Tilly)",surname:"Collins",fullName:"C M Collins",slug:"c-m-collins",email:"t.collins@imperial.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"301022",title:"Ms.",name:"Flora",middleName:null,surname:"Dickie",fullName:"Flora Dickie",slug:"flora-dickie",email:"flora.dickie17@imperial.ac.uk",position:null,institution:{name:"Imperial College London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"308040",title:"Ms.",name:"Monami",middleName:null,surname:"Miyamoto",fullName:"Monami Miyamoto",slug:"monami-miyamoto",email:"monami.miyamoto17@imperial.ac.uk",position:null,institution:{name:"Imperial College London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Food insecurity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Nutritional potential of edible insects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The rise of insect farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The environmental advantage of insect farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Acceptability of eating insects as animal protein",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'MacEvilly C. Bugs in the system. Nutrition Bulletin. 2000;25(4):267-268'},{id:"B2",body:'Kelemu S, Niassy S, Torto B, Fiaboe K, Affognon H, Tonnang H, et al. African edible insects for food and feed: Inventory, diversity, commonalities and contribution to food security. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 2015;1(2):103-119'},{id:"B3",body:'Stull VJ, Wamulume M, Mwalukanga MI, Banda A, Bergmans RS, Bell MM. “We like insects here”: Entomophagy and society in a Zambian village. Agriculture and Human Values. 2018;35(4):867-883'},{id:"B4",body:'Yhoung-Aree J, Viwatpanich K. Edible insects in the Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. In: Paoletti MG, editor. Ecological implications of minilivestock: Potential of insects, rodents, frogs and snails. Enfield, NH, USA: Science Publisher Inc; 2005. pp. 415-440'},{id:"B5",body:'Ramos-Elorduy J. Anthropo-entomophagy: Cultures, evolution and sustainability. Entomological Research. 2009;39:271-288'},{id:"B6",body:'Belluco S, Losasso C, Maggioletti M, Alonzi CC, Paoletti MG, Ricci A. Edible insects in a food safety and nutritional perspective: A critical review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2013;12(3):296-313'},{id:"B7",body:'Looy H, Dunkel FV, Wood JR. How then shall we eat? Insect-eating attitudes and sustainable foodways. Agriculture and Human Values. 2014;31(1):131-141'},{id:"B8",body:'Vogel G. For more protein, filet of cricket. Science. 2010;327(5967):881'},{id:"B9",body:'Tomberlin JK, Zheng L, van Huis A. Insects to feed the world conference 2018. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 2018;4(2):75-76'},{id:"B10",body:'Premalatha M, Abbasi T, Abbasi T, Abbasi SA. Energy-efficient food production to reduce global warming and ecodegradation: The use of edible insects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2011;15:4357-4360'},{id:"B11",body:'Raheem D, Carrascosa C, Oluwole OB, Nieuwland M, Saraiva A, Millán R, et al. Traditional consumption of and rearing edible insects in Africa, Asia and Europe. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2018;15:1-20'},{id:"B12",body:'Sasson A. Food security for Africa: An urgent global challenge. Agriculture and Food Security. 2012;1(2)'},{id:"B13",body:'Parnell S, Walawege R. Sub-Saharan African urbanisation and global environmental change. Global Environmental Change. 2011;21(suppl 1):12-20'},{id:"B14",body:'Lloyd SJ, Sari Kovats R, Chalabi Z. Climate change, crop yields, and undernutrition: Development of a model to quantify the impact of climate scenarios on child undernutrition. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2011;119(12):1817-1823'},{id:"B15",body:'Laar A, Kotoh A, Parker M, Milani P, Tawiah C, Soor S, et al. An exploration of edible palm weevil larvae (Akokono) as a source of nutrition and livelihood: Perspectives from Ghanaian stakeholders. Food and Nutrition Bulletin. 2017;38(4):455-467'},{id:"B16",body:'van Huis A. Potential of insects as food and feed in assuring food security. Annual Review of Entomology. 2013;58(1):563-583'},{id:"B17",body:'van der Spiegel M, Noordam MY, van der Fels-Klerx HJ. Safety of novel protein sources (insects, microalgae, seaweed, duckweed, and rapeseed) and legislative aspects for their application in food and feed production. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2013;12:662-678'},{id:"B18",body:'Oonincx DGAB, de Boer IJM. Environmental impact of the production of mealworms as a protein source for humans: A life cycle assessment. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:12'},{id:"B19",body:'Ozimek L, Sauer WC, Kozikowski V, Ryan JK, Jørgensen H, Jelen P. Nutritive value of protein extracted from honey bees. Journal of Food Science. 1985;50(5):1327-1329'},{id:"B20",body:'Barennes H, Phimmasane M, Rajaonarivo C. Insect consumption to address undernutrition, a national survey on the prevalence of insect consumption among adults and vendors in Laos. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(8)'},{id:"B21",body:'Payne CLR, Scarborough P, Rayner M, Nonaka K. Are edible insects more or less “healthy” than commonly consumed meats? A comparison using two nutrient profiling models developed to combat over- and undernutrition. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2016;70(3):285-291'},{id:"B22",body:'van Huis A, Oonincx DGAB. The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 2017;35(7):1-14'},{id:"B23",body:'Banjo A, Lawal O, Sononga E. The nutritional value of fourteen species of edible insects in southwestern Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2006;5:298-301'},{id:"B24",body:'Illgner P, Nel E. The geography of edible insects in sub-Saharan Africa: A study of the mopane caterpillar. The Geographical Journal. 2000;166(4):336-351'},{id:"B25",body:'Mbata KJ, Chidumayo EN, Lwatula CM. Traditional regulation of edible caterpillar exploitation in the Kopa area of Mpika district in northern Zambia. Journal of Insect Conservation. 2002;6(115)'},{id:"B26",body:'Losey JE, Vaughn M. The economic value of ecological services provided by insects. Bioscience. 2006;56(4):311'},{id:"B27",body:'Sánchez-Bayo F, Wyckhuys KAG. Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers. Biological Conservation. 2019;232:8-27'},{id:"B28",body:'Nadeau L, Nadeau I, Franklin F, Dunkel F. The potential for entomophagy to address undernutrition. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 2015;54(3):200-208'},{id:"B29",body:'Halloran A, Vantomme P, Hanboonsong Y, Ekesi S. Regulating edible insects: The challenge of addressing food security, nature conservation, and the erosion of traditional food culture. Food Security. 2015;7(3):739-746'},{id:"B30",body:'Entomics. Entomics [Internet]. Available from: www.entomics.com'},{id:"B31",body:'Ynsect [Internet]. 2019. Available from: http://www.ynsect.com/en/'},{id:"B32",body:'Ahuja K, Deb S. Edible insects: Market size by product, by application, industry analysis report, regional outlook, application potential, price trends, competitive market share and forecast, 2018-2024. Delaware, USA: Global Market Insights; 2018'},{id:"B33",body:'van Huis A, Klunder JVIH, Merten E, Halloran A, Vantomme P. Edible Insects. Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2013'},{id:"B34",body:'Collins CM, Vaskou P, Kountouris Y. Insect food products in the Western world: Assessing the potential of a new ‘green’ market. Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 2019. IN PRESS'},{id:"B35",body:'Hartmann C, Siegrist M. Becoming an insectivore: Results of an experiment. Food Quality and Preference. 2016;51:118-122'},{id:"B36",body:'Testa M, Stillo M, Maffei G, Andriolo V, Gardois P, Zotti CM. Ugly but tasty: A systematic review of possible human and animal health risks related to entomophagy. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2017'},{id:"B37",body:'Grau T, Vilcinskas A, Joop G. Sustainable farming of the mealworm Tenebrio molitor for the production of food and feed. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung: Section C Journal of Biosciences. 2017;72(9):337-349'},{id:"B38",body:'Finke MD, Rojo S, Roos N, van Huis A, Yen AL. The European food safety authority scientific opinion on a risk profile related to production and consumption of insects as food and feed. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 2015;1(4):245-247'},{id:"B39",body:'Conway G, Wilson K. One Billion Hungry. 1st Editio ed. Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock Publ. Assoc; 2012'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Flora Dickie",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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