Summary of incidence and epidemiology of
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"825",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Tropical Medicine has emerged and remained as an important discipline for the study of diseases endemic in the tropic, particularly those of infectious etiology. Emergence and reemergence of many tropical pathologies have recently aroused the interest of many fields of the study of tropical medicine, even including new infectious agents. Then evidence-based information in the field and regular updates are necessary. Current Topics in Tropical Medicine presents an updated information on multiple diseases and conditions of interest in the field. It Includes pathologies caused by bacteria, viruses and parasites, protozoans and helminths, as well as tropical non-infectious conditions. Many of them are considering not only epidemiological aspects, but also diagnostic, therapeutical, preventive, social, genetic, bioinformatic and molecular ones. With participation of authors from various countries, many from proper endemic areas, this book has a wide geographical perspective. Finally, all of these characteristics, make an excellent update on many aspects of tropical medicine in the world.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0274-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4322-2",doi:"10.5772/1335",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",numberOfPages:578,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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\r\n\tThis book is intended for professionals dealing with diagnostics and treatment of infertility and aims to provide comprehensive information on the current state of assisted reproductive technologies and their directions of development.
\r\n\tAssisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) is a key technology for treating infertility, which occurs in 10-15% of the general population in reproductive age. This has been one of the most tumultuously developing interdisciplinary technologies in medicine in recent decades. Thanks to in vitro methods, more than 5 million children were born in the whole world. For 40 years, the success rates of this treatment have increased many times, respectively in the first years from less than 10% to more than 50% in present days (in some groups of patients). The reason for this rapid increase is the introduction of new drugs and stimulation protocols, improvement of embryo culture media, and the use of new types of laboratory equipment that improve the conditions for embryo development. Last but not least, the introduction of modern genetic methods, as well as new gamete and tissue freezing techniques, has improved the methods' diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities.
Microorganism of varying types and numbers can be found on food of animal and plant origin. The types and number of microorganism on food can be changed due to food processing, inappropriate purchasing, storing, preparing, cooking or serving. Increase in the number of these microorganisms due to the abovementioned changes may lead to spoiling of the food, causing a pathogenic effect on humans. The most important of foodborne pathogenic bacteria is
Being the prominent bacterium in the facultative anaerobic microbiota of the intestines,
Mechanism of intestinal pathogenic
People living in developing countries have often been reported to have this pathotype in their feces and shown to have developed immunity against this microorganism. Being a cause of mortality in children under 5, the most frequently observed microorganism in childhood diarrhea is ETEC and it is also responsible for 30–60% of travelers’ diarrhea. Infection is characterized by watery diarrhea and, depending on the person, its course may range from a normal course to cholera-like defecation with the addition of symptoms such as vomiting and high fever [2, 4, 7]. Diarrhea is the most common causes of mortality in society and among young children, especially those living in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa with inadequate healthcare systems and limited access to clean drinking water. Recent systematic studies have reported that each year an estimated 600,000 children under the age of 5 lose their lives. Diarrhea occurs due to the consumption of food or water contaminated with viral, bacterial or parasitic pathogens. Among these potential pathogens, the most common cause of diarrhea in children under five is the ETEC (heat-stable – ST and/or heat-labile – LT type toxin) producing
It is known to be the oldest
The ability to produce attaching and effacing (A/E) lesions is a distinctive phenotype for EPEC. Bacteria cause extensive deterioration on microvilli by strongly adhering to the host cell membrane. This adherence to the cell is mediated by an outer membrane protein called intimin. Moreover, depending on the presence of
This pathotype is a foodborne enteropathogen observed in acute and persistent diarrhea cases in children, patients with suppressed immune systems in developing countries and people traveling to endemic regions. Growth disorders and cognitive disorders in children living in developing countries, stem from EAEC infections. In the pathogenesis of EAEC, the first step is the strong adherence to the intestinal mucosa. The second step is leading to the development of enterotoxins and cytotoxins and the third step is known to be characterized with the ability to induce mucosal inflammation. Many different virulence factors regarding these three steps have been defined, however; none of them are present in all strains. Three adherence models related to EAEC have been defined. In addition to the localized adherence (LA) model that was defined first, there is also a diffuse adherence (DA) model and aggregative adherence (AA) model. The strains corresponding to the AA pattern were later defined as “Enteroadherent-aggregative
It is commonly found in foods in Mexico, including desserts and salsa sauces, and the visitors of the country are known to be more sensitive to EAEC infections during their stay rather than ETEC, which they are the most susceptible to. The reason behind this is the EAEC’s ability to suppress the immune system and cause chronic infection. EAEC is also more resistant to antibiotics compared to the other diarrheagenic pathogens. Persistent infection and chronic disruption in intestinal functions cause malnutrition and decline in physical and mental development, especially in children. Malnutrition, which is observed due to micronutrient deficiency, induces infection. Development of infection induces malnutrition. This whole cycle increases the burden of acute diarrhea [11].
\nHep-2 or HeLa cell cultures are called DAEC due to their diffuse adherence characteristics. DAEC serotypes are known to cause chronic diarrhea in children between the ages of 1 and 5. They cause degradation in the intestinal epithelium by binding to proteins that accelerate degradation. Mild diarrhea void of fecal leukocytes is the indication of infection. In France, DAEC strains were found out to be widespread in diarrhea cases observed in inpatients from a hospital with no other enteropathogen. This situation indicates that DAEC strains may be an important diarrheagenic pathogen in developed countries. Recent studies show that some DAEC strains contain virulence factors present in uropathogenic
EIEC strains causing inflammatory damage in intestinal mucosa and submucosa are very similar to those produced by
EHEC are also named Shiga toxin producing
EHEC has a wide spectrum including watery or bloody diarrhea and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), which is an important factor in acute renal failure in children. The biggest EHEC O104:H4 outbreak was in Germany in 2011 with 855 HUS cases in 3842 people and 53 mortalities. This incidence, which raised concern all around the world, shows the importance of EHEC in terms of human health. Bovines are the main reservoir for these microorganisms to live on asymptomatically for years. Other smaller reservoirs for these microorganisms include sheep, goats, dogs, pigs and poultry. Other places where EHEC could stay alive for months include; bovine feces, soil and water. Butchering or processing of animals or contamination of plants through contaminated water or manure are the main routes for EHEC to spread to the food chain [16]. Following 3–12 days of incubation period after infection with
The incidence and epidemiology of the important serotypes of
Pathogenic | \nSite of infection | \nAssociated disease | \nIncidence | \nTarget population | \nSignificant transmission route | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ETEC | \nSmall intestine | \nTraveler’s diarrhea, chronic childhood diarrhea (in developing countries) | \n16 U.S. outbreaks (1996–2003); prevalence 1.4% in patients with diarrhea; 79,420 cases of travelers’ diarrhea each year (in the USA) | \nInternational travelers and children in developing countries | \nFood (raw produce, street vendors) and water | \n
EPEC | \nSmall intestine | \nInfant diarrhea | \nHundreds of thousands of deaths world wide | \nChildren in developing countries | \nWater, infant formula | \n
EHEC | \nLarge intestine | \nHemorrhagic colitis (HC), hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) | \n110,000 cases and 61 deaths annually in the USA | \nAll ages | \nFood (beef produce), person-to-person, water, animals | \n
EIEC | \nLarge intestine | \nDysentery | \nLow in developed countries | \nChildren in developing countries | \nWater (rare), person-to-person | \n
EAEC | \nIntestine | \nWatery diarrhea with or without blood in the stool, acute and chronic | \nDeveloped and developing countries | \nChildren and adults, travelers | \nFood, water, person-to-person | \n
Summary of incidence and epidemiology of
Food safety means ensuring consumer safety and protecting products from biological, physical and chemical hazards throughout the whole process starting from the field to processing, storing, distributing, preparing and cooking [21]. In many countries around the world, people started to have a more conscious perspective on food and environment. Consumers tend to prefer food that is more natural, less processed, environment-friendly, healthy and produced safely. This tendency makes up the basis of the “preventive/protective” (pro-active) approach for measurements to be taken towards food safety both nationally and globally. This approach based on risk analysis is the most appropriate and effective method for controlling foodborne hazards. It also necessitates the application of proper control systems in the production chain [22]. Foodborne diseases are a global subject. A common approach by all countries and related international organizations is a prerequisite for the detection and control of foodborne problems threatening human health and international trade. Despite their complicated biology, epidemiology and analyses, most foodborne diseases are preventable. Public health institutions, food industry and consumers must be devoted to prevent foods from getting contaminated at farms, restaurants and homes. In outbreaks of foodborne diseases, continuous monitoring is vital for revealing the disease tendencies in foods, regions and associated pathogens. Genotype and subtype information obtained from contaminated strains are required for tracing the source of contamination, characterizing and comparing the strains [23].
\nThe food safety management systems with a classical basis that were once accepted for safe production and consumption of foods has proven to be inefficient and researchers/organizations proposed the “risk-based food safety” approach. Risk-based food safety approach is significantly different than the classical hazard-based approach. In this regard, a food safety management system aims at estimating the risks to human health as well as defining, choosing and implementing strategies to control and decrease these risks. According to Codex Alimentarius, risk analysis is a process consisting of three components: risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. Today, the new approach is considered as an approach enabling food safety issues to be diagnosed more accurately and define strategies required to decrease these issues more effectively [23, 24, 25]. The principles of risk-based food safety are defined with a four-step framework. The first step includes a series of initial risk managements such as defining the food safety issues, developing a risk profile, setting risk management goals, deciding on the need for a risk assessment, forming a risk assessment policy, creating a risk assessment and/or risk ranking commission and analysis of the results following the assessment. In the second step, different risk management options are defined and the options are chosen after the assessment. The third step includes the implementation of risk management precautions. Lastly, in the last step, observations are carried out in appropriate areas within the food chain and this step is utilized in reviewing the effectiveness of the risk management precautions. This step usually includes public health monitoring in order to collect data on changes. In summary, this approach aims at improving the food safety in high-risk food/hazard combinations, decrease the burden of foodborne diseases and increase the consumer safety [25].
\nBillions of people in the world are under unsafe food risk. Each year, hundreds of thousands of people become sick or lose their lives due to consumption of unhygienic, high-risk foods. This is why safe food saves lives. In addition to improving the health of individuals and the public, safe food also boosts the economic growth in the regions where it is improved. Food safety covers four main areas, as shown in Table 2 microbiological safety, chemical safety, personal hygiene and environmental hygiene [26].
\nFour main areas of food safety [26].
Controlling the entry of contaminants into the food chain can be difficult. In addition to poor hygiene, unfavorable transfer and storage conditions for foods or contaminated raw material usage also play a part in contamination. Low quality or contaminated foods may cause shipments to be canceled on an international level. This poses an obstacle for the trade between countries [27]. Food safety objectives are based on preventive actions such as safe raw material usage, good production practices and procedures with critical control points for hazard analysis. It is possible for the success of these preventive actions to reflect on the incidence of foodborne diseases. WHO and Center for Control of Foodborne Infections and Intoxications in Europe stated that one of the most important factors contributing to foodborne outbreaks were markers required for improving general hygiene and most of these were under the control of producers/consumers and listed these markers as following:
Poor general hygiene
Consuming raw products
Using contaminated materials
Contamination through infected people
Cross-contamination
Using contaminated tools
Mistakes in processing
Too early preparation
Inadequate heating
Inadequate warm-keeping
Inadequate cooling
Too long storage time
Contamination during the last preparation phase
Inadequate heating before reusing [28].
Attention should be paid to purchasing, preservation, preparation, cooking and serving processes for ensuring food hygiene and safety. While purchasing foodstuffs, attention should be paid to the shipment conditions, packaging and keeping the cold chain in potentially high-risk foods such as fish, meat, chicken and milk. Storage rules should be followed during storing. First in first out (FIFO) rule should be followed in storages. Temperature in storage units should be checked regularly and cooked meals should be left to cool down in room temperature before being stored in fridges. Shelves should be made of rustproof material and foods should be kept at least 15 cm away from the floor and walls. There should be different sections for each food group (meat group, dairy group, fruit and vegetable group) so that cross-contamination is prevented. There is a risk of microorganism contamination from personnel, tools, environment or foods (cross-contamination) during the preparation phase. Color code system could be implemented in cutting areas to be able to prevent this from happening. Potentially high-risk foods should be processed without waiting. Cooked meals should be served in maximum 2 hours. Frozen foods should be thawed in 4–7°C. Internal temperature of poultry should be at least 75°C while cooking. Temperature of foods such as meat, fish and eggs should be increased to at least 63°C and they should be processed at this temperature for at least 2 minutes. Internal temperature of hot meals should be kept at 65°C in bain-marie with a closed lid. While serving food, clean containers should be used to transfer or hold the food. Cold foods should be kept under 4.5°C in a closed container. Preservation time is as important as preserving conditions when it comes to development, growing and spreading of microorganisms. Preservation times for some foods are listed in Table 3 [22, 29].
\nFood | \nPreservation time (day) | \n
---|---|
Big piece of meat | \n3–5 | \n
Chicken | \n2–3 | \n
Minced meat | \n1–2 | \n
Sausage | \n2–3 | \n
Cooked meat | \n2–3 | \n
Raw fish | \n1–2 | \n
Shellfish | \n1 | \n
Cooked fish | \n2–3 | \n
Milk and cream | \n3–4 | \n
Eggs | \n14 | \n
Fruits | \n1–14 | \n
Vegetables | \n2–7 | \n
Preservation time for some foods [22].
If we take a general look at the incidence and epidemiology of disease-causing
In meat products, non-O157 STEC prevalence varies between 2.4 and 30.0% for minced meat, 17.0 and 49.2% for sausage and 8.6 and 49.6 in meat put up for sale. When STEC contamination reports verifying that the STEC O157 prevalence had ranged between 0.2 and 27.8% for the last 30 years were assessed in terms of STEC O157 and non-O157 presence in bovine meat, non-O157 STEC rates were observed to be ranging between 2.1 and 70.1% [32]. Besides, EHEC serotypes were reported to stay alive for 9 months in −80°C and that they were not affected by the storage conditions of pieces of meat frozen in −20°C.
In a study conducted on children’s nursery in Japan between 2010 and 2013, it was detected that 68 of 1035 outbreaks were of EHEC origin. It is known that 30 of the 68 outbreaks (46%) were foodborne [35]. It is also known that there were two EIEC outbreaks reported in England in June of 2014. These cases are rare in England. However, it is emphasized that EIEC has a capacity to cause large and potentially serious gastrointestinal outbreaks in Europe and that it should be considered as a potential pathogen in foodborne outbreaks [36]. In 2011 (between May 1st and July 4th) 2971 STEC related gastroenteritis cases including 18 deaths and 845 HUS cases including 36 deaths were reported along with laboratory approval, among 3816 cases reported to the public health officials in Germany. Moreover, the number of HUS cases during outbreaks was reported to be approximately 70 times the figures that corresponds to the same period of previous years [37]. In another report from Germany, a case-control study was conducted with 26 patients with HUS and 81 control cases. The incidence of the disease was associated with kale consumption in the univariate analysis and with kale and cucumber consumption in the multivariate analysis. Twenty-five percent of the cases reported eating kale and 88% reported eating a salad [38]. In another case in Scotland in 1994, 71 cases were reported including 1 death and 11 HUS cases due to non-pasteurization of milk. In an
Along the food chain, controllability and traceability are of great importance for ensuring the consumer safety and for foods to be protected from biological, physical and chemical hazards starting from the field to the moment of consumption. Consumers constitute the last ring of the food safety. The purchasing power and consciousness of consumers help ensure food safety and are the most important factors for protection and prevention against risks. Prevention of
Biological protection precautions are also very important. It is claimed that 8.0 log10 cfu/g lactic acid bacteria causes a 1.6 log10 cfu/g decrease in
Under the HACCP, the term hazard refers to any substance or condition that has the potential to cause adverse health effects and that is unacceptable. These hazards can be caused by the biological, chemical or physical contamination in the raw material, semi-processed or finished food product. Hazard analysis is defined as the assessment of the severity of the hazard and the likelihood of it happening. HACCP is a system managed based on seven principles to identify, assess and control possible hazards for food [17, 44];
Conduct hazard analysis
Identify critical control points (CCP)
Establish critical limits
Establish monitoring procedures
Establish corrective actions
Establish verification procedures
Establish documentation and record procedures [17].
These principles are accepted by state institutions, trade associations and the food industry. Today, food safety systems based on HACCP principles are successfully implemented in food processing facilities, retail food stores and global food service operations. Following HACCP rules in production facilities is vital. In a slaughterhouse in Mexico it was emphasized that HACCP should be applied in addition to antimicrobial treatment to reduce the presence of potential pathogens such as
Comprehensible written instructions and procedures
Trained employees
Records of actions, mistakes and reviews
Records of production and distribution
Proper storage and distribution
Complaint and recall systems [46].
In conclusion; it should not be forgotten that as a foodborne pathogen
The implementation of this study’s agenda is grounded in the alienation of education as a social activity. The researchers view education as a socio-cultural activity that should promote society’s value systems, cultural beliefs, and social goals rather than imposing the supreme culture’s cultural values and beliefs alongside hegemonic attitudes. The no recognition of other cultures and historical backgrounds as insignificant and subordinate creates social instability in society. Karl Marx, an advocate of the social theory, asserts that inequality, discrimination, and oppression are the root causes of social strife and resistance in society. The “Fees Must Fall” campaign, which was the voice of the disgruntled and frustrated generation of students, in all its manifestations, indicated resistance to the philosophical beliefs that underpin the design and development of curricula in universities. In students’ perceptions, the curricula display no recognition of other cultural backgrounds, portrays knowledge systems of the subordinate class and cultural groups as insignificant, and promotes the supremacy of a Eurocentric worldview at the expense of indigenous and minority groups. The terms decolonisation and decolonised education were at the core of the campaign, and for researchers this worldwide term became a cause for concern. The arguments and findings presented in this work are part of the emerging scholarship of decolonised education. Research highlights that the terms ‘decolonisation’ and ‘decolonised education’ have been interrogated from various dimensions; socio-cultural, socio-economic, and political perspectives have already been established. However, the perspective presented in this piece of work is based on a viewpoint centred around school curricula. This perspective is based on the belief that a curriculum, even in a policy, blueprint, or activity, is an agenda for social construction grounded on foundations of philosophy (world outlook). The theoretical principles underpinning the curriculum theory and its practices are generated from the world views of those in power [1, 2]. This research aims to discover decolonisation and decolonised education’s philosophical principles, informing pre-service teachers’ curriculum development and training.
Some educational researchers and theorists have developed a critical perspective to challenge the entrenchment of social injustices within educational theories and practices. The pioneers of this scholarship [1, 3, 4, 5, 6] focus their criticism on the philosophical foundations of pedagogical approaches, which promote indoctrination and the maintenance of the socio-economic order [6] point to hegemony and exclusion as a philosophical agenda to demean other cultural and historical backgrounds and world outlooks.
The conceptual knowledge of decolonisation and decolonised education in this study draws ideas from the premise of scholarship and research, which advocate discourse for the traditional philosophical foundation of education, and these ideas are pioneered in the works of many researchers [1, 2, 6, 7]. This study discovered that the discourse regarding the philosophical foundation of education contests the perennial view of knowledge and its disposition to enforce the reproduction of knowledge. Muller and Young [5] and Muller [6] argue that the reproduction of knowledge elevates a world outlook at the expense of other co-existing counterparts. Hence, knowledge for power and powerful knowledge overwhelm the pursuit of inclusive acknowledgment and the recognition of socio-cultural and historical perspectives in knowledge production. Furthermore, this chapter extends the view that philosophical ideas underpinning education and curricula in South Africa perpetuate conformity to the educational principles and the goals of the elitist supremacists and chauvinists who hold colonial and imperial world outlooks. Hence, the “Fees Must Fall campaign” instigators linked colonialism to educational principles and goals that dominate knowledge structures and knowledge production in South Africa. The realisation of the exclusion and the disregard of other world outlooks in the knowledge structures and in knowledge production was the core of the movement’s contention during the campaign.
According to psychological studies, the issues of identity, equity, social justice, and respect are embedded in recognising people’s cultures and their contributions to advancing society’s socio-economic environment and political systems. The argument about fundamental principles is that decolonising education and curricula cannot become reality without a carefully researched and conceptualised paradigm to frame pedagogy. Semetsky [7] argues that educational research should first challenge the absolutist view embedded in the hegemonic view of pedagogy. The view of pedagogical content knowledge that promotes the authority of teachers over knowledge and learning strategies deprives learners of the freedom to engage critically with diverse realities and perspectives.
Furthermore, Semetsky ([7], p. 13) contends that the ideas of Plato, Descartes, Kant, and Heidegger, which form part of content knowledge in educational studies, entrench traditional beliefs about teaching, learning, and content.
“The history of philosophy has always been the agent of power in philosophy, and even in thought. It has played the repressor role. As a result, an image of thought called philosophy has been formed historically, and it effectively stops people from thinking.”
The first perspective of decolonisation regards a paradigm shift for promoting social justice, social and cultural identities, and a redress of Eurocentric supremacy and imperial attitudes. This perspective advances the ideas of many researchers [5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12] about decolonising education. Convergent views of scholars challenge the promotion of a narrow view of the perspectives of knowledge and the philosophical foundations of pedagogy to encourage a one-dimensional approach to the interpretation of reality and the interrelationships of world systems. For example, Bignall [11] contends that colonialism; cultural supremacy, and imperialism are intertwined, colonialism being the political attitude to subdue indigenous people under the supreme political power through conquest and cultural supremacy being the mechanism to maintain the socio-economic structure. Imperialism is an economic tool to finance the system that has been established. According to Bignall [11], cultural supremacy and imperialism were about oppressive attitudes and practices towards the indigenous people. However, imperialism and colonial pedagogy create perceptions of inequality, competition in class divisions, and the stratification of people of the same cultural group through education. Similarly, Semetsky [7] and Popkewitz [13] construe colonialism and education when stating:
“Formidable schools of intimidation which manufactures specialists in thought-but which also makes those who stay outside conform to all the more to specialism which they despise.” ([1], p. 26).
Muller [5] extends the narrative of conformity and the hegemony-oriented pedagogy when pointing out that knowledge production and knowledge structures promote the narrow world views of elite and supremacist groups in theory and practice. The narrow world view promoted by colonialist and imperialist pedagogy enforces exclusion and disregards indigenous peoples’ cultural achievements and the experiences of subordinate cultures in what is considered knowledge for the powerful Muller [6]. Popkewitz [13] confirms that excluding indigenous cultures and their socio-economic outlooks creates a perception of insignificance, subordination, and unworthiness in individuals identified with such communities. Psychosocial theories highlight that the social identities of the subordinate cultures are the sources of socio-political and economic instability in society [14, 15].
The second perspective of decolonisation promotes the reconstruction of pre-colonial traditional, indigenous lifestyles and acknowledges different world outlooks that co-exist with the Eurocentric worldview. These ideas drew from the studies and works of many researchers [16, 17, 18, 19] who challenge the exclusion of Afro-centric perspectives in the study of the philosophy of education in universities. The above views include the recommendation of robust debates and discussions regarding the ‘Africanisation’ and ‘decolonisation’ of the content for the philosophical foundation of the pedagogy education to address the excluded perspectives of education in South Africa. The literature reveals that researchers consider decolonisation a pressing issue in the debates and discussions about curriculum development for higher education after the student uproar in 2015. The ideas and opinions elicited from notable publications [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27] congruently point to the perpetuation of the bias and prejudice in the epistemological principles underlying the design and development of curricula in higher education and training. Kabela [20], Savo [26, 27] argue that decolonisation implies a change in the philosophical foundation of education and its curricula, and this change entails revisiting the epistemologies, theories, and principles that promote a Eurocentric world view. As perceived by other researchers, decolonisation is a challenge to the education and curriculum design and its development which intends to promote a Eurocentric world view and cultural chauvinism vour of cultural supremacists in South Africa [24, 25, 27, 28, 29].
The third perspective of decolonisation promotes modern cultures emerging from the co-existence of indigenous and Eurocentric cultures to construct a postmodern society. The culture of the colonised and colonisers exists in harmony. The advocates of this perspective advance the view that the colonised and colonisers’ co-existence over centuries has resulted in the mangling of lifestyles and cultures [8, 9, 10]. The intercultural and cross-cultural viewpoints are undisputed realities; today, no pure cultural backgrounds could be maintained in colonial communities. As Bignall [11] contests, the conceptual understanding of decolonisation is that it is the rejection of aspects of knowledge that colonial societies have accumulated through their co-existence. According to the advocates of this perspective, the reviews of curricular and educational practices must be based on philosophical grounds that are free of bias, stereotypes, ethnocentric world views, and cultural chauvinism and supremacy. The social, political, and economic injustices justified by the philosophical views that underpinned the educational systems of the imperial and colonial powers should be carefully uprooted and replaced by the alternative paradigms agreeable and accepted by all sectors of the society.
In his work, Apple [1] supports a narrative that advocates for equity, social justice, and inclusion; “what knowledge and whose knowledge?” Similarly, Slattery [4] and Pinar et al. [2] envisage knowledge production mechanisms that address cultural chauvinism, cultural supremacy, and colonialism in curriculum development at all educational levels. The argument presented in this chapter extends a narrative that promotes the agenda of social reconstruction by including world outlooks and interpretations of human existence in teaching philosophical knowledge to university students.
The three perspectives of conceptualising decolonisation form the framework for analysing the ideas and views of the students who participated in the research discussions.
The narrative of colonial education pursued in the works of Bignall [11] and Patton [9] advance the view that academics and intellectuals that have been created or produced by the colonial education system are judged by their higher levels and standards of conformity to philosophical knowledge that do not recognise or acknowledge their socio-cultural contributions to the creation and setting of those intellectual standards. The perspective highlighted by Bignall [11] is considered in this work as significant for the following reasons. First, over centuries colonialism created new breeds of societies, which created economies, new settlements, and cultures through co-existence. Second, the reality of change and progress cannot be reversed back to a period of pre-colonialism and traditional lifestyle. In the same trend of thought, Patton ([9], p. 121) argues that colonisation is a philosophy invented by imperialists. This philosophy is inherent in the perceptions of the supreme culture, supreme value systems, and Eurocentric world outlooks.
Furthermore, Patton [9] states that colonialism produced attitudes of dependency, timidity, subordination, helplessness, emptiness and defeat, insignificance, and submissiveness in colonised communities. Semetsky [10], in the same vein, argues that research in the field of philosophy and education should focus on the creation of new concepts and further proposes the reconceptualisation of concepts invented during colonial and imperial dispensation in the context of socio-economic and political transformation. In agreeing to the pedagogy of freedom and liberation, Semetsky [8] also suggests that problem-based, inquiry-based, and experiment-based learning are the tools to use to transform the colonial philosophical foundation of education; where students should be apprentices in their field and should learn to identify particular problems and how to approach them in a way that leads to solutions. In the perspective of Deleuze, the rhizomatic theory explains how students can develop sprouts of new images of thought from what is readily available Bignall [11]. The shift from ‘what is’ to ‘what can be’ in learning is also significant in adult education [9, 30].
This study utilises the ideas and principles of transformative learning theory, social theory, and identity theory as they have created a framework to guide the qualitative research, data collection, data analysis, and the synthesis of the results. According to Mezirow’s transformative theory Mezirow [15], individuals with different cultures, religions, languages, and races develop a frame of reference based on society’s perspectives of diversity. The rationale for transformative learning stems from ethnocentrism, stereotypes, and bias in social identification and self-identities in education. According to Calleja [30], Mezirow’s transformative learning theory asserts that becoming aware of one’s own and others’ tacit assumptions and expectations and addressing their relevance for making interpretations as these are the core attributes of adult education. Mezirow’s theory describes the transformation in the process of learning in two dimensions. The first dimension is about establishing a new world view or frame of reference, which results from a Critical Reflection of Assumptions (CRA). The CRA dimension is characterised by Habits of Mind (HoM), which are persisting, managing impulsivity, listening with understanding and empathy, thinking flexibly, meta-cognition, striving for accuracy, questioning and problem posing, thinking independently, openness to continuous learning, gathering data through all lenses, creating, imagining, innovating, and thinking independently [31, 32]. These habits in Mezirow’s theory are based on logical, ethical, ideological, social, economic, political, and spiritual experiences. The second dimension is the Critical Subjective Reflective Assumptions (CSRA) frame, comprising the psychological and cultural limitations. Through CSRA, individuals can be freed from cultural distortions and constraints; such freedom allows for open discourse. According to Calleja [30] and Taylor [33], the CRA and CSRA are the frames of reference for adult learners to develop a discourse leading to perspective transformation. According to Mezirow [15], these two lifetime frames of reference make it possible for adult learners to interpret others’ world views and cultural/contextual experiences. Mezirow’s theory suggests that self-reflection and empirical analytic discovery transform the stereotypical and ethnocentric perspectives individuals accumulate through various means of socialisation to their adult life.
Interpretive, critical paradigms are utilised to frame this study. For example, according to Henning et al. ([34], p. 19), phenomena and events are understood through mental processes of interpretation which are influenced by and interact with social context. In the same vein, ideas of the critical paradigm were encapsulated in the framing of this research because the case study research design and methods of data collection used were based on participation, collaboration, and engagement with the participants in their designated workplaces, as per the recommendation of Creswell and Creswell [35]. This paradigm is also recommended for studies that seek to discover trends and patterns of thought about a phenomenon that could lead to discourse in the status quo.
The problem statement for this study was the perspective or frame of reference of pre-service teachers on the conceptual understanding of decolonisation and decolonised education, from a philosophical standpoint. This problem statement is based on the assumptions highlighted in the theoretical framework of this study; Critical Reflection Assumptions (CRA) and Critical Subjective Reflective Assumptions. The question emanated from this statement was, “does the teaching of philosophical knowledge influence pre-service teachers to conceptualise curricula for a decolonised education system?” The purpose of the study was to explore views, opinions, and ideas of pre-service teachers that could influence the development of an alternative paradigm for empowering teachers with the competence to promote a balanced worldview in teaching and learning in schools.
Students in the final year of their undergraduate program, Bachelor of Education (B. Ed), were targeted for this study. 340 students in the educational studies course were asked to form groups of 12 individuals, and that numbering resulted in 34 small groups. Collaboration, engagement, and participation were encouraged and monitored during the process to ensure that all students received the opportunity to express their views. Ethical protocols were adhered to, as suggested by McMillan and Schumacher [36], in that participants should not be coerced, they have to be informed about the purpose of the research, confidentiality should be guaranteed, and anonymity is assured. These ethical issues were addressed before the project started.
The group discussion was organised with finalist students engaged in presenting their views and opinions about decolonised curriculum and pedagogy that students aspired to in the 2018 ‘Fees Must Fall’ protest. Students in the class of 100 participated in group discussions, and students formed their groups of 10 members. The groups were asked to create 20 min video clips and send them to the researcher. The videos were the sources of data that were analysed for the findings presented and discussed in this work. The groups were formed based on their interests and their common choices regarding philosophy and curricula paradigms.
The researcher provided the following question to guide students’ discussions
Views, ideas, and opinions from studying the philosophical foundations of education and curriculum can be the best for the decolonised curriculum.
Teaching and learning methods appropriate for promoting all cultures (knowledge) in the former colonies.
Views about methods used in universities to promote a balanced view of cultures.
Reflect critically on ideas, opinions, and views the group presents to make recommendations.
The divergent arguments raised by students manifested in frames of reference concerning the philosophical foundation and the paradigms of curriculum theory for current academic curricula.
The process of data analysis followed the qualitative methods and guidelines of the interpretivist and critical paradigms. The views of the students were coded based on their perspectives of decolonised curriculum and pedagogy; this includes (i) their ideas and views that advance a decolonised curriculum and pedagogy, and (ii) their Critical Reflective Assumptions on the limitations in the current university curriculum in the context of suitability for the decolonised education system. The statements were given labels or codes as a means of sorting data. For example, radical critical reflections, moderate critical reflections, and neutral critical reflections. Thereafter, the coded statements were classified under categories manifested in the coding process.
The next step was to sort the categories of data according to Convergent Views (CV) and Divergent Views (DV). The sorting was based on the frequency of statements highlighting related and similar perceptions of decolonised curriculum and pedagogy, teaching, and learning methods to advance decolonisation. The trends in the patterns of thought were identified and presented as themes.
This section presents a summary of the data which was classified into categories. Tables 1 and 2 present the descriptive statistics that summarise the data gathered on the biographical information provided by participants about their cultural backgrounds, race, and socio-economic backgrounds; Table 3 presents the classified codes; and Table 4 presents summary of data indicating the frequency of codes from the sample of thirty-four groupings of participants.
Cultural background | Number of participants |
---|---|
Muslims | 120 |
Christians | 150 |
Others | 30 |
Demographics of participants in terms of cultural background, racial grouping, and socio-economic status.
Racial groupings and socio-economic status | Number of participants |
---|---|
Africans | 167 |
Coloureds | 107 |
Whites | 26 |
Summary of biographical data showing the demographics in the grouping of participants.
Codes | Radical critical reflections (RCR) | Moderate critical reflections (MCR) | Neutral critical reflections (NCR) |
---|---|---|---|
Views and opinions that promote the restoration and replacement of Eurocentric perspectives of philosophical foundation and related pedagogical approaches | Views and opinions advocating philosophical foundations that acknowledge and recognise diversity in unity | Views, ideas, and opinions that do not support Eurocentric perspectives on Education or Afrocentric ones. |
Classified codes.
Frequency of Opinions and Ideas (=34) Coded and Classified data | |||
---|---|---|---|
RCR | MCR | NCR | |
Question 1: philosophical foundations that support the total removal of Eurocentric and colonial perspectives and replace them with Afrocentric perspectives | 26 (=34) groups | 5 (=34) groups | 3 (=34) groups |
Question 2: teaching and learning methods appropriate for promoting all cultures (knowledge) in the former colonies | 18 (=34) groups | 12 (=34) groups | 4 (=34) groups |
Question 3: methods used in universities to promote a balanced view of cultures | 16 (=34) groups | 14 (=34) groups | 4 (=34) groups |
Summary of data indicating the frequency of codes from the sample of thirty-four groupings of participants.
The data reveals convergence and divergence in the trends of the thought expressed in the statements concerning the decolonisation of the curriculum in higher education. The following points of view were discovered from the categories of data presented in Table 2. According to transformative learning theory, reflections are the product of systematic and logical thinking about ideological, political, and social systems in society Mezirow [15]. This principle of transformative theory was confirmed in the evaluation and examination of the injustices of the colonial system of education and the suggestions expressed by participants regarding solutions and changes in the curriculum and its philosophical foundations. However, critical reflection depicts three diverse perspectives, one being the radical critical reflection on the philosophical foundations for the decolonised curriculum and pedagogy. While the other two perspectives considered moderate and neutral solutions in addressing the supremacy of colonial perspectives of philosophical foundations of curriculum and pedagogy.
This perspective proposes the idea of
“
“Ubuntu philosophical ideas allow people to be proud of their cultural heritage and respect that.”
“We cannot be free when our education still oppresses us. The African philosophy of Ubuntu shares the same ideas that we learned about from socialist-realism philosophy.”
Reflections about pedagogy highlighted that strategies of teaching and learning are oppressive and constrain freedom of thought and reasoning. The participants expressed discontent about the exclusion of students’ perspectives in curriculum designs and development. Participants comments alluded that:
“Some lecturers do not accept our thoughts. Knowledge is rigid, and we are taught about this of the hidden history in Science, Mathematics, and the Shakespeare of this world.”
“Students are not considered in the selection of themes and methods. Critical paradigms encourage debates, dialogues, and discussions, and these are the methods we enjoy the most than listening to one person telling us.”
The views classified under the Moderate Critical Reflections (MCR) highlighted a trend of thought that acknowledges the intercultural influences in the historical colonial society. The views expressed the significance of the recognition of all cultures and heritages of the people in the society. This perspective strives for a multicultural philosophical foundation for the curriculum and pedagogy as the participants insisted addresses issues of mutual respect between all cultures, heritages, and knowledge systems. According to the descriptive statistics, five groups (=34), accounting for 14.7% of participants, expressed views, thoughts and opinions that support a multicultural philosophical foundation to underpin the decolonised curriculum. The participants commented that:
“In our view as South African, we need to show mutual respect of all cultures, heritage and our indigenous knowledge, and religious beliefs.”
“Schools and universities should acknowledge the values of diverse heritages and cultural backgrounds. Colonialism developed this kind of attitude of exclusion, discrimination, and high class and lower class.”
“For example, South Africa is a multicultural society, but we are still learning about discoveries and inventions of other countries and cultures as if South Africans are ignorant. We chose Social constructivism ideas and critical paradigm because these ideas can encourage us all to admire and appreciate our knowledge and diverse cultural backgrounds.”
Statements concerning pedagogical issues identified with this perspective pointed to the danger of political interference in curriculum development and design and the participants alluded that:
“Education and curriculum should not be decided by the politicians and people of the elite class only. The education that is imposed from the top does not serve the needs of the poor and lower class.”
“
“The curriculum should equip citizens with technical knowledge and skills to solve the issue of unemployment and poverty. Citizens can learn to be independent and work hard for their livelihood that seeking jobs.”
The statistics in Table 2 indicate a minority representation for the neutral perspective, which is three groups (=34) or 8.8%. However, in this work, this finding is critical because this number represents the views and perceptions that prevail in the colonial society. The neutral trend of thought exhibited in statements that fit neither radical nor moderate perspectives. The views that do not consider decolonisation as an important item in the agenda for transformation in the historical colonial society of South Africa. The participants stated that:
“Knowledge cannot be anything, but it should be from knowledgeable people because they conduct research and scientific processes to generate knowledge. Just imagine schools without books, what will teachers teach.”
“In democratic countries, they open schools to everyone, like here we are all competing for better results, but there is no question of who you are and from where you come. The main thing is that we should all learn from experts for us to become experts or intellectuals learn from other intellectuals.”
“
“The purpose of education and educating is to make citizens better. For people in society to know, they need to learn from those who are experts and intellectuals. Idealist philosophical ideas encourage people to think and to produce ideas.”
“Realist philosophical ideas are the best because they encourage creative thinking; citizens must think creatively to improve their economy and living standards. Realist philosophical ideas in our thinking can promote equal citizens.”
This section presents a synthesis of the findings regarding the ideas, opinions, and views of the theorists presented in the theoretical and conceptual framework of this research. According to Mezirow [15] the principles of the transformative learning theory assert that adult learners can develop frames of reference from political, social, and economic experiences through various lenses. Thus, they create critical subjective assumptions about change and transformation. In the context of this study, the findings highlighted the trends of thought concerning the fundamental framework to conceptualise the philosophical foundations that ought to underpin a decolonised curriculum and pedagogy for higher education and training. The participants’ perspectives identified in this research are based on the frames of reference of colonial socio-political ideological experiences. The three perspectives of the decolonised curriculum and pedagogy were the products of critical reflective thinking and assumptions about a discourse on the colonial curriculum. These are first, the restoration of the indigenous African philosophical foundation called
Furthermore, the findings allude to the significance of pedagogy that empowers students with knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes. The identified views and opinions were organised into themes in this discussion.
The trends of thought which conceptualised decolonisation as the restoration of the indigenous people’s image and dignity criticised teaching practices that view learners as recipients of structured and formal knowledge. The argument about formal and structured knowledge was perceived as a tool to prepare a certain kind of people who should think in a certain way. The learner and the outcomes for the structured knowledge are analysed and presented by the designers of knowledge. In the context of pedagogical content knowledge for educating and training teachers, the theories of Pavlov, Thorndike, and Skinner were cited by participants to support this argument about learning as a conditioning of the learners’ behaviours and thinking patterns. The colonial and imperialist educationists and curriculum designers drew on principles of knowledge and pedagogy from these theories so that teachers could develop convictions that teaching and learning are tools to develop a particular type of people who should adopt and adapt to prescribed behavioural patterns. The antithesis of this perspective is that research in anthropology and archaeology attests that humankind, regardless of creed and origins, can develop and create meaningful and relevant knowledge to their existence in an environment.
Furthermore, studies on people’s heritage and cultural backgrounds also prove humankind adheres and identifies with what they have created and developed; hence protecting and preserving the heritage and cultural achievements are significant. The statements further highlight that skills-based pedagogy is ideal for addressing one-sided or biased narratives about the cultural achievements of people in a former colonial society. The following reasons were provided to substantiate the importance of skills-based pedagogy to a decolonised curriculum:
Skills such as analytical thinking encourage individuals to use their brain’s capabilities to arrive at their truth without influence. Through analytic skills, learners in higher education can produce meaningful and relevant solutions to their society’s socio-economic problems instead of structuring knowledge that they do not identify as relevant to the social, economic, and political realities in their country. The teaching and learning strategies proposed in this perspective are inquiry-based learning, problem-based learning, and collaborative learning.
The skill of empathy is significant to address prejudice and a one-sided narrative about the colonisers and the colonised. Empathy through deductive reasoning, in this perspective, can use terminologies, concepts, and facts established by researchers that present a skewed world outlook or exclude other sides of the story; for example, history of scientific studies, political development, agricultural practices, and trade and technology. The views expressed in the statements were that the knowledge structures for these courses in these fields exclude the achievements of the indigenous people, such as developments in farming, crop production, organic food production, knowledge of plant science and technology, and craftwork. In the entire world, people are known for their expertise and contributions in these fields. “The cultural chauvinism of the imperial and colonial mindset which was in pursuit of claiming contributions and achievement of indigenous people through conquest. Bignall ([11], p. 49) The promotion of empathy through deductive and logic could turn a curriculum from being a top-down product to instead being a tool to develop great thinkers, problem solvers, and inventors. Moreover, this perspective promotes equality, equity, and mutual respect in society.
Communication skills and comprehension skills were highlighted in the statements to advance the views about the importance of language in the decolonised curriculum. The concern about the dominance of European languages in Africa, such as French and English in northern, central, and southern countries, promotes hegemony and supremacy. Languages as the pride and essential resource for preserving culture and heritage should be prioritised in a decolonised curriculum. Promoting all languages is possible by allowing students to express opinions, ideas, and views in their language and through artefacts. Artefacts are languages in that in the designs and shapes and drawings hold meaning; people express their ideas, feelings, views, and interpretations of the universe, relationships in the physical world’s systems, and world outlook through these artefacts.
The skills-based pedagogy established from the analysis of the decolonised curriculum in this discussion resonates with Deleuze’s rhizomatic theory and its principles of identifying areas of interest from socio-economic and cultural environments and developing new concepts Patton [9]. The rhizome, in this literal sense, means a succulent rod, for example, sugar cane. The sugar cane rod has segments from which the sprouts of a new rod grow. In the context of the interpretation of the ideas and views provided by the study, the sprout could be new terminologies, concepts, principles, and innovations emerging from analytic skills, when students apply deductive reasoning and logic to discover the truth from different perspectives of reality.
Mezirow’s theory of assumption advocates that adult learner can develop assumptions about discoveries; in this work, this implies that students in universities should apply analytic skills and skills of empathy to verify knowledge systems in the fields of choice. If this could be a paradigm for teaching, learning, and assessment, the principles of Schulman’s theory about pedagogical content knowledge have to change. For instance, the lecture halls are venues of knowledge production rather than a place for students to listen to lecturers imparting themes and topics from the prescribed books and students memorising factual knowledge for tests and exams. The decolonised curriculum and pedagogy perspective promote a view of content that is selected and sequenced by lecturers and students in the classroom to allow diverse views and philosophical beliefs from different students’ perspectives. The issue of the language used for communicating ideas is understood to be the tool used by colonisers and colonialists to enforce supremacy through education, which contributed to the subordination of other languages and their complete exclusion. In South Africa, for example, people of African descent have learned through foreign languages, and the disadvantages of this practice have influenced methods and learning styles and the programming of subject content. This research highlighted that learning a foreign language is the main contributor to the high failure rates in schools and universities. The mastery of English in South African universities is the criteria used to select suitable students in the qualification programs. Learning a foreign language was an area of contention in the discussion. However, the view about the seriousness of the negative impacts of enforcing learning through foreign languages to learners from indigenous communities was the most frequently observed. Imposing a foreign language is related to learning through memorisation of facts which add no value to the demands of the real-life experiences of students. Meaningless learning contributes to a high rate of learners dropping out in indigenous communities. The trend of dropping out from school, particularly among young citizens from indigenous communities, is that the education acquired does not improve communities’ socio-economic situations. Education only prepares young citizens to be employees and not employers, which results in lifetime subordination.
The statements identified from the discussion also indicate a trend of thought that viewed the colonisers’ curriculum and pedagogy as a mechanism that was carefully articulated from the philosophical beliefs of Plato, Aristotle, Kant, and Socrates which target the mind. The purpose of knowledge and learning is to create people who think and reason according to the value systems prescribed by intellectuals and inventors of knowledge. The statements condemned the ancient philosophies for preparing grounds for the oppression of the mind. This perspective argues that the colonised mind is built for timidity, subordination, dependence, and intellectual disability. An example of timidity is the mentality of submissiveness and extreme loyalty, while subordination allows individuals to be used like dogs in Pavlov’s theory. The mindset of loyalty describes a situation where someone controls your thinking in terms of instructions and guidance because you cannot think, explore, or design anything. This dependence was insinuated in statements that freedom of thought and practice is witnessed in the way universities and the department of higher education structure content knowledge for their qualification programs. Students are not allowed the freedom to study courses that suit their interests and needs; as a result, the students find themselves in disadvantageous situations. Hence, the issue of unemployed graduates is becoming acceptable and makes a mockery of university qualifications. The strong view in this perspective is that universities are becoming manufacturers of intellectual disabilities. Instead of providing platforms of adventure and innovation, they create a community of young pensioners, meaning those who stay for many years depending on government grants for survival.
The following were the main qualities proposed for the decolonised curriculum for liberating the mind:
The curriculum should adopt ideas of a free-market ideology: universities should allow students to choose courses based on their aspirations and needs. The students should enjoy the freedom to state the knowledge and skills they require for self-reliance in terms of their job and artisan skills.
Real-life situations and experiences of students should drive the curriculum.
The liberation of the mind perspective advocates for a curriculum that does not force students to learn knowledge that does not make sense to the needs of their society, as the argument was that some courses should be removed because of the lack of relevance to the world of practice. The ideas articulated around worthless courses highlighted that most of the students who enrol in such courses are from indigenous communities and are the poorest of the poor. The restricted freedom in learning in universities in South Africa supports maintaining the socio-cultural status enshrined in the colonisers’ imperialist views of colonialised society.
The curriculum should promote equality and social cohesion.
Liberation of the mind in this perspective brings in the notion of co-existence, acceptance, respect, and acknowledgment of equality. The notion of
Curriculum and pedagogy for self-reliance and freedom of choice.
The statements that highlighted the view of self-reliance critiqued the national curriculum of schools for promoting colonial social and economic goals. The elements cited from the national school curriculum were selecting subjects that do not articulate in education and training. The branding of education as “education and training” does not match the content knowledge taught from reception to the exit grade. The branding sounds as if a learner can exit the schooling system with skills and knowledge that learners require to adapt to the country’s economic systems. The opposite is the mimicking and emulation of the content knowledge and pedagogic strategies enhancing the memorisation of facts from textbooks. The statements made by participants questioned the training component in the curriculum of the democratic dispensation because all subjects are classroom-based and tests and homework test fact recollection.
The proposals made from this perspective are as follows regarding the decolonised curriculum and pedagogical strategies.
The amalgamation of training to subject content knowledge
The statements indicated the importance of empowering learners in the school system with artisan skills required in their space of work. The view of self-reliance in a decolonised curriculum and pedagogy promotes the importance of differentiated interests and abilities that are entirely not in the scope and agenda of the democratic educational dispensation curriculum. The learners who fail to cope with the abstract textbook are mostly part of the indigenous communities and they continue to be neglected. As a result, the communities of street children, lost generations, and the poorest of the poor created by colonial imperialists grow. Furthermore, the lack of training to empower learners with adequate knowledge and skills creates a disadvantage for university students because they choose careers that require practical knowledge and skills. The experience of failure and the repeating of courses are the attributes seen in students from poor communities who drop out and struggle to survive.
The freedom of choice
The views and opinions classified under this category point to a lack of freedom of choice in the curriculum of the colonial and imperialist education dispensation mimicked by the democratic government. The imposed curriculum and subject content deprive students in universities of their perspectives on the content and pedagogy. Course guides that present the scope of content are forced upon students without room to accommodate different opinions. The prescribed books, in some instances, are taught chapter by chapter, and students underline points which they memorise to pass exams. The content knowledge in some courses is outdated; for example, in accounting, how to fill out a cheque book is still taught in the dispensation of digital technology. The decolonised curriculum and pedagogy should be in favour of the students because knowledge is power and guides students towards freedom and emancipation. The analysis of the views and opinions expressed in the statements regarding the freedom of choice resonate with the profound ideas of Shor [3] on the pedagogy of the oppressed, for example, on the issue of providing a space for students to have a voice in the process of designing and developing program curricula, and the alignment of content with students’ perspectives of the world, as well their needs and demands locally and globally.
Furthermore, the view of freedom of choice in the decolonised curriculum encapsulates the understanding of the rapid changes in the local and global socio-political and economic system. Thus, the importance of integrating international perspectives and achievement in the decolonised curriculum is emphasised. The sense of a global village was insinuated in the statements of participants; for example, scholarships should open gates for students to interact physically and remotely with various countries beyond European and American spheres of knowledge production. The criticism of American and European books filling up libraries in universities was highlighted to substantiate the importance of encouraging students to explore and navigate the space of knowledge according to their needs and aspirations. The examples cited in the context of knowledge were philosophical ideas generated by scholars of the liberation struggle in Africa, like Julius Nyerere, Lumumba, Nelson Mandela, Steve Biko, and others. The relevance of the philosophical ideas to the freedom of choice, as pointed out in the discussions, provides an informed framework for articulating scholarly principles for research and knowledge production to support African renaissance and Afro-centric views.
Furthermore, the perception of integrating indigenous pieces of knowledge in the curriculum for higher learning resonates with the ideas of the proponents of the rhizomatic theory, reterritorialising and de-territorialising [8, 9, 10, 11], which advocates for the regeneration of new concepts and philosophical ideas relevant to the postcolonial societies’ lifestyles and worldviews. Bignall [11] argues that the colonised and the colonisers had been in co-existence for centuries after the European imperial and colonial regimes. Therefore, from the co-existence enculturation-influence of one culture on the others is a reality. According to Bignall [11], the cultural chauvinism of the colonial powers of capturing indigenous people and their cultures and mingling them with European worldviews is socio-culturally and historically accurate. In the same vein, Muller [6] reiterates the importance of the socio-cultural and historical factors in knowledge production for equality and equity in decolonising the curriculum and pedagogy. Ideas and views provided support the argument that students demand decolonised education with a background stemmed from global and local research. The resonance of students’ perspectives confirmed Mezirow’s transformative learning theory on the abilities of adult learners to develop subjective critical reflective assumptions about issues of injustice in their environment. Students drew on ideas from various local and global perspectives to frame demands for decolonised education. Furthermore, the transformative theory and refection frameworks state that adult students have ideas about change to the decolonised curriculum and pedagogy.
The perspectives revealed by the study indicate the emergence of three trajectories that can be used by future educational and curriculum development researchers to embrace students’ voices regarding decolonising education in South Africa and elsewhere in the world. The study concluded that experiences of university education and training from the participant’s perspectives require fundamental reform. First, on the issue of curriculum design and development; second, the teaching and learning strategies; and third, the inclusion of students’ voices in all the processes. Furthermore, the findings provided the basis for this study to claim that a decolonised curriculum and pedagogy must consider students’ perspectives as being at the centre of all developments. The perspective of a decolonised curriculum and pedagogy is that it advocates for freedom of choice and liberation of the mind and expresses concern about the colonial curricular that is rigidly programmed and structured to constrain students’ quests to inquire, undertake new adventures, and develop talents during education and training.
In a broader sense, the critique of the confinements and constraints in the current knowledge productions in higher education in the findings confirms the principle of the critical subject reflective assumption that adult learners apply logic and systemic thinking about knowledge. The issue of textbooks and knowledge content raised in the findings indicates an awareness of the promotion of colonial ideas and views that inculcate imperialist values of supremacy and the exclusion of other cultural values systems.
From the perceptions of a decolonised curriculum and pedagogy established from the synthesis of the finding within the framework of the philosophical perspectives of the global and local researchers, this work concluded that decolonisation has different connotations. The first connotation advances the notion of the restoration of the image of indigenous people by integrating their world outlooks, views, and cultural values in the curriculum and pedagogical practices. The proposed mechanism to resolve the exclusion problem is the promotion of pedagogical strategies like problem-based and inquiry-based learning.
However, the other perspectives revealed by the research depicted a trend of thought about decolonisation and decolonised curricula and pedagogy which was advanced by the proponents of
Lastly, the study revealed the patterns of thought held by university students about their role in the conceptualisation and development of the curriculum and knowledge production.
The findings of this study revealed the conceptual perspectives of philosophical foundations for the decolonised curriculum and pedagogy. The purpose of the study was to establish the ideas and views that influenced the student protests which featured the demand for free and decolonised education. The qualitative research design and methodology assisted this research to address the question about the ideas and theoretical perspectives that influence the demand for decolonised higher education in South Africa. However, the established perspective can be the background for further research into models which include students’ perspectives on curriculum design and development in higher education.
Special gratitude goes to the students who participated in this work for their dedication and commitment to the task and their great views on how universities should improve the decolonisation of educational dispensation and curricula. My thanks go to my daughter, Thabile Simphiwe Khuzwayo, and my husband, Herbert Bhekumusa Khuzwayo, for their support and encouragement as I wrote this paper.
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While metals dominate engineering applications, ceramics have some attractive properties compared to metals, which make them useful for specific applications. The properties of individual ceramics and metals can vary widely; however, the characteristics of most materials in the two classes differ significantly. Joints between a metal and ceramic are becoming increasingly important in the manufacturing of a wide variety of technological product. But joining ceramics to metallic materials often remains an unresolved or unsatisfactorily resolved problem. This chapter deals with problems of various studies in recent years on the joining between two materials.",book:{id:"5257",slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"Uday M.B., Ahmad-Fauzi M.N., Alias Mohd Noor and Srithar Rajoo",authors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",middleName:"M.",surname:"Basheer",slug:"uday-basheer",fullName:"Uday Basheer"},{id:"182065",title:"Prof.",name:"Alias",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Noor",slug:"alias-mohd-noor",fullName:"Alias Mohd Noor"},{id:"182066",title:"Dr.",name:"Srithar",middleName:null,surname:"Rajoo",slug:"srithar-rajoo",fullName:"Srithar Rajoo"},{id:"190437",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad-Fauzi",middleName:null,surname:"M. N.",slug:"ahmad-fauzi-m.-n.",fullName:"Ahmad-Fauzi M. 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This chapter clearly highlights the process, applications, requirements, interfacial kinematics of the welding, numerical predictions of interfacial behaviours and multi-physics simulations. This chapter recommends that the overall outlook of the process is promising while it requires extra attention in the individual welding cases and its material combinations.",book:{id:"5257",slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"T. Sapanathan, R. N. Raoelison, N. Buiron and M. 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Although this type of a numerical model typically requires long calculation times, we have developed a very efficient parallelization strategy on the graphics processing unit (GPU). This simulation approach allows the determination of temperature evolution, elastic and plastic deformation, defect formation, residual stresses, and material flow all within the same model. More importantly, the large plastic deformation and material mixing common to FSW are well captured by the mesh-free method. The parallel strategy on the GPU provides a means to obtain meaningful simulation results within hours as opposed to many days or even weeks with conventional FSW simulation codes.",book:{id:"5257",slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"Kirk Fraser, Lyne St-Georges and Laszlo I. 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By diffusion of atoms across the bonding planes, a monolithic compound is generated.",book:{id:"5257",slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"Thomas Gietzelt, Volker Toth and Andreas Huell",authors:[{id:"100737",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Gietzelt",slug:"thomas-gietzelt",fullName:"Thomas Gietzelt"},{id:"180682",title:"Mr.",name:"Volker",middleName:null,surname:"Toth",slug:"volker-toth",fullName:"Volker Toth"},{id:"180683",title:"Mr.",name:"Andreas",middleName:null,surname:"Huell",slug:"andreas-huell",fullName:"Andreas Huell"}]},{id:"51668",doi:"10.5772/64523",title:"New Approaches to the Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-friction-stir-welding-of-aluminum-alloys",totalDownloads:2162,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Friction stir welding (FSW) is a technique able to guarantee welding advantages such as the easy control of tool design, rotation speed, and translation speed. This is also a reason for a continuous research activity to optimize the effect of the different welding parameters and tool-metal setups. In this contribution, two innovative welding methodologies are presented and discussed. A first new FSW configuration was defined as double-side friction stir welding (DS-FSW). In the DS-FSW, the welding is performed on both sheet surfaces, that is, the first welding is followed by a second one performed on the opposite sheet surface. In this chapter, the effect of the welding parameters, tool configuration and sheet positioning on the yield, ultimate strength, and ductility of an aluminum plate, its microstructure and its post-welding formability are discussed. A second new FSW configuration consists of a pin rotation around its centerline welding direction by 0.5 and 1.0 mm. This was defined by authors as RT-type configuration and it is characterized by a welding motion of the pin tool obtained by the combination of two different movements occurring simultaneously.",book:{id:"5257",slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"Marcello Cabibbo, Archimede Forcellese and Michela Simoncini",authors:[{id:"180609",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",middleName:null,surname:"Cabibbo",slug:"marcello-cabibbo",fullName:"Marcello Cabibbo"},{id:"185540",title:"Prof.",name:"Archimede",middleName:null,surname:"Forcellese",slug:"archimede-forcellese",fullName:"Archimede Forcellese"},{id:"185542",title:"Prof.",name:"Michela",middleName:null,surname:"Simoncini",slug:"michela-simoncini",fullName:"Michela Simoncini"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65764",title:"Supplier Evaluation and Selection in Automobile Industry",slug:"supplier-evaluation-and-selection-in-automobile-industry",totalDownloads:1810,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In automobile industry, to operate effectively the supply chain management, the purchasing function is very important to perform effectively. It is the responsibility of purchasing department to choose the correct suppliers to purchase the required products for their company. Thus, supplier evaluation technique is essential for purchase manager’s point of view to choose the best supplier among available suppliers. The literature addresses quality, delivery, technology, value and service as the five most common criteria used for supplier quality evaluation. In this chapter, approach of evaluation and selection of supplier has been presented as per the ISO 9000/TS16949 standards. Considering the most important criteria for evaluating the quality of suppliers based on a review of the literature and observation in practice. Finally, these organizations continuously review and implement effective quality systems following the rigorous ISO 9000/TS16949 series of standards and most automobile companies have developed in-house procedures and software for the supplier selection process.",book:{id:"7454",slug:"industrial-engineering",title:"Industrial Engineering",fullTitle:"Industrial Engineering"},signatures:"Lokpriya Gaikwad and Vivek Sunnapwar",authors:[{id:"246830",title:"Prof.",name:"Lokpriya Mohanrao",middleName:null,surname:"Gaikwad",slug:"lokpriya-mohanrao-gaikwad",fullName:"Lokpriya Mohanrao Gaikwad"},{id:"251857",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek K.",middleName:null,surname:"Sunnapwar",slug:"vivek-k.-sunnapwar",fullName:"Vivek K. 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This chapter begins with a background to safety management in industrial engineering and a discussion of the various issues of industrial safety management. It follows with an extensive description of existing and commonly used safety performance measurement methods. Several case studies are used to explain the methods and explore the important application areas relevant to most industrial sectors. The techniques and tools for safety data collection, analysis, and sharing are introduced together with their applications for safety management. 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Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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