Comparison of different genetic tests for PAD genetics analysis.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8590",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",subtitle:"Biology and Disease",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Macrophages are the sentinels of the immune system whose role has evolved beyond providing aseptic conditions to homeostasis, immune regulation, development, and behaviour. These cells have varied ontogenetic origins which reflects in their phenotypic and functional heterogeneity. Macrophage functions are fine-tuned by exogenous and endogenous signals and once tweaked, the information is included in their genetic makeup, albeit not indefinitely. Subversion of the macrophage functions is the hallmark of many pathogenic organisms and modulation of macrophage activity is pivotal to many therapeutic strategies. Fascinating and rapid developments in this field have necessitated the maintenance of currency of knowledge. This book provides a current account of information on varied topics in macrophage biology. Literature surveys have been presented in a captivating and lucid language. The contributing authors have also provided brief accounts of their own research. Every chapter provides a future perspective of what more could be achieved in the context of the current knowledge. The book will be of interest to students and researchers in microbiology, immunobiology, translational research, pathology, and related fields.",isbn:"978-1-78984-645-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-644-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-574-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79065",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",numberOfPages:132,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e15abd1b0e08f1b67d33592999c52c32",bookSignature:"Khalid Hussain Bhat",publishedDate:"March 25th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8590.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7169,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:40,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:63,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 6th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 24th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 22nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 13th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 12th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"162478",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid Hussain",middleName:null,surname:"Bhat",slug:"khalid-hussain-bhat",fullName:"Khalid Hussain Bhat",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/162478/images/system/162478.jpeg",biography:"Dr Khalid Hussain Bhat did his masters in biochemistry with a\ndistinction from the University of Kashmir, India for which he\nreceived a university gold medal. After qualifying for a national\nfellowship for a research program, he moved to the Centre for\nDNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics, Hyderabad, a premier\nbasic research institute in India. Here he pursued his PhD in\nmolecular immunology under the mentorship of Dr Sangita\nMukhopadhyay. After completion of dissertation, he joined Prof. Amy L. Kenter\nat University of Illinois at Chicago, USA to investigate the mechanism of antibody\nrepertoire generation. Dr Bhat has recently started his own laboratory at Sher-eKashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology at Kashmir in India.\nBesides teaching undergraduate and graduate students, his research interests have\nexpanded to plant microbes.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agriculture Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Illinois at Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"904",title:"Intravascular Immunity",slug:"pure-immunology-intravascular-immunity"}],chapters:[{id:"68185",title:"Macrophages: The Potent Immunoregulatory Innate Immune Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88013",slug:"macrophages-the-potent-immunoregulatory-innate-immune-cells",totalDownloads:2206,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:31,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Macrophages are ubiquitously present innate immune cells in humans and animals belonging to both invertebrates and vertebrates. These cells were first recognized by Elia Metchnikoff in 1882 in the larvae of starfish upon insertion of thorns of tangerine tree and later in Daphnia magna or common water flea infected with fungal spores as cells responsible for the process of phagocytosis of foreign particles. Elia Metchnikoff received the Noble prize (Physiology and Medicine) for his discovery and describing the process of phagocytosis in 1908. More than 130 years have passed and different subtypes and roles of macrophages as innate immune cells have been established by the researchers. In addition to their immunoregulatory role in immune homeostasis and pathogenic infection, they also play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of sterile inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, obesity, and cancer. The present chapter describes the immunoregulatory role of macrophages in the homeostasis and inflammatory diseases varying from autoimmunity to metabolic diseases including obesity.",signatures:"Vijay Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68185",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68185",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"67289",title:"The Pivotal Role of Macrophages in Metabolic Distress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86474",slug:"the-pivotal-role-of-macrophages-in-metabolic-distress",totalDownloads:1258,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Obesity is a prevalent condition with several associated co-morbidities including the development of metabolic diseases. In obesity there is immune cell infiltration into the white adipose tissue and this is associated with the generation of inflammation and insulin resistance (IR). A large majority of the infiltrating leukocytes in obese adipose tissue are pro-inflammatory macrophages, which upon activation induce a switch in metabolism from oxidative phosphorylation, as is utilised by macrophages in lean adipose tissue, towards aerobic glycolysis. The signalling pathways evoked in the recruited macrophages induce the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, in signalling pathways which directly interfere with insulin signalling and thus induce a state of IR. As macrophages appear to play such a pivotal role in the generation of IR and are the largest leukocyte population in the adipose tissue, they provide a promising therapeutic target. Indeed, there are several strategies currently being studied to induce a ‘switch’ in macrophages associated with obese adipose tissue, towards the phenotype of those associated with lean adipose tissue, with arguably the most promising being those strategies designed to target the metabolic pathways within the macrophages. This chapter will discuss the polarisation and activation of macrophages within lean and obese adipose tissue and how these cells can be targeted therapeutically.",signatures:"Joseph Roberts, Padraic G. Fallon and Emily Hams",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67289",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67289",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67817",title:"Wnt Signaling Regulates Macrophage Mediated Immune Response to Pathogens",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86433",slug:"wnt-signaling-regulates-macrophage-mediated-immune-response-to-pathogens",totalDownloads:1019,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Infection with pathogenic microbes is a global threat. Macrophages play a fundamental role in promoting host resistance to deadly infections from pathogenic microbes by virtue of a well-orchestrated immune defense system. Phagocytosis and obliteration of invading pathogens by macrophages are an innate immune function that not only sustains immune homeostasis but also bolsters adaptive immune response through antigen processing and presentation. Wnt signaling, where Wnt, a secreted glycoprotein which interacts with Frizzled and ROR cell surface receptors to initiate cellular interactions, could be vital for the immune response executed and propagated by macrophages in both innate and adaptive immune responses. The goal of this chapter is to describe how Wnt signaling influences phagocytosis, autophagy, and transcriptional activation to enable the macrophage to exercise its immune response program to resist infection.",signatures:"Suborno Jati and Malini Sen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67817",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67817",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68678",title:"Macrophages in the Pathogenesis of Leprosy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88754",slug:"macrophages-in-the-pathogenesis-of-leprosy",totalDownloads:908,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by the intracellular pathogen Mycobacterium leprae. The disease may present different clinical forms depending on the immunological status of the host. M. leprae may infect macrophages and Schwann cells, and recent studies have demonstrated that macrophages are fundamental cells for determining the outcome of the disease. Skin lesions from patients with the paucibacillary form of the disease present a predominance of macrophages with a pro-inflammatory phenotype (M1), whereas skin lesions of multibacillary patients present a predominance of anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2). More recently, it was shown that autophagy is responsible for the control of bacillary load in paucibacillary macrophages and that the blockade of autophagy is involved in the onset of acute inflammatory reactional episodes in multibacillary cells. So, strategies that aim to induce autophagy in infected macrophages are promising not only to improve the efficacy of multidrug therapy (MDT) but also to avoid the occurrence of reactional episodes that are responsible for the disabilities observed in leprosy patients.",signatures:"Rhana Berto da Silva Prata, Mayara Garcia de Mattos Barbosa, Bruno Jorge de Andrade Silva, Jéssica Araujo da Paixão de Oliveira, Tamiris Lameira Bittencourt and Roberta Olmo Pinheiro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68678",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68678",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68585",title:"Macrophage Polarization Is Decisive for Chronic Bacterial Infection-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88171",slug:"macrophage-polarization-is-decisive-for-chronic-bacterial-infection-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:816,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Macrophages are the special cells of the immune system and play both immunological and physiological role. One of the peculiar characteristics of macrophages is that they are double-edged and highly plastic component of immune system. Due to this characteristic, they are responsible for both progressions as well control of a variety of inflammatory, infectious and metabolic diseases and cancer. These are found in the body in three major phenotypes, which are known as M0 (also known as naïve); M1 (classically activated macrophages); and/or M2 (alternatively activated macrophages) at normal physiological conditions. We have been exploring macrophages in context of bacterial infection and previously demonstrated that M2 polarization of M1 effector alveolar macrophages during chronic/persistent Chlamydia pneumonia, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Helicobacter pylori pathogens are decisive for the infection induced cancer development in host. Since chronic infection with these pathogens has been associated with adenocarcinoma, therefore, we feel that disruption of macrophage plasticity plays crucial role in the host for the development of cancer. On the basis of this, we propose that in such pathological conditions, management of M1/M2 imbalance is paramount for minimizing the risk of developing cancer by chronic and persistent infection.",signatures:"Mishi Wasson, Sonia Kapoor, Manoj Garg, Sandhya Singh and Hridayesh Prakash",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68585",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68585",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67326",title:"Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages by Chinese Medicine Intervention: Mechanisms and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86484",slug:"polarization-of-tumor-associated-macrophages-by-chinese-medicine-intervention-mechanisms-and-applica",totalDownloads:962,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Macrophage polarization is a spectrum of phenotypes and generally can be classified into two states: (1) classically activated or M1 macrophages, which can be driven by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) alone or in association with Th1 cytokines and produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6 and, IL-12, and (2) alternatively activated M2 macrophages, which can be promoted by Th2 mediators IL-4 and IL-13 and produce anti-inflammatory cytokines such as TGF-β and IL-10. Current studies have found that the phenotypic switch between M1 and M2 macrophages governs the fate of an organ in inflammation or injury. The imbalance of M1/M2 polarization is closely involved in various pathological processes and is becoming a potential target for therapeutic strategies. Traditional Chinese medicine is an integrated healthcare system composed of many practices and is characterized by multi-target, multi-level, and coordinated intervention effects. Chinese medicines nowadays are applied to regulate phenotype polarization of macrophages to improve the microenvironment, thus ameliorating or even eliminating the symptoms. In this chapter, we will discuss the molecular mechanisms of macrophage polarization, their roles in health and disease, and the intervention with Chinese medicines to modulate the polarization of macrophages in tumor microenvironment (TME) for therapeutic purpose.",signatures:"Yuanjun Lu, Hor Yue Tan, Ning Wang and Yibin Feng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67326",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67326",authors:[{id:"14428",title:"Prof.",name:"Yibin",surname:"Feng",slug:"yibin-feng",fullName:"Yibin Feng"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7129",title:"Neutrophils",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4f71e75cb45249658d48e765d179ce9f",slug:"neutrophils",bookSignature:"Maitham Khajah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7129.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Social media's fast-changing environment continues to affect everyday lives, societal culture, and institutional practices. As a result, all members of society must be aware of emerging social media platforms, particularly those that will have a direct impact on their being and future. Discussions about who uses social media, the effects of social media, social media strategy and tactics, social media analysis, online safety and security, and the policy and legal implications of social media use may assist readers in better preparing for and balancing the risks and opportunities associated with social media use. Emerging methods, such as digital education and literacy, are investigated in order to facilitate the production and consumption of social media content by users of various demographics. The readers will be informed by academic commentaries and scientific discoveries based on theory, research, and best practice.
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She holds a Ph.D. in Media Studies from Monash University, Australia. She is the author, co-author, and editor of several books, journal articles, and monographs on media and communication. Her research covers new media theory, political communication, health communication, and digital media literacy. Her recent research projects examined digital media skills.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Shazleen Mohamed is the Head of Postgraduate Studies at Universiti Teknologi MARA's Faculty of Communication and Media Studies. She is an expert in broadcasting and media studies, with a particular emphasis on children's television reception. She has more than 20 years of experience in media academia as well as industry. She has also authored numerous articles for scholarly and public journals. 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Besides environmental risk factors (e.g., smoking, gender, age), some heritable risk factors are described for atherosclerosis. These are included hyperlipidemia, hypertension and diabetes mellitus. A reliable genetic marker could identify those individuals with PAD and accelerate their treatment. Besides, finding new genetic targets uncover new insights to the pathophysiology of PAD, and consequently new target for the cure. Earlier studies suggested heritability of PAD [1, 2, 3, 4]. One study on monozygotic and dizygotic pairs revealed that with the similar environmental risk factors 48% variability of Ankle brachial Index (ABI) could be explained by additive genetic effects [2]. GENOA study (Genetic Epidemiology Network of Arteriopathy) and the Framingham Offspring cohort study also found heritability in ABI variations [3, 4]. The degree of genetic variations on the PAD, regardless of the influences of other risk factors, remains to be revealed.
Table 1 demonstrates comparisons between different genetic tests.
Genetic test type | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Single gene/panel gene sequencing | Cost; no off-target incidental findings | Low sensitivity |
Oligonucleotide microarray | High resolution, good copy number detection | No detection of balanced rearrangements |
Genome sequencing | Full coverage of DNA sequence | Cost, turnaround time, analytical challenges, inaccurate for SNPs with lower frequency |
GWAS | novel marker finding | high participants number |
Linkage | studying different areas across the genome, analyzing multiple genetic markers at the same time | It needs a high participants number with several affected generations, less helpful for complex disorders |
Comparison of different genetic tests for PAD genetics analysis.
Genetic linkage analysis has the power to identify parts of genome that contain genes that could be inherited together. In this kind of genetic study, low resolution genome scanning investigates for genetic markers (microsatellites and Single nucleotide polymorphisms-SNPs) and that are pass to the next generation with the phenotype of interest. The results express in logarithm of the odds (LOD). Positive LOD indicates that co-segregation of two genetic markers is more likely, and negative LOD favors that likelihood less likely. It is advisable to consider LOD more than three statistically significant [5]. Next step is then to map neighboring region of the genome with tied association between genetic marker and phenotype.
Three studies demonstrated relation between different loci and PAD [3, 6]. First Gudmundsson and colleagues [6], identified a locus as “PAOD1” on chromosome 1p31 (LOD = 3.93; p = 1.04 × 10−5) conferring susceptibility to PAD even after nullifying the effects of diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hyperlipidemia. Interestingly, the genes responsible for PAOD1 did not identified which is not surprising based on the difficulties for analyzing genetic background of a complex disease such as PAD. Another study demonstrated the association of ankle-brachial index (ABI) with 250 microsatellite markers on chromosomes 1p, 6q, 7q, and 10p in 1310 African Americans and on chromosomes 3p and 3q in 796 non-Hispanic whites [3]. This study was also unable to demonstrate any evidence of linkage to the PAD trait.
Although, linkage analysis does not require specific candidate gene and scans full genome, it did not show promising results. That could be related to lack of large family pedigrees and polygenic nature of PAD. Linkage analysis cannot identify the genetic contributions arise from many genes each with small effect sizes.
In this observational study, a genome-wide set of genetic variants (SNPs) can be screened in a large cohorts of patients. This approach determines the associations between SNPs and specific phenotype compared to control individuals. Unlike linkage analysis, GWAS has the ability to detect modest genotypic effects.
In one study rs10757278 SNP at 9p21 was found to be associated with PAD (OR = 1.14, p = 6.1 × 10−5), but exclusion of known CAD cases from sample sets reduced the effect of this variant significantly (OR = 1.09, p = 0.075) [7]. Another similar study showed an association between 9p21 SNP (rs 1,333,049) with severity and prevalence of PAD [8]. A Japanese study on 785 PAD and 20,134 control individuals found rs9584669 in IPO5/RAP2A related protein 2A (OR = 0.58, p = 6.78 × 10−14), rs6842241 in endothelin receptor type A (ENDRA gene; p = 5.32 × 10−9), and rs2074633 in histone deacylase 9 (HDAC9 gene; p = 8.43 × 10−8) loci with susceptibility to PAD [9]. Thorgeirsson et al. identified a common variant (rs1051730) in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor gene cluster on chromosome 15q24 with higher risk for PAD (OR = 1.19, P = 1.4 × 10−7) [10]. A GWAS study found rs7025486 at 9q33 associated with PAD (OR = 1.14, p = 3.9 × 10−5) [11]. An investigation performed on 699 PAD and 1540 Japanese controls identified rs1902341-A to have a strong association with PAD (OR = 1.31, p = 4.7 × 10−7) [12]. A recent meta-analysis with a total of 41,692 participants of European ancestry demonstrated that rs10757269 at 9p21 had the strongest association with ABI and achieved genome-wide significance (p = 2.46 × 10−8) [13].
After above mentioned meta-analysis, one study investigated 537,872 SNPs in 1641 PAD and 1604 control individuals in The Electronic Medical Records and Genomics consortium (eMERGE)-based GWAS of PAD [14]. They revealed that rs653178 in the ATXN2-SH2B3 locus was significantly associated with PAD (OR = 1.22, p = 6.46 × 10−7). Another outcome of this study was that neither loci was linked to PAD after investigation of prior known SNPs related to PAD. eMERGE analyses of PAD GEWAS results could not reveal any strong associations between SNPs and PAD by investigating of mitochondrial SNPs and haplogroups in 1652 PAD and 1629 control individuals [15].
This kind of study focuses on differences in allele frequency of a known specific variant between cases and controls among unrelated individuals. With ability for finer mapping of the causal variant, association studies demonstrate greater power to detect modest genetic effects. Generally, search of insertions, deletions, and individual SNPs among cases and controls points out to genes to be associated with the development of atherosclerosis and changes in various vascular biology pathways such as lipid metabolism [16], hemostasis [17, 18, 19, 20, 21], homocysteine [22, 23, 24], inflammation [25, 26], angiotensin converting enzyme [27], leukocyte adhesion [28], platelet activation and aggregation [29, 30], endothelial function [31, 32], and smooth muscle cell migration. A recent meta-analysis of around 50,000 SNPs and across about 2100 genes found only three SNPs associated with ABI or PAD [33]. They demonstrated that rs2171209 in SYTL3 (p = 6.02 × 10−7) (originally linked to lipoprotein (a)) and rs290481 in TCF7L2 (p = 7.01 × 10−7) (linked to diabetes mellitus type 2) were significantly associated with ABI and CYP2B6 (p = 4.99 × 10−5) (linked to smoking behavior) was associated to PAD.
By definition, epigenetics is a science of long-lived or even hereditary modification of gene function without alteration of DNA sequence. In epigenetics, DNA could go through methylation, histone post-translational modifications, or microRNAs (miRNA), long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) mechanisms [34, 35]. miRNAs are small (≈22 nucleotides) single-stranded RNAs that inhibit translation of mRNA after binding to a target gene. Each miRNA can regulate several genes, because they do not require 100% base pair match. lncRNAs defined as more than 200 nucleotide long transcripts with function other than translation to protein.
Epigenetic changes have been described in association with some PAD risk factors [36, 37]. Hyperhomocysteinemia induces DNA methylation and could contribute to development and progression of PAD [36]. DNA hypomethylation caused by smoking has been reported [37].
Most of the epigenetic studies relevant to PAD are currently about miRNAs. There are two approaches to explore the role of miRNA in PAD. They have involved either a small number of candidate intracellular miRNA which are known for their role in vascular diseases or the measure of a large cluster of miRNAs by microarrays. A miRNA SYBR Green Real-Time PCR assessed the alteration of miR-130a, miR-27b and miR-210 expression in PAD [38]. A whole-genome miRNA transcriptome profiling revealed downregulation of 12 miRNAs in PAD compared to controls [39]. Later, the same research group detected significant downregulation of miR-15a, miR-196b, and let-7e and upregulation of miR-411 in 40 PAD and 40 control individuals [40].
Alterations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) were proposed as a pathway for myopathy in PAD [41]. Mitochondrial dysfunction could be as a result of bouts of ischemia in these patients which causes damage to mitochondrion (mitochodriopathy).
While massively parallel sequencing has not been performed on PAD patients specifically, some results from researches on atherosclerosis could be attributed to PAD. In one study, exonic regions of two persons with the early atherosclerosis were sequenced with next generation sequencing platform, and they revealed a rare missense mutation (Ser818Cys) in INO80D, a subunit of the human INO80 chromatin remodeling complex [42]. INO80 complex is involved in cardiovascular physiology and development [43]. Another study repeated this result in two patients with aortic hypoplasia, diffuse atherosclerosis, and PAD.
This epidemiologic study design incorporates genetic results into epidemiologic methods. Mendelian randomization studies offer evidence for causal relations between risk factors and disease outcome.
Mendelian randomization has been used to examine the relations between polymorphisms of specific genes and the prevalence of coronary heart disease or myocardial infarction [44]. Recently, it is demonstrated that each standard deviation (SD, 2.76 points) increase in body mass index (BMI)-composite genetic risk score was associated with 0.43 in BMI and an odds ratio for PAD of 1.17 [45].
As multiple atherogenic pathways are involved in the pathophysiology of PAD, a profound monogenic effect is unlikely [46]. Environmental influences such as age, smoking, sport, ethnicity, and diabetes mellitus status besides genetic effects could vary the outcome for this disease. GWAS results are not comprehensive. It could be due to modest effect of susceptible variants. To power GWAS analysis, large sample sizes are needed. GWAS results so far revealed limited results. Two linkage studies did not demonstrate breakthrough to identify significant mechanisms behind inheritance of PAD. SNPs association studies have provided weak and/or conflicting findings results. Next generation sequencing and epigenetics seem to provide some promising future. Whole-genome or exome sequencing or NGS-based RNA-sequencing has identified new causative links between new genes and PAD. It is imperative to merge deep sequencing data of the DNA findings with epigenetic data to find more interesting results. This is challenging as these methods produce huge amount of data to analyze. Environmental-Wide Association Study demonstrates gene-by-environment interactions. This new method to study inter-relation between environment and genomics was a topic in ascertaining causality in type II diabetes mellitus [47]. They showed that the pesticide heptachlor epoxide was associated with type II diabetes mellitus. This new method has some places in gene-environment studies in PAD.
In the future, we may apply personalized medicine on the basis of genetic analysis and treat the patient by specific therapeutic agents.
All authors declare no conflict of interest.
Class III malocclusion can result from mandibular prognathism, maxillary skeletal retrusion or a combination of both [1]. Many treatment philosophies and appliances have been used to treat this problem, such as protraction facemask, chin cup, and Frankel’s FR-III appliance and orthognathic surgery. Miniplates and temporary anchorage devices are also being used in order to minimize the negative side effects that can occur with treatment. In Class III malocclusion, an accurate diagnosis and timing of treatment are considerations in order to achieve optimal results.
The orthopedic facemask was developed in the 1960’s by Delaire [2] and has been shown to be effective in treatment of Class III malocclusion in early mixed or late mixed dentition. It can assist in correction of maxillary skeletal retrusion, maxillary dentoalveolar retrusion, mandibular prognathism, and decreased lower facial height. It can produce the following effects: correction of a centric occlusion to centric relation (CO-CR) discrepancy, forward movement of the maxilla, forward movement of the maxillary dentition, lingual tipping of the lower incisors, and the downward and backward movement of the mandible [3]. The protraction facemask applies an anterior force on the circummaxillary sutures and stimulates bone apposition in suture areas [4]. Generally the facemask is prescribed to be worn by the patient for 12 to 16 hours per day with forces ranging between 180 g and 500 g [4, 5]. It has been suggested that the facemask be worn until the patient achieves approximately 4-5 mm of positive overjet [3]. It is often used in combination with a rapid palatal expander.
Macdonald et al. [6] found that facemask treatment increased the convexity of the facial profile due to the forward displacement and downward and backward rotation of the maxilla as well an opening rotation of the mandible. The maxillary incisors moved forward as the mandibular incisors retruded. Ngan et al. [7] found that the maxilla moved forward an average of 2.1 mm and the molar relationship corrected to Class I or even Class II relationship. In addition, the lower face height increased and the overbite decreased by an average of 1.5 mm. Nartallo-Turley and Turley [8] found an increase in SNA, maxillary depth, and ANB as well as forward movement of A-point and ANS. The maxilla moved forward and rotated counter-clockwise and the mandible rotated clockwise as the SNB and facial depth decreased.
Intraoral devices for treatment of Class III malocclusions [9, 10] have been described. A removable Class III traction appliance using elastics to produce the desired vector of force (Figures 1a and 1b) was developed in the 1980’s to overcome issues of patient compliance with the protraction facemask. It can be used in conjunction with rapid palatal expansion or fixed appliances in Class III treatment. This removable appliance can be used at any age and aids in disclusion of the dentition as well as directional traction as it addresses maxillary skeletal retrusion, maxillary dentoalveolar retrusion, and functional shifts associated with mandibular prognathism [11]. Similar to protraction facemask, it is said to have the following effects: correction of a CO-CR discrepancy, forward and downward displacement of the maxilla, forward movement of the maxillary dentition, lingual tipping of the lower incisors, and the downward and backward movement of the mandible. The appliance is worn by the patient full time (20–22 hours per day) sometimes in conjunction with a rapid palatal expander and/or partial or full braces treatment until 3-4 mm of positive overjet is achieved [10].
(a) Anterior crossbite correction using the removable traction appliance followed by a retention phase using the same appliance. Retention ridges can be seen in the bottom row. (b) Location of hooks on the lower removable traction appliance.
The main advantages for the removable Class III traction device are the capacity to have light, continuous, full-time forces acting to disarticulate the occlusion and allow correction of the posterior and anterior crossbites with minimal occlusal interference. 4–8 ounce elastics are recommended for younger patients and heavier forces are recommended for older patients. 10–12 ounce elastics are sometimes recommended at night based on individual patient needs. If needed, a removable appliance could be used in conjunction with a facemask at night. Another advantage of the removable appliance is that it is easy to gain optimal compliance in patients and is tolerated well by the patient.
Some disadvantages have been reported with the removable orthodontic traction device. In the mixed dentition, strong retention from the composite ridges can accelerate exfoliation of the primary canines, compromising the anchor teeth and causing some discomfort to the patient. For this reason, it is recommended that the retentive ridges be used on teeth with the best root structure. The appliance can also experience significant wear if patients have a nocturnal bruxism habit. However, replacement of the appliance is simple and inexpensive.
This study was designed to determine whether treatment of Class III malocclusion with a removable Class III traction appliance has outcomes similar to a protraction facemask. Specifically, the objectives were to compare maxillary, mandibular, and dental effects resulting from use of both appliances.
The removable orthodontic traction device described in this chapter (Figures 1a and 1b) is relatively inexpensive and easy to fabricate. The first step in making this appliance is the application of retentive ridges to several of the patient’s mandibular teeth especially in the anterior region. This is done by etching the tooth and then applying a composite resin to the surface of the tooth in a ridge shape, about 75% of the mesial-distal tooth width and 2-3 mm in height. Next, an impression is taken of the arch and a stone model is fabricated. Separating medium is applied to the cast and allowed to dry. A vacuum formed type retainer using C+ plastic from DENTSPLY Raintree Essix (DENTSPLY Raintree Essix, Sarasota, Florida, USA) is fabricated on the model. Durasoft® or Biocryl® from Great Lakes Orthodontics (Great Lakes Orthodontics, Ltd., Tonawanda, New York, USA) can also be used. If a hygienic fixed expander is in place, a similar removable appliance can be made for attachment of elastics to the maxillary arch. After trimming, Caplin hooks (DENTSPLY GAC International, Bohemia, NY, USA) are added to the retainers in the upper molar and lower canine regions by heating each hook with a torch and pressing it into the appropriate area on the appliance, ensuring it does not melt completely through the plastic (Figure 1b). After ensuring the hooks are secure, the appliance is inserted into the patient’s mouth and traction is initiated using Class III elastics. The patient is instructed to wear the appliance full time. Monthly visits are recommended to monitor for progress [10].
In this retrospective study, Group 1 consisted of 25 Caucasian patients from a private orthodontic practice who had been treated with rapid palatal expansion (hygienic Hyrax™ expander) followed by the removable intraoral Class III traction appliance and 180 g force from Class III elastics. Group 2 consisted of 25 Caucasian patients treated with a rapid palatal expansion (hygienic Hyrax™ expander) followed by a protraction facemask (AD Protraction Facemask; Ormco, Orange, CA, USA) with 350-400 g traction, taken from a different private orthodontic practice. Patient data from both offices were collected, de-identified, and assigned case numbers by the private practice orthodontists. Patients from both groups were treated until positive overjet was achieved. The inclusion criteria for both groups were an initial diagnosis of a dental and skeletal Class III malocclusion based on an ANB angle less than 0 degrees, Wits appraisal less than 0, and at least 25% Class III molar relationship in permanent or primary molars. If any functional shifts were present, they were not recorded and thus not taken into consideration. Patients were excluded if any of the following were present: dentofacial deformities (i.e. cleft lip and palate), missing teeth, periodontal disease, or prior treatment elsewhere.
The patients’ pre-treatment (T1) and post-treatment (T2) lateral cephalometric radiographs were collected, scanned and digitized. The radiographs were uploaded and traced using Dolphin software (Dolphin, Chatsworth, CA, USA). Skeletal and dental measurements were collected. The landmarks seen in Figure 2 were used in the cephalometric analysis. The following cephalometric measurements were used: SNA, SNB, ANB, Wits appraisal, Y axis, angle of convexity, mandibular plane angle, facial angle, cant of occlusal plane, upper incisor to SN, lower incisor to mandibular plane, interincisal angle, upper incisor to NA, lower incisor to NB, overbite, overjet, millimeter measurement from sella perpendicular to palatal plane to maxillary molar, millimeter measurement from sella perpendicular to palatal plane to maxillary incisor, millimeter measurement from sella perpendicular to palatal plane to mandibular molar, millimeter measurement from sella perpendicular to palatal plane to mandibular incisor, millimeter measurement from sella to A point, millimeter measurement from PTM to ANS.
Landmarks: 1-Nasion (N); 2-Sella (S); 3-Porion (Po); 4-Basion (Ba); 5-Articulare (Ar); 6-Condylion (Co); 7-PT point; 8-Pterygomaxillare (PTM); 9-Orbitale (or); 10-anterior nasal spine (ANS); 11-Subspinale (a); 12-upper central incisor root tip; 13-posterior nasal spine (PNS); 14-upper first molar occlusal; 15-lower first molar occlusal; 16-lower central incisor crown; 17-upper central incisor crown; 18-Supramentale (B); 19-lower central incisor root; 20-Pogonion (Pog); 21-Gnathion (Gn); 22-Menton (me); 23-Gonion (go).
A statistical power analysis determined that a sample of 20–25 subjects would yield a power of 0.8 which would provide statistically significant results. Intra-reliability and inter-reliability tests all had a correlation of 0.8 or above and those values were considered to be reliable. An independent
Means and standard deviations were calculated for both T1 and T2 chronological ages for both groups (Table 1). The mean age for Group 1 at T1 was 8 years, 8 months and at T2 was 10 years, 6 months. The mean age for Group 2 at T1 was 8 years, 9 months and at T2 was 11 years, 1 month. An independent
Group | Traction | Protaction facemask |
---|---|---|
Total number of patients | 25 | 25 |
Number of males | 13 | 13 |
Number of females | 12 | 12 |
Average age (years) | 8.74 | 8.87 |
Age range (years) | 3.11–12.1 (SD 2.08) | 6.9–12.1 (SD 1.47) |
Average CVM | 2 | 2 |
CVM range | 2–3 | 2–5 |
Average treatment time (months) | 6.96* | 10.96* |
Range of treatment time (months) | 2–20 | 4–18 |
Sample characteristics.
Indicates p < 0.001.
Independent
Differences between T2 and T1 were calculated for each variable within each group (Tables 2 and 3). An independent
Angular measurements (degrees) | Group | Mean | Standard deviation | t | df | Significance (2-tailed) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Facial angle | 1 | 0.41 | 2.49 | 0.23 | 48 | 0.82 |
2 | 0.24 | 2.62 | ||||
Angle of convexity | 1 | −0.28 | 2.41 | −1.66 | 32.74 | 0.11 |
2 | 1.73 | 5.55 | ||||
SNA | 1 | 0.46 | 1.71 | −2.61 | 48 | 0.01* |
2 | 1.81 | 1.96 | ||||
SNB | 1 | 0.15 | 1.48 | −1.71 | 48 | 0.09 |
2 | 0.92 | 1.71 | ||||
ANB | 1 | 0.30 | 1.35 | −1.04 | 36.71 | 0.31 |
2 | 0.90 | 2.53 | ||||
FMA | 1 | 0.02 | 3.23 | −0.03 | 48 | 0.97 |
2 | 0.05 | 2.92 | ||||
Y axis | 1 | 0.36 | 2.50 | −0.11 | 48 | 0.91 |
2 | 0.44 | 2.42 | ||||
Cant of occlusal plane | 1 | −1.24 | 4.00 | 1.16 | 48 | 0.25 |
2 | −2.47 | 3.52 | ||||
Interincisal angle | 1 | −2.70 | 7.08 | 0.15 | 42.80 | 0.88 |
2 | −3.07 | 10.19 | ||||
U1-SN | 1 | 4.25 | 6.04 | −0.67 | 48 | 0.51 |
2 | 5.58 | 7.82 | ||||
U1-NA | 1 | 3.81 | 5.97 | 0.02 | 43.51 | 0.98 |
2 | 3.76 | 8.33 | ||||
L1-MP | 1 | −1.40 | 5.28 | 0.28 | 48 | 0.78 |
2 | −1.82 | 5.55 | ||||
L1-NB | 1 | −1.41 | 4.88 | 0.13 | 48 | 0.90 |
2 | −1.59 | 5.13 |
Comparison of T2-T1 angular differences between groups (N = 25).
Indicates p < 0.05.
Linear measurements (mm) | Group | Mean | Standard deviation | t | df | Significance (2-tailed) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wits appraisal | 1 | 1.28 | 4.38 | −0.25 | 48 | 0.80 |
2 | 1.56 | 3.41 | ||||
U1-NA | 1 | 1.09 | 2.03 | −0.45 | 48 | 0.66 |
2 | 1.37 | 2.38 | ||||
L1-NB | 1 | −0.32 | 1.30 | 0.08 | 48 | 0.93 |
2 | −0.35 | 1.44 | ||||
Overbite | 1 | 1.19 | 2.47 | 0.71 | 48 | 0.48 |
2 | 0.78 | 1.49 | ||||
Overjet | 1 | 1.88 | 2.80 | −1.19 | 48 | 0.24 |
2 | 2.73 | 2.19 | ||||
Distance from sella ⊥ to maxillary molar occlusal | 1 | 2.32 | 3.26 | −1.70 | 48 | 0.10 |
2 | 3.90 | 3.32 | ||||
Distance from sella ⊥ to maxillary incisor | 1 | 3.52 | 4.26 | −0.39 | 48 | 0.70 |
2 | 3.95 | 3.52 | ||||
Distance from sella ⊥ to mandibular molar occlusal | 1 | 2.41 | 2.45 | −1.89 | 48 | 0.06 |
2 | 3.72 | 2.45 | ||||
Distance from sella ⊥ to mandibular incisor | 1 | 1.19 | 2.64 | −1.08 | 40.67 | 0.29 |
2 | 1.87 | 1.68 |
Comparison of T2-T1 linear differences between groups (N = 25).
p < 0.05.
Both groups started and ended treatment at similar chronologic ages. Since chronologic age is only a rough indicator of maturity, cervical vertebral maturation stage was examined for both groups. Peak mandibular growth or the pubertal growth spurt has been found to occur between stages 3 and 4 with active growth having been completed at stage 6 [12]. Baccetti et al. [12] suggested that Class III treatment with rapid maxillary expansion and protraction facemask therapy should be started during stages 1 and 2 in order to produce the most effective results on the maxilla. Both groups had a mean initial CVM of stage 2 which correlates to pre-pubertal growth peak. No significant differences in CVM stage existed at T1 and T2 between groups suggesting that both groups were similar with regards to skeletal maturation before and after treatment.
The significant difference in treatment times may have affected the outcomes between groups. The protraction facemask was used for a greater period of time on average than the removable Class III traction appliance and has a direct effect on the maxilla. Thus, with a greater treatment time one could expect more change at SNA, which may have contributed to the significantly increased SNA in the protraction facemask treated group when compared with the removable Class III traction appliance treated group. The outcomes of the protraction facemask treated group were consistent with studies conducted by Nartallo-Turley and Turley [8], Ngan et al. [7], and Macdonald et al. [6].
No significant differences were found between groups comparing Wits appraisal, ANB, FMA, Y-axis, cant of the occlusal plane, Sella to A point, PTM to ANS, and angle of convexity. This may suggest that both appliances produced similar results in the maxilla and rotation of the mandible. It was also found that both groups exhibited proclination of the upper incisors, mesial movement of the upper and lower dentition, uprighting of the lower incisors, increase in interincisal angle, increase in overjet and increase in overbite similar to the studies by Nartallo-Turley and Turley [8], Ngan et al. [7], and Macdonald et al. [6].
The strength of this study is that it evaluated the effects of using a removable Class III traction appliance. Since the results showed that no statistical differences existed for dental and all but one of the skeletal variables between groups, the removable Class III traction appliance could be used as another minimally invasive Class III treatment modality for patients. Further studies of removable Class III traction appliances should implement a randomized patient assignment prospectively as well as obtain long-term results in order to evaluate their overall effectiveness.
Conventional protraction facemask therapy has been found in multiple studies to be effective; however, compliance is a major limitation. Patients often view the protraction facemask as awkward at best and complain about it being difficult to wear and interfering with sleep. Cole [13] evaluated patient compliance using headgear to treat Class II malocclusion; patients were fitted with a commercially available timing headgear that measured the amount of headgear wear. Compliance levels varied from 5.6% to 107.7% with a mean of 74.4%. It was found that most patients reported more headgear wear than what actually took place. Poor patient compliance with headgear or facemask can contribute to poor outcomes in treatment.
Since the removable orthodontic traction device is an intraoral appliance, it is possible for patients to adapt to wearing the appliance full time. Patients may not view this removable intraoral appliance with the same annoyance as they do the protraction facemask. If any minimally invasive treatment modalities can be used with predictability, it has great benefit as significant risk and cost is reduced in the care of the patient.
Based on the outcomes of this study comparing a removable Class III traction appliance and protraction facemask for the treatment of Class III malocclusion, it seems that both appliances are effective treatment modalities. Each appliance has its advantages and disadvantages and each treatment modality should be selected on a patient-by-patient basis.
A removable intraoral Class III traction appliance provides orthodontists with a useful noninvasive treatment alternative to protraction facemask in young patients presenting with Class III malocclusions. Both treatments resolved the Class III dental relationships; only slight differences in outcomes were found between the protraction facemask and removable Class III traction appliance, namely, time in treatment and change in angle SNA were both slightly larger in the protraction facemask patients. It is common for orthodontists to treat using a protraction facemask, but if similar results can be achieved by using a removable Class III removable traction appliance, then it may be advantageous to consider this appliance as an option for some Class III patients.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
CO | centric occlusion |
CR | centric relation |
CVM | cervical vertebral maturation |
mm | millimeter |
T1 | pre-treatment |
T2 | post-treatment |
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',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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